Consolidation

Hsin-yu Shan Dept. of Civil Engineering National Chiao Tung University

Some Definitions
Settlement: change in elevation Compression: change in thickness

settlement
Si = compresseion of layer i Total settlement =

S
i =1

S = H = L

log

reload

Virgin consolidation curve rebound

log

L/Ls e e
Virgin consolidation curve

Usually use e for clay, n for sand

0
0

f
log

Virgin consolidation curve

e S = L = eLs = L0 1 + e0
Ls height of solids L0 original height of sample (layer) e0 original void ratio

Consolidation Tests
An effort to measure stress-strain-time relationship for soils under partial or complete drainage

Dial gauge

9 8 7

2 3

6 5 4

Loading

Porous Stone

Soil Specimen
Porous Stone

Restrictions of Consolidation Tests

Suitable for cohesive soils
Sand compresses instantly, difficult to measure strain-time relationship Sudden shock makes the measured deformation inaccurate

Simplified stress surface (profile of u vs. H) Coupled with theory

History of Consolidation Test

1809 Thomas Telform was the first to use the term consolidation 1901 Consolidation test was invented 1910 D. E. Morgan invented the floating ring 1923 Karl Terzaghi worked on consolidation theory

We usually do not run consolidation test on sand

Volume change takes place instantly

We can still get the relationship between volume change and stress

If we got more than one consolidation curves from lab tests put all the data on the plot, then Use analytical method to define the consolidation curve (average consolidation curve)

log

reload

rebound

Semilog plot: Improves linearity Easier to use in low stress range

Nowadays, we dont have to use semilog plot anymore Input all experimental data, compute compression through linear interpolation
log

There is no point to use a log-plot is waste in taking log

the time

Some thoughts on Terzaghis words

is linear for small strain which is
based on linear elasticity and is not true in most cases

If we use strain Rr = recompression ratio Rc = compression ratio

2 S = mv H = RH log 1

f i cc av cr S = + H log H log H = 0 1+ e i 1+ e 1+ e

Scale of strain

Recompression Virgin compression

d 1 d = mv = Rr = d E d log
de = av d

d Rc = d log

de cr = d log

de cc = d log

Recompression index Compression index

mv = coefficient of volume compressibility av = coefficient of comprssibility

1 mv = av 1+ e

Some Corrections of the Measured Change in Height

Machine deflection deformation of the apparatus itself, i.e., porous disks, loading cap, piston

Settlement-Time Relationship
Square root time method Taylor (MIT) Log time method Casagrande (Harvard) Primary consolidation the period of consolidation where the volume change of soil is due to the drainage of water driven by excess pore water pressure

Square Root Time Method

t
S = U Su

cv t T = 2 H

H2 t =T cv
Foxs equation, for U 60% t = FS2

T =

U2

At least for U 60%, t1/2 ~ S is a straight line if Ts theory is valid

Initial portion may be higher or lower than S0

t s
Straight line portion

d50 s90 9/5 d50

Peat

Extension from the straight line portion

t s

For some soils, such as peat, k changes very much when subjects to change in effective stress; thus, Terzaghis theory does not work at all. In addition, Terzaghis theory does not account for secondary effect.

How Do We Get the Factor 1.15?

d 90 = F 0 .848 9 d = 9 F 0 .197 5 50 5

d 90 9 d 5 50

F 0 .848 9 F 0 .197 5

= 1 .1526 1 .15

It makes no difference if we use d40 and T40 to construct d90 and T90, we get the same results

S100

10 = S90 9

The square root time method works well based on the assumption of NO secondary consolidation Used strictly for vertical drainage

Log Time Method

Log t
t1 s1 s1 t2

Pick t1, t2, so that t2=4t1 to get s0

s100

Most of the time, it is difficult to get this straight line, since the secondary effect does not necessarily produce a straight line

Square Root t vs. Log t

There was a war going on between MIT and Harvard To decide which one is correct compare with k value Generally, square root t method is better s100 from log t method is ambiguous
Square root t method only gives one cv, log t method gives different cv by different people

Square root t method usually gives higher cv

kc computed from cv almost always smaller than km actually measured Secondary effects lead to a delay in settlement in addition to that caused by the real k If all causes of delayed compression are lumped into kc kc < k m
Smaller k slower compression

Special Aspects of Consolidation Testing

Rapid loading
Increase loading as soon as s100 is reached Continuous loading

Boundary impedence Ring friction Effect of temperature Rates of dissipation of pore water pressures Effects of non-linear stress-strain curve

Rapid Loading
Standard

cv
Rapid

log

Smaller cv means smaller k Rapid loading reduces the delay effect of secondary consolidation

Boundary Impedence
t

kH d I= kd H
Impedence factor I increases Old porous stone, NO filter paper (likely to be clogged by fine particles) Old porous stone PLUS filter paper

New porous stone, NO filter paper

Hd is the thickness of the porous disc

The smaller the better

kd is the hydraulic conductivity of the porous disc

The larger the better

Free drainage I = 0 I should be kept less than 0.01 I affects the time rate of consolidation, but it does not affect the total settlement

How to Reduce I
Keep the porous stone clean Use filter paper to keep the fine particles from entering porous stone Boil the porous stone before use to get the trapped air out

Ring Friction
Effects of ring friction
During loading reduce stress acted on the specimen specimen compresses less During rebound reduce the swelling tendency specimen swell less

Flatten the swelling curve at low stress level

Taylor (1942)
q = p

H [1 exp( 4 K o )] = D 4Ko H
P = v Ko

Make

1 to reduce friction

Q=PzD

The stress in the ring is not uniform

Use consolidation rings made of cadmium, nickel, hard chrome will be fine Dont use Teflon, although it has the lowest friction coefficient
Teflon is too soft and will be scrapped by soils with hard materials and get stuck

of greased steel > ungreased plastic>cadmium coated steel increases as consolidation pressure goes up less error

Use larger D/H ratio, the larger D/H the smaller the effect of friction
Wide and thin specimen

For D/H about 3, greased steel, total error is about 10%

Effect of Temperature
Stress-strain curve
The higher the temperature, the lower the e-log p curve

This may due to the change of volume of the consolidation ring at higher temperature
The ring expands such that the friction decreases

log

e Reduction in e As temperature goes up

Effect on cv and k
As temperature goes up, cv increases since k decreases as the viscosity of water gets smaller The water flows faster

Effects of Non-Linear StressStrain Curve

Effect on settlement-time relationship Effect on u b u
i

Effect on cv and av

Effect on Settlement-Time Relationship

(2)NC clay, concave upwards Resultant cv decreases e

(1) (3)OC clay, concave downwards Resultant cv increases

(2) NC clay

U = 90% (3) OC clay

Influence of Secondary Compression on Subsequent Behavior

Stress-strain behavior
Subtract the secondary compression to get the stress-strain curve (e log p)?

Settlement-time relationship
Loading rate in the lab is very high Slow loading in the field Drainage distance in the field is far greater than in the lab
May be difficult to see secondary effect

log t

H = 5.5

H = 0.37 Almost totally secondary compression

Secondary compression may not affect the primary consolidation of next load incremental Materials such as peat also has primary stage, but its properties changes a lot during this period
Difficult to obtain meaningful parameters

Secondary compression
Secondary effect exists through out the whole consolidation, including in the primary stage
d = d log t

t S s = H 0 log t0

de c = d log t

c t H 0 log Ss = 1+ e t0

Peat
Very high water content Loose or no contact between solids Lab test demonstrate limited primary consolidation but very large secondary compression
Squeezing out of water Reorientation of particles Properties changed a lot

The significance of secondary effect is often overlooked

In many cases involving peat, secondary compression controls Must not follow the standard consolidation test procedure and get useless data lead to wrong analysis

Quick Loading Test

Monitor the s ~ t relationship Apply next incremental load once the primary consolidation completes Eliminate the secondary effect?

Continuous Loading Tests

Constant rate of strain (CRS) test
Controlled deformation rate

Constant gradient test Constant rate of loading test

Constant Gradient Test

Constant isochrone
Maintain the same stress surface

Use stepping motor ~ 200 to 2000 step/revolution to control the stepping rate

ui
ub
Transducer

Constant Rate of Strain Test

In CRS test, the strain rate is uniformly high throughout the test In conventional incremental loading test, the strain rate is very small at the end of any load
standard CRS

cv cv,CRS ~ cv,inc

Advantages of CRS Test

Reduced testing time Automated data collection and reduction Continuous definition of properties
Not at specific loads

Reduced extrusion of solids Reduced space requirements

Disadvantages of CRS Test

Increased capital cost Increased maintenance cost Require better-trained technicians Periodic down-time when something went wrong Require backpressuring No data on secondary effects
Secondary effects are hidden in primary stages

Higher strain rates than in the field

Consolidation Test with k Measurement

Performed after primary consolidation No free drainage in the bottom of the consolidation cell Water flow through the specimen from bottom to top

Can perform constant head test or falling head test

Constant head test is better, at least the state of stress of the specimen remains the same throughout the test

Can also use additional air pressure to raise the hydraulic gradient
Do not use high gradient because Darcys law is valid only for constant volume condition

log

Average stress during k test

Elevate pore pressure at the bottom

Radial Flow Consolidation Test

Drainage column in the center of the specimen
A hole is drilled in the center of the specimen and filled with sand or other drainage material

Use radial flow theory for data reduction

Effect of Partial Saturation

Soils with inter-connected air voids
k increases with the degree of saturation

Soils with occluded air voids

Major reason for instantaneous initial compression As the soil becomes saturated almost no instantaneous initial compression

Backpressure saturation
Can be done with some types of consolidation cells

Gas = 5%

t
kw

6% 9% 12%

Effect of Sampling Disturbance

Stress-strain curve
Round off max Smaller e for given The difference between the slope of e log p curve of undisturbed and remolded soil is not very large

cv decreased Reduced secondary effects, c decreased Obtained soil properties

log
3 tube remolded e
Sampling disturbance Stress relief

cv 2 tube

There are fissures in the field, but we tend to use uniform and good sample in the lab reduced k and cv