2006/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/42

Background* paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2006

Literacy for Life

Literacy for special target groups

Ulrike Hanemann and Werner Mauch with Contributions from Marc de Maeyer and Laura-Maria Rinta UNESCO Institute for Education Hamburg, Germany
April, 2005

This paper was commissioned by the Education for All Global Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2006 report. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the EFA Global Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life. For further information, please contact efareport@unesco.org * Commissioned through the UNESCO Institute for Education (UIE)

Literacy for Special Target Groups

Introduction 1. Issues and challenges with regard to special learning needs 2. Policies and strategies of meeting the needs of disadvantaged groups 2.1 International and national policy commitments 2.2 Strategies that meet the needs of particular target groups 2.3 Strategies which are cross-cutting and focused on multiple groups 3. Innovative ways of addressing special learning needs 4. Conclusions: Criteria for good practice References Endnotes

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Literacy for Special Target Groups

Introduction This paper provides an overview on adult literacy strategies for special groups. Special groups are broadly understood as those whose needs are not sufficiently addressed by regular or mainstream adult literacy provisions. The underlying assumption was that a range of specific adult learning and non-formal education strategies addressing these groups have been recently developed. The concrete activities that turn these strategies into learning practices represent a relevant part of the literacy work in terms of programmes and teaching/learning activities. These are implemented with the aim to provide literacy competences to the members of the respective groups. Along with undertaking a review of the literature focusing on material developed after 2000, the paper takes advantage of (published and unpublished) material produced in the context of the International CONFINTEA V Mid-Term Review 2003. While the three boxes with the specific background characteristics and circumstances of special group prisoners, migrant and indigenous peoples - focus more on the reasons for their exclusion from opportunities to access literacy, this paper concentrates on educational responses to the special needs of disadvantaged groups. In the first part the groups are identified together with an analysis of challenges and issues that respective literacy work has to address. Subsequently, some main trends in educational policies and strategies are summarised, these address literacy needs of different disadvantaged groups. This analysis is differentiating between on the one hand, particular strategies which respond to specific issues, and on the other strategies that address multiple issues in an integrative approach. A major part of the paper is devoted to an analysis of educational practices from different world regions in terms of literacy provision, focusing on their innovative character, i.e. their capacity to respond to the issues and challenges, identified in the previous parts, in a way that helps to outline the characteristic features of practices that have proved to be successful. On the basis of these examples the concluding part identifies a set of criteria for good practice in order to inform respective policy. What do we mean by 'special target groups'? The Minorities at Risk data set1 estimates that world wide about 900 million people belong to groups that are subject to some form of either, living mode2 or participation exclusion3 not faced by other groups of the same society. About one in every seven people around the world meets these criteria and consequently belongs to the mentioned special groups. Frequently respective exclusion results from a lack of recognition or respect for the traditions and cultural heritage of people, or from the fact that certain cultures are considered inferior, primitive, backward or uncivilized (UNDP, 2004a:6). Exclusion or marginalization of other disadvantaged groups may also stem from being different in terms of physical conditions, life styles or specific behaviour such as coming into conflict with legal regulations. The focus of this study, however, is on three major groups: indigenous peoples, migrants and prisoners. It will also briefly mention the case of nomads or pastoralists. More inclusive typologies of 'special groups' could include elderly people as well as disabled people, and refugees, who are sometimes not differentiated from migrants. We think that the restriction made here allows for both sufficient generalization as well as specification with regard to commonalities and differences among the selected groups.
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1. Issues and challenges with regard to special learning needs of different target groups Special learning needs can be best identified with regard to the various situations of disadvantage and/or of discrimination the groups suffer from. Often educational provisions do not respect the cultural and socio-economic specificities of the groups and their right to education is, consequently, not fulfilled. This often results in a kind of traumatization with respect to bad or even extremely negative educational experiences of the disadvantaged. Disrespect of socio-cultural specificities is often due to an understanding of education as a means of adaptation to mainstream standards which denies the right of human beings to be different. Language is a key element of otherness and continues to be a major source of exclusion from literacy and educational attainment for migrants, ethnic groups and indigenous peoples. The lack of an appropriate curriculum, teaching materials and methodologies suited to local needs, culture and language is another common issue. The hidden curriculum also reproduced and reflected by teachers who often belong to the mainstream population, - reinforces discrimination, stereotypes and unequal power relations between disadvantaged groups and dominant culture in the society. The living realities of disadvantaged groups are often quite complex and characterised especially by high levels of disempowerment. Only too often there is a single kind of literacy programme, run or sponsored generally by a governmental organisation, which is not providing tools of critical thinking and active citizenship to participants. The politics of state welfarism and traditional social interventions, where people with special learning needs are expected to be content with functional literacy and survival skills, often undermine the aspirations of marginalised people and contribute to keeping them disempowered. Existing power structures and relationships are legitimised rather by this kind of provision than challenged or changed. The responses to challenges given by the learning needs of diverse disadvantaged groups can never be simple. Advocating for context-specific and complex solutions, which are sensitive to very diverse identities and circumstances, goes directly against the mainstream at a time of globalization and rationalization. Adult learning for disadvantaged groups runs the risk of being reduced to literacy. Literacy should be seen just as a basic skill, that is foundational to a broad variety of further learning experiences within a lifelong learning approach. Therefore literacy should be considered as an element within a broader adult education strategy in recognition of the right to basic education of all. Literacy programs which are targeted to specific groups also run the risk of oversimplifying identities by reducing them to one-dimensional features. Instead, people may consider themselves rather as multiple identities being, for example, an indigenous business woman or a prisoner with a migrant background. This requires educational responses which are tailormade to specific learner needs and flexible enough to address multiple interests. Special literacy programs for disadvantaged groups run the risk of reinforcing structural inequalities of an educational system that reproduces marginalization. In addition, valuable chances are missed to provide opportunities for all to learn to live together. Addressing learning needs of disadvantaged groups may follow two strategic directions: on the one hand the establishment of specific educational responses according to the learning needs of each group, and the refinement of the mainstream educational provisions so that they are flexible and sen3

sitive enough to also respond to the specific needs of different disadvantaged groups, on the other. In the end, elements of both strategies should enrich educational practice. In general, women are still the most disadvantaged group within disadvantaged groups in terms of access to literacy education. Immigrant women, for example, face systemic barriers which are made even more challenging when coupled with the stress of integrating into the host culture without a network of support, and when they possess little or no language skills of the host country. Governments and NGOs that provide programs and services reducing these barriers4 do so in ways which assume their clients possess literacy skills. In the case of immigrants in Canada, illiterate learners were often put into mainstream ESL (English as a Second Language) classes together with educated new Canadians. When they displayed a lack of progress they were labelled as learning disabled or problem students (Lopez, D., 2005:1). The worlds indigenous peoples share many challenges, in particular poverty and poor health and education. While many other cultural or social groups face inequalities in these areas, indigenous people share some additional distinct problems. Often the lands they use for productive purposes and to maintain traditional and spiritual links are not secure and are being taken away for logging, mining, tourism, large estate farming and infrastructure. In many countries the negative attitude of adult indigenous people results from traumatizing experiences in formal education systems, which forcedly separated young indigenous children from their families and sent them to boarding schools far from their communities. Many of those people are hostile toward the education system, having been maltreated by it when they were in school (Ibbitson, J., 2004:1). In the case of literacy for indigenous, migrants and other minority groups literacy may be reduced to a tool of assimilation, thus becoming a subsidiary of the regular schooling system in the efforts to culturally and linguistically integrate these groups into mainstream society. This risk underlines the need for defined policies and strategies of literacy and adult education starting from the demands, expectations and needs of the involved populations. A recent paper on aboriginal literacy policy in the Canadian context presents four key challenges for policy: a) factors related to the youth of the aboriginal population, b) the lack of research in aboriginal literacy issues, c) the fact that aboriginal peoples are increasingly a dispersed and very mobile population which makes it more difficult to respond to their special literacy needs, and d) matters related to aboriginal languages and literacy5 (Page, J., 2004:513). One of the most common and crucial issues in all countries with indigenous or ethnic minorities is the choice of language. Participants of a regional workshop on literacy for Indigenous peoples held in China identified a clear tension between governments push for literacy in the national language and governments wish to maintain ethnic languages. While most countries officially recognize the right of indigenous people to use and maintain their own language, in practice governments tend to use literacy education in indigenous communities for assimilation purposes. Bilingual literacy is seen as the option which provides the best balance between the need for indigenous people to reduce their isolation from the mainstream culture while at the same time conserving their cultural identity. The choice of language for literacy education needs to be addressed explicitly as a matter of national language policy, which must be in line with the socio-economic development of a country. The lack of trained local teachers or teachers, who know the local language(s) or who are literate in the vernacular language(s), is an issue that mainly affects the quality of indigenous literacy education.
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(UNESCO-PROAP, 2000:40/41, 50). In the case of those languages that have traditionally been used exclusively in oral ways, codifying the language into a standard written way can turn out to be a challenge. In addition, the lack of literature for new literates in the languages of instruction is a considerable obstacle which mother tongue literacy programs inexorably run into. The special circumstances, that keep migrants from being included in educational systems and in literacy courses, vary depending on the age, the country of origin and the level of education of the specific individual. There are, however, some circumstances that are more commonly found among the migrant group such as the language of instruction, the flexibility of the programme, the location and the provider of the courses. The first one is the language of instruction. In some countries such as the US there is some resistance to use the mother tongue of the learners. In some others, such as Israel, the language of instruction is the mother tongue. Sometimes the language of instruction varies according to language level of the instructors which is the case in some literacy providers in the UK. There is ongoing debate over whether using mother tongue is necessary but using it is more inclusive then using only the local language. The next best option is to have mother tongue and local language teachers in the same course. Flexibility of the programmes is also a factor that has an impact on whether the literacy classes are inclusive. Very often migrant workers work long days or possibly two jobs. The working hours can also be rotating which means that it is difficult to commit to a class which is at a certain time. Evenings might be the only time when the migrant workers can spend time with their family and taking a course at that time might not be very motivational. It is also important that missing a class or two does not mean that the learner is out of the programme. A programme which can be interrupted and then taken up again after a break, suits the irregular life style of many migrant workers. Classes that are organised during evening and weekend are good but the best option would be to have the literacy classes at the workplace during the day. Location is important in other ways as well. Rarely the courses are held in the community where the migrants are living. When the classes are only reachable by a persons own car, many women are excluded as well as many men since having a car is expensive for a poor migrant. Having the course within the reach of public transportation is a better option but taking the bus, knowing the timetable, getting the right change for the bus fare are reasons why some might be excluded from the literacy courses. Women who do not often work, take care of the children at home. Poor families cannot afford to pay for baby sitters and therefore going to a class can be very difficult. There are some examples where the institute providing the education is also providing day care. These places have a high level of female attendance. The other option is to have an informal enough class setting for the women to bring their children to the class. For many immigrants their legal status is the determining factor on deciding to start courses. Illegal immigrants are afraid that the school will find out that they are in the country illegally and they will face exportation. This is especially the case now when many countries are tightening their immigration and deportation laws. At the same time, the illegal immigration group is often the one that needs literacy classes the most. If the courses are organised only by state, the illegal immigrants will not take them. They are more likely to take a course organised by church, Non-Governmental Organisation or by Community Based Organisation. Classes
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taught by popular teachers (volunteers from their own peer group) are also the ones that create the feeling of trust within the illegal immigrant groups are more easily approached. Many internal migrants moving from rural to urban areas within the same country are uprooted from their original social and cultural environment. Even the literate migrant can become illiterate in a new context with modern and technologically sophisticated communication systems, which are highly literacy dependent. Tamil migrants, for example, who moved into the Delhi metropolis, saw their basic literacy skills atrophy in their new context because they were not literate in Hindi, and hence were disenfranchised. Because they are usually outside the legal and literate frame of the city, they are subject to all kinds of manipulations, deceit and exploitation. Many people in marginal urban areas (slum ghettoes) suffer from longterm insecurity, and are thus disinclined to invest in long-term learning programmes. So, even where the provision of literacy services is relatively easier to make than in rural areas, there may be little uptake (Kumar, A., 2002:2). In some countries, such as China, internal migrants face exclusion in very similar way to some international migrants. The hukou registration system does not only regulate the entrance of migrants to cities, but imposes a set of discriminatory controls over their employment, health, fertility, education and housing. Over the last decade, the authorities have issued a bewildering array of new regulations at the national, provincial and local level that deal with all these matters (HRIC, 2002: iii). Because of the internal migration regulations, a significant number of migrants live in tenuous quasi-illegal state parallel to that of the undocumented immigrants to other countries. The discriminatory laws and policies make internal migrants second class citizens, leaving about 10-20 percent of the poorest residents without rights. In many cases the parents are illiterate and their children are denied the right for education as well and will face a life without basic skills. (ibid, vi, 3) Internal migration has the most unnoticeable and unseen pattern of migration, that is the ruralrural migration. These groups of people, who account for most of the migration in the poorest developing countries, are not visible to policy makers and educational institutions. Therefore they are most likely excluded from educational programmes. (IOM, 2005: 27) The estimates for how many people fall under this group is impossible to say since the move occurs in the country and does not concern the authorities as much since it does not overburden the bigger cities. The specific lifestyle of nomadic or pastoralist people and other spatially mobile groups makes attendance impossible to literacy classes that are regularly provided in the same place for a period of time. Nomadic herders number several tens of millions of people, mainly in African dry lands, the Middle East, and south-west, south and central Asia. Just in Nigeria it is estimated that pastoralist nomads and migrant fishing communities account for over 10 million people; about 3.6 million are school-age children. Nomads or pastoralists include some of the most vulnerable of all southern populations with the lowest rates of literacy. For example, in 1990 the literacy rates among Nigerian pastoral nomads and the migrant fishermen communities stood at 0.02% and 2.0% respectively (National Commission for Nomadic Education, Nigeria). Nomads often make a significant contribution to national food production. For example, pastoralist in eastern Sudan and western Eritrea pay taxes and contribute significantly in the national economy. The system is considered as one of the biggest employment sectors in both countries. Between 60% and 80% of the population make a living from some aspect of the pastoral system (Ismail, A.M., 2002:7).

Nevertheless, the pastoralists appear systematically marginalised. They are deprived of equal access to proper education, health care, clean water and other basic human needs. Mobility, harsh environmental conditions and remoteness have always stood as barriers to the provision of formal education, and millions of nomadic pastoral children remain outside the system6. Research is practically inexistent and figures on enrolment and attendance rely on local records that are often incomplete and inaccurate. Given that pastoral areas have the lowest literacy rates, they are particularly targeted by special educational programmes. The most important impact of these programmes remains an untold story (Kratli, S., 2000:1-3). Primary school is compulsory in most countries, and this should encourage prisons to offer at least this level of education to inmates. In some countries high school is also compulsory. This is a positive trend because inmates could benefit from higher-level education. Most countries have free education policies. However, countries such as England, New Zealand and South Africa charge fees to those wishing to follow courses. Imposing fees could well represent an additional obstacle for inmates, who mostly have low incomes. Most authorities indicate that education is available to all inmates. Yet, only a small percentage of the prison population actually takes part in education programs. For example, in the Thihar Jail of New Delhi where the inmate population is of 10,509, only 498 people participate in education programs. The Guarulhus prison in Brazil has 1200 prisoners and only 350 are enrolled in courses. It is opportune to ask why the enrolment is so low and whether all inmates really have access to education programs. Even in some industrialized countries like England we find that only 30% of inmates are enrolled in courses. One crucial factor for the development of education and rehabilitation programs is the overpopulation of prisons. This is especially a problem in many southern countries. In Africa the rate of overpopulation sometimes reaches 200% (Senegal 167.9%, South Africa 162%, Zambia 245%). Some industrialized countries also face this problem. For example, there is overpopulation in prisons of Great Britain (111%) and Belgium (127%). Some countries such as Mexico (overpopulation 127%) built prisons in order to reduce overpopulation and improve rehabilitation programs. The overpopulation and the lack of space are often responsible for insalubrious living conditions. In addition, some prisons do not offer hygiene courses. In Bolivia, 650 children live in one overpopulated prison where conditions do not meet basic sanitary standards. 2. Policies and strategies of meeting the needs of disadvantaged groups (in theory and practice) Exclusion of disadvantaged groups from literacy provision requires specific policy approaches and targeted strategies. Too often policy makers are more concerned with the protection of disadvantaged groups, by treating them in separate settings, than with the promotion of their rights to meet specific learning meets in integrative ways. To promote educational rights of disadvantaged groups, policies of inclusion need to give public recognition, accommodation and support to diverse identities and circumstances. When this happens, disadvantaged groups can see their identities and needs reflected in national development strategies. States, however, do not always see literacy and educational rights of disadvantaged groups in the same way as international commitments and discourses suggest. Government programmes usually tend to exclude disadvantaged groups by trying to integrate them into mainstream provisions rather than recognizing their differences and responding to their specific needs.
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Too often, disadvantaged groups are provided with teachers of poor quality, the least resources and a curriculum that is alien to them. This has contributed to high drop-out from the mainstream provisions and prevented them from fully participating in society. As several examples suggest, changes within education policy attempting to better address special learning needs may have little impact if not accompanied by support strategies in related areas, such as changes in language policy within the media or government institutions in the case of indigenous and minority groups. Another factor is related to the provision of budget and human resources: Many of the special strategies face severe resource constraints in implementing more comprehensive policy on literacy and adult education for disadvantaged groups. 2.1 International and national policy commitments Policy recommendations and commitments provide a useful tool and are benchmarks for assessing how individual governments address the specific learning needs of disadvantaged groups. In the case of indigenous peoples, for example, governments have increasingly recognized the rights of indigenous peoples in their constitutions. Such is the case in many Latin American countries, for example; in national legislation as is the case of the Philippines with the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997 and which includes the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples. This is also the case in peace agreements, as for example in the 1996 Peace Agreements which put an end to over 30 years of domestic armed conflict in Guatemala. In recent years several changes in thinking with regard to indigenous peoples have emerged, such as a move towards a human rights approach in which indigenous peoples are seen as active citizens who are entitled to struggle for recognition as groups with special needs and for fulfilment of their own human rights. Another perceptible change in policy is a shift from assimilation approaches to a concept of cultural diversity and liberty in a diverse world (UNDP, 2004a). Article 27 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights specifically mentions the rights of indigenous people to enjoy their own culture. The ILO Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples No.169 (1989), which has by now been ratified by 17 countries, still remains the most comprehensive normative framework with regard to indigenous peoples. It states that indigenous peoples opportunity to acquire education at all levels on at least an equal footing with the rest of the national community (Article 26) has to be ensured. Wherever practicable, children should be taught to read and write in their own indigenous language or in the language most commonly used by the group to which they belong. Furthermore it should be ensured that indigenous peoples have the opportunity to attain fluency in the national language or in one of the official languages of the country. Also, measures shall be taken to preserve and promote the development and practice of the indigenous languages of the peoples concerned (Article 28)7. The 1997 Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning affirms the right to culturally sensitive adult learning provisions for indigenous peoples in Article 15 and 18. The UNESCO supports bilingual and/or multilingual and intercultural education in its position paper on education in a multilingual world (UNESCO, 2003). Issues within the policy documents with regard to indigenous peoples are related to participation, self-determination, conflict prevention and peace-building, environment and sustainable development, and impact of globalization on indigenous peoples. Greater attention lately has been placed by international and UN agencies on indigenous peoples knowledge, largely
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owing to their sustainable development practices. This has led to an interest in indigenous peoples way of life, their cultures, sciences, land and resource management, governance, political and justice systems, traditional knowledge and healing practices8. Though substantial progress has been achieved by indigenous peoples at the UN with treaty-monitoring bodies9, a lot of obstacles need to be overcome in the future in order to achieve true peace and security for indigenous peoples around the world. During the recent UN Decade on Indigenous Peoples (1994-2004) the draft UN Declaration on Indigenous Peoples Rights, which aims at setting international standards in relation to indigenous peoples rights, could achieve only little progress (MacKenzie, A., 2004:44/45)10. In the case of the migrants, their educational rights are protected by the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families: 1. Migrant workers shall enjoy equality of treatment with nationals of the State of employment in relation to: (a) Access to educational institutions and services subject to the admission requirements and other regulations of the institutions and services concerned; (b) access to vocational training guidance and placement services; (c) Access to vocational training guidance and placement services (Article 45). This Convention, which would give migrant workers the right to education, is signed only by 25 countries includes many countries in which migrants are born, such as Mexico, but countries receiving many immigrants such as Germany, France, UK or USA have not signed the Convention (UNHCR, 2005). The fact that the Convention is not signed by more countries leaves migrants more vulnerable. At the same time the global trend is to tighten the immigration laws and policies and to decrease the number of immigrants which can be seen in Europe and in the Americas (OECD 2005: 91-94). The other trend is to make policies in which the admission of the immigration groups is more restricted. According to some researchers in the US, immigration should serve national interest more than it does at the moment (Krikorian, 2001: 47). This could be guaranteed by having immigrants who have a certain level of education and are fluent in the English language (Borjas, 2001:18; Briggs Jr. 2001: 24). Education in schools or in adult education institutions should also be about Americanisation in which greater influence should be place in American history, American government rather than celebrating and teaching multiculturalism. The teaching should not be bilingual but should enable an immersion in the English language. This is seen as far superior for teaching immigrants. (Moore, 2001: 69, 73). Similar trends can be seen in Europe. For example the new German immigration law that entered into force in January 2005 has made it easier for highly skilled workers to settle to Germany but the older ban of recruitment of unskilled or low-skilled workers is maintained (OECD, 2005: 92). These kinds of new policy trends are more likely to leave the less educated, illiterate immigrants even more excluded. And it will also mean that the illegal immigrants are less likely to join the educational systems in a fear of exportation. Even in countries in which the state provides new immigrants educational courses for free, the illiterate immigration population may be excluded: Admission and integration contract has been authorised by all the departments from January 1, 2004 onwards. The contract comprises a number of reciprocal commitments entered into by the person newly arrived in France: the newly arrived person must respect the laws and values of the Republic and must take language lessons and a course on civic and community education, the state is responsible for arranging this education. (OECD, 2005:193). These courses concentrate on the French language and not on literacy skills.

An important example for international policy recommendations on education for prisoners is given by a series of recommendations11 adopted by the Council of Europe that underline, among other things, the need to guarantee access to education for all prisoners, to promote broad participation, to adopt appropriate adult education methods and to give special attention to those prisoners with particular difficulties and especially those with reading or writing problems12 (Council of Europe 1990: 4). Further legislative initiatives related to prisoners exist at national level. In the last years, some countries have introduced laws that recognize the right to education in prisons. This is the case of Spain (Real Decreto 1999). The official documents explicitly mention the 5th Conference on Adults Education organized by UNESCO in 1997. Other countries also include provisions concerning education in prison in their laws about detention conditions (e.g. Romania government law No. 68/26.08 in 1999; the PNUD in Suva conducted in 2003 a revision of the Prisons Act 86 in Fiji Prisons Service; Brazil, chapter XII resolution 14, 1994 National council of criminal penitentiary policy; Canada, Corrections and Conditional Release Act, 1992; Mexico, Ley sobre la Readaptacin Social de Sentenciados (Law on Social Rehabilitation of Convicted Persons), 1971; New Zealand; United Kingdom; South Africa; India, Delhi Prison Act; Portugal, Lei Base do sistema educativo lei 46/86; and Malaysia, Prison Act, 1995.) It is important to mention that some countries also organized educational activities that are part of larger efforts towards social rehabilitation. This has had the positive effect of raising the awareness of authorities and decision makers about the benefits of education in prison settings. Sadly, many countries do not recognize the Hamburg Declaration, while others have yet to enact the principles of the Declaration in relation to education for prisoners by means of tangible political decisions. Some countries specifically support education for prisoners with low schooling. For example, the Canadian Correctional Release Act states that prisoners who have less than ten years of schooling should have priority access to basic education in prison. 2.2 Policies and strategies that meet the needs of particular target groups Most of the countries address the learning needs of disadvantaged groups through specific policies and strategies, such as the education policy for Romanies in Finland13, the disability policy in Sweden14, the policy for nomadic education in Nigeria15, or special programmes for Maori education in New Zealand16. Many of these policies resulted from a long process of discussion and consensus with the disadvantaged groups affected. In addition, a lot of them draw from many years of practical experience. Some of the policies and strategies are evaluated on a regular basis, and the relevant reports are inputs towards further adjustments and improvements. In multilingual societies with indigenous populations a multiple language policy is the only way to ensure full democratic participation and access to educational services. In 1987 New Zealand, with a 14% indigenous Maori population, declared Maori an official language. A special state language board that is analyzes the socio-lingual situation and drafting policy proposals was created for example in Quebec, Catalonia and the Baltic States after deciding upon a new language policy (UNDP, 2004a:64). Intercultural bilingual education is a strategy that not only recognizes the cultural traditions of migrants, ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples, but can also enhance learning and reduce educational disparities by widening peoples choices. For example Papua New Guinea, the
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most linguistically and culturally diverse nation in the world, started a major education reform in 1993 which introduced mother tongue instruction in the first three years of schooling. By 2001, 369 indigenous languages had been introduced in 3,600 elementary schools. A third of children now start learning to read and write in their mother tongue. There is abundant evidence that children become literate faster and more easily when they start their schooling in their mother tongue. Access is improving, and the dropout rate, particular of girls, has decreased17 (UNDP, 2004a:61). Experiences in many countries (e.g. the Philippines, Canada, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Zambia) shows that bilingual education, which combines instruction in the mother tongue with teaching in the dominant national language, can open educational and other opportunities. In Latin America bilingualism is an established strategy in national education policies for reducing the educational exclusion of indigenous populations, who have the worst education indicators. Studies in Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay and Peru show that providing instruction to indigenous groups in their own language and using teachers from the same group is highly effective (UNDP, 2004a:61). However bilingual education, though it can be very effective, often remains underresourced and so is of poor quality. Indigenous peoples education also suffers from a lack of appropriate facilities in areas where they live and a shortage of qualified teachers, partly because indigenous education is given a lower priority. The problem is often the low relevance of teaching content, especially if teachers are not drawn from indigenous communities (UNDP, 2004a:66). The case of China shows how useless a multilingual approach can become when it is paired with the fear that a multicultural society would threaten national unity and lead to separatist movements by distinct groups. China is a country of 56 official nationalities which account over 70 million people (about 6%18 of the total population). Under Chinese law minorities have a right to use and preserve their native languages. But at the same time education for minority and indigenous groups is part of Chinas overall defence strategy focuses on their pacification. Tibet remains one of the least literate regions in China19. One reason for the low literacy rate is the lack of school attendance. Tibets enrolment rate is only 66.6%, compared to 98.4% in China in general. The reasons behind this are a lack of qualified teachers, the decision to use Chinese as the language of instruction (and not Tibetan) in most of the schools, and an examination system that is based on a nationalized curriculum that is standardized for all subjects at all levels and that requires students to be proficient in Chinese in order to advance in their school career. The exclusionary nature of the curriculum and the absence of minority language textbooks and bilingual teachers are seen by some authors as evidence of the lack of commitment of the Chinese government to honestly implement bilingual education policies in Tibet (Johnson, B./ Chhetri, N., 2000:1-6). Canadas policy makers have been showing their concerns about the literacy rate of Aboriginal peoples for over 15 years. A series of consultations and studies have been conducted to tackle this issue and many reports have been presented which claim to act on the challenges faced by the Canadian Aboriginal peoples. In June 2003 the Standing Committee on Human Resources Development and the Status of Persons with Disabilities released Raising Adult Literacy Skills: The Need for a Pan-Canadian Response. It includes an Aboriginal-specific section and recommends the development of a National Aboriginal Literacy Strategy (Page, J., 2004:3). For over two years, the National Aboriginal Design Committee (NADC) had worked to develop a Position Paper on Aboriginal Literacy, which was presented in February 2003 to the Standing Committee and which was at the same time an essential step towards
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establishing the National Indigenous Literacy Association. The position paper drew primarily on the experiences of the people most directly involved in literacy programs: learners, practitioners and Elders. Some of the prominent themes that emerged are that the learner is the most important person in the program; that a holistic approach which recognizes that each individual is Spirit, Heart, Mind and Body is most effective; that Aboriginal literacy programs must affirm Aboriginal languages and culture; that for Aboriginal peoples, literacy is more than facility in the written word (we have our own Aboriginal types of literacies); that Aboriginal literacy programs and organizations must be inclusive; that Aboriginal control of Aboriginal literacy/ education is paramount; and that long-term adequate funding is imperative (Ningwakwe/ George, E.P., 2003:28/29). The ideal approach in First Nations literacy programs, promoted by the Canadian National Indigenous Literacy Association (NILA) and the Ontario Native Literacy Coalition (ONLC), is a two way system of basic and lifelong education in which Aboriginal language and knowledge play as significant a role as the languages and knowledge of the surrounding society20. For the ONLC native literacy is essential to self-determination and a tool which empowers the spirit of Native Peoples (Ningwakwe/ Rainbow Woman (Priscilla George), NN:2). The ONLC comprises 31 community-based Aboriginal literacy programs which are funded by the Ministry of Education & Training Workplace Preparation Branch with special project funding from the National Literacy Secretariat Human Resources Development Canada. The ONLC is committed to developing culturally relevant learning materials, developing and implementing a computer network and establishing a centre for native literacy administration and training. All the ONLC programs are based on a holistic approach. Learning is seen as a lifelong path which must be available to all people within our circle children, adolescents, adults and elders and must continue for the survival of Native people. A Native Literacy Planning Process was dedicated to identifying the distinct literacy needs of native Communities and worked then toward the design and delivery of services, resulting in a strategy for a Native Literacy Action Plan. This process ensured that the Aboriginal Literacy Strategy is truly based on the consensus of people from across the province (Ontario Native Literacy Coalition, 2005:2-4). The Saskatchewan Aboriginal Literacy Network is another provincial network in Canada whose main goal is to promote and support aboriginal literacy in Saskatchewan in partnership with the Provincial and Federal Government, educational institutions offering Aboriginal literacy programs, other Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal organizations concerned about Aboriginal issues and Communities. Empowering and involving communities is seen as crucial in addressing literacy issues as outlined in the Aboriginal Literacy Strategic Plan Report from August 2002. This strategic plan also resulted from a participatory process developing future directions for aboriginal literacy in the province. The vision statements for Aboriginal Literacy in Saskatchewan include, that Aboriginal literacy will be maintained and owned by Aboriginal people, it will have on-going government funding, it will incorporate cultural content and work towards keeping the Aboriginal languages alive. An aboriginal Literacy Network will be established and community-based learning centres will be fully accessible to all potential learners (Saskatchewan Aboriginal Literacy Network, 2002:3-5). Africa is a continent of multilinguism (Ouane, A., 2003; Kper, W./ Valiente-Catter, T., 2001) where a relatively high proportion of the population speaks or understands more than one language. Literacy in African languages, now on the rise in a number of countries across the continent, provides an important vehicle for the expression and development of indigenous knowledge. Literacy and non-formal education programs throughout the region are giving a public voice at least at the local level to community groups and associations that
12

didn't have one before and therefore were marginalized by mainstream societies. In Burkina Faso for example, local NGOs began in the mid-eighties to revive a generally unsuccessful state-supported literacy campaign. Then they created a network of literacy centres devoted to instruction in different indigenous languages. In fact, across the country, the numbers of people completing literacy courses have begun to rival those completing primary schooling, a form of education still restricted by lack of French-language trained teachers and outside funding. By 1996 there were, in round figures, 4,000 literacy centres compared to 3,000 primary schools. In that same year 46,000 out of 72,000 literacy students tested were declared literate in one of the national languages of the country, whereas only 11,000 of the 86,000 entrants in sixth grade moved to middle school. Interestingly, 52% of the successful literacy students were women, whereas only 40% of the sixth grade enrolees and only 8.5% of the middle school matriculants were girls. Nine out of ten of the newly literate women, according to the National Institute of Literacy, were active members of local womens associations and cooperatives (The World Bank, 1999). This illustrates that women seem to benefit more from mother tongue instruction in non-formal settings. In Botswana, where about 80% of the population are Setswana-speakers, the national language policy after Independence (1966) enforced Setswana as the sole language of instruction in basic education. Also the state-run National Literacy Program launched in 1981, adopted this national language policy which marginalized around 20% of the population who speak about 28 other languages (Maruatona, T./ Cervero, R.M., 2004:236). The results of the 2003 Second National Survey on Literacy in Botswana illustrate that linguistic and ethnic minority populations, which are mainly concentrated in the Khalahari area and are forced by the national language policy to become literate in Setswana, are most prone to exclusion from governmental literacy provisions (Central Statistics Office/ Department of Non-Formal Education, 2004). An evaluation of the National Literacy Programme also carried out in 2003 showed that learners from minority groups did not come to the literacy courses because they could not engage in meaningful discussion in Setswana. The language issues also influenced motivation patterns of potential learners, since it was transporting cultural values which were alien and discriminating (Barkered, A./ Hanemann, U./ Maruatona, T., 2003:62). Only in 1990 in the framework of restoration of parliamentary democracy, has there been recognition of indigenous peoples rights within the Nepali constitution relating particularly to language and education. Early efforts supporting the identity of indigenous groups21, notably through the new language policy, encountered many obstacles including the lack of funding, the lack of expertise, and the lack of standardization within indigenous languages or dialects. Estimates of the number of languages spoken in Nepal still vary enormously from 125 (National Conference on Linguistic Rights in Nepal) to only 32 (1991 National Census). This is partly due to the confusion between dialect and language, but many languages may also have been omitted for political reasons. Linked to these political issues around language policy have been the attempts to appreciate and recognise the traditional knowledge of the nationalities. The policy framework and reforms described have influenced the nature of adult education provision in Nepal, particularly with regard to the curriculum. Before 1990, the national literacy programme was implemented in Nepali language across the whole country and the primer reflected the cultural traditions of the dominant (higher caste) communities. The increasing emphasis on recognising cultural and linguistic diversity has led to the programme being adapted to different indigenous cultures and translated into languages such as Limbu and Gurung (Rao, N./ Robinson-Pant, A., 2003:9/10). The 1997 National Committee for Development of Nationalities was replaced in 2003 by the National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities, which has already initiated
13

several activities for linguistic and cultural preservation. Also the Tenth Plan has framed a broad range of policies and strategies for empowering indigenous people, but the results of these activities remain to be seen (UNDP, 2004b:62/63). Although the state has shown a willingness to give indigenous peoples the right to open schools in mother tongue languages, it has not however taken the responsibility for running such schools or programmes. And it has not often proved possible for the indigenous communities themselves to establish and run their own mother tongue schools and courses (Subba, S./ Subba, D., 2003:3). In India the Tenth Plan (2002-07) for the first time formally acknowledges the need for greater flexibility and innovative programmes to meet the specific requirements of tribal peoples in the country. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs however, which was set up in 1999 to attend exclusively the needs of the tribal population, does not spend large sums on its programmes and one of its major strategies continues to be the setting up of residential schools for Adivasi22 children. They study in a mainstream regional language and a curriculum divorced from their realities, making them in most instances misfits in their own community by the end of their formal education. Not only is this policy assimilationist, it also disregards existing differences in economic status, caste, gender or age by targeting indigenous groups as a whole with its programmes (Rao, N./ Robinson-Pant, A., 2003:8) . It is already difficult to obtain accurate data on the government budget allocated to literacy (and adult education), and this is even more true for information about the portion of the education budgets allocated for indigenous literacy and adult education. In India the formula for allocation of the central budget does pay special attention to hill and tribal areas. The financial support from the centre to the states for the literacy campaigns was in the ratio of 2:1 for normal districts, but 4:1 in the tribal sub-plan districts. Given the general decline in state allocations for adult education (from 7.33% in the late 1980s to 2.06% in the 1997-2002 period), this is a positive measure. However, during the tenth plan period (2002-2007), the allocation for adult education in India is only 14.65% of the requirement (Rao, N./ Robinson-Pant, A., 2003:11). While New Zealand does have an adult literacy programme under the charge of the Tertiary Education Commission (TEC), the funding for this sector is minimal. In 2002 it was barely 0.00013% of the total education budget. It is however very difficult to estimate budgetary allocation to adult education components for indigenous people within the budgets of different Ministries and governmental bodies, since information or training programmes are not considered as such and available data does not specify the amount specifically spent on indigenous education. It has to be assumed that in many countries indigenous adult education has received a meagre proportion of the already minimal budgets for adult education. The experience of high drop out rates from many indigenous communities points to the need for greater investment and commitment in providing high quality literacy and other educational inputs (Rao, N./ Robinson-Pant, A., 2003:12). NGOs, and to some extent the Christian Church, have been instrumental in both articulating the concerns of the indigenous peoples at the regional, national and local levels and providing literacy education, awareness, and facilitating the building of indigenous peoples organisations in the community. Such is the case, for example, in the Philippines. Several indigenous organizations are organized in major federations, such as the Cordillera Peoples Alliance in Northern Luzon, which are combining functional literacy with skills training and provision of information to support struggles for land and resources, health and economic development, social justice and self-determination. The major educational strategies used by these NGOs

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are contextualised in the indigenous cultures, based on peoples experiences and grounded in practice (Rao, N./ Robinson-Pant, 2003:6). Within the process of increasingly utilizing African languages to combat illiteracy in Africa, the Government of Cameroon adopted in 1995 a new focus on adult literacy in the institutional framework of the National Association of Cameroon Languages Commissions (NACALCO). The new elements which since then characterise the Literacy, Education and Development Project (CLED) include: multilingualism, the central role of local languages and committees on vernacular languages, the link between education and mother tongue and the link between programs of adult education, which is generally bilingual, and local development projects. Trilingual literacy is considered an ideal model within this policy framework. The government is not the only agency involved in adult literacy. Other important stakeholders which provide adult literacy are the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the Ministry of Social Affairs and Women, the (Christian) churches, the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), the Language Commissions and the already mentioned NACALCO. The development of the above described new focus is seen as a long term process, which is mainly supported by the work of by now more than 40 - commissions of languages. There still remain many challenges to face, the major problems being the fact that about 13 million inhabitants speak approximately 248 languages, and the capability of communities with vernacular languages to acquire existing knowledge as well as to utilize it in an efficient and autonomous way in order to satisfy their needs (Tadadjeu, M, 2001:67-101). Ghana is another example where the trend of providing basic education in African languages arrived some time ago. Yet many of the 60 languages spoken by the approximately 18 million inhabitants have so far not been orthographised. It is the policy of the Ministry of Education to develop the Ghanaian languages for or into writing, so that they could be used as starting points of each literacy work be it formal or non-formal. However, so far only eleven languages are sponsored by the formal school system, and the Functional Literacy Programme are offering courses in only fifteen languages, while the church-run Ghana Institute of Linguistic Literacy and Bible Translation deals with 27 languages (with some of them being common to both). The governmental National Literacy and Functional Skills Programme, initiated in 1987 as a pilot project which was expanded nation-wide in 1991, does not encourage any discovery of ethnic identity among learners, Ghanaians believe that they are people with common destiny though there is a wide diversity in language. The provision of a literate environment is part of the promotion of literacy in diverse languages. Local rural newspapers are being published in all of the 15 languages covered by the literacy programme. However, policy guidelines fail to define the degree to which literacy in the Ghanaian languages is seen as an end product or as a possible intermediate step towards literacy in the national language English. The literate environment for local languages, even the major ones, is still not well endowed, a fact that rather points to the latter option (Buagbe, I.A., 2001:109-134). The Mexican Government has recently started to develop a model of indigenous education within the framework of its national adult education programme. The relevant policy document of the governmental National Institute for Adult Education (INEA) proposes differentiated approaches to the diverse linguistic circumstances of the approximately 13 million Mexicans who belong to one of the 62 ethnic groups23. The proposal is based on a competencybased education and an intercultural bilingual approach. Currently, INEA is running 24 projects in more than 45 languages and dialects in 14 states of the Mexican Republic24. Up to now, the educational model for indigenous populations only covers the literacy level in indigenous mother tongues. Further adult basic education courses are conducted in Spanish and are within the mainstream national adult education programme (Education for Life and Work
15

Model) in its general version. Each of the indigenous projects presents in its organization distinct methodological trends, achievements and shortcomings, as well as different efforts in developing strategies which are adjusted to the reality of the target groups. In each state a technical group is in charge of coordinating the specific projects. They employ young teachers who are bilingual and at least completed primary school. Despite the existence of indigenous concentrations in big Mexican cities, no strategy has so far been implemented addressing them as a special need group. They are treated equal to the mainstream Spanish speakers. There is still the need for more research into the field of indigenous education in order to achieve the required equity and quality of the services. In spite of an increased institutional coverage of this social sector, the illiteracy rate and educational backlog of the indigenous population did not diminish. In the face of the magnitude of the problem, the literacy coverage of ethnic groups is insignificant. In addition, the current provision only comprises the initial level of literacy. The current pilot phase of the Bridges to the Future Project of INEA is aiming at the development of locally produced literacy materials with the prospect to move beyond the acquisition of basic reading, writing and numeracy skills within an intercultural bilingual approach (INEA, 2003:19-29; INEA, 2004:1-5). Educational reforms that aim at introducing intercultural bilingual approaches into national education systems in Latin America often fall short of the formulated requirements. For example, despite the Guatemalan Governments efforts to provide bilingual and multicultural education, there are as yet insufficient trained teachers and other educational resources are inadequate. There is a shortage of textbooks and other teaching materials, especially in the rural areas where the indigenous people mainly live. Levels of attendance, particularly among indigenous girls and women, remain low in comparison with the rest of the population: A disturbing state of affairs which perpetuates exclusion and discrimination (United Nations/ Economic and Social Council/ Commission on Human Rights/ Indigenous Issues 2003:3). It is also very common that governments leave most responsibility for catering for literacy and adult education to civil society organizations. An analysis of the existing provisions in Bolivia illustrates that literacy in the great majority of cases refers to literacy in Spanish, since the projects which have been dedicated to literacy in other languages (mainly Aymara and Quechua) have not reached more than 1-1.5% of the population (Kper, W./ Valiente-Katter, T., 2001:358). A few non-formal education programmes are now focusing on providing a service directly related to life in nomadic and pastoral societies. By moving away from an emphasis on productivity, there is room to address crucial issues such as access to resources, conflict management and local advocacy. In Senegal, training modules have been developed in local languages for nomads. In Kenya, an out-of-school programme has set up learning centres offering non-formal basic education to nomad children, with strong community involvement (Kratli, S., 2000:3). Cross-border coordination is a strategy that attempts to define consistent policies that address learning needs of one specific nomadic group. Education experts from the countries that host the Tuaregs, - Burkina Faso, Mauretania, Niger, Chad and Mali, - held a seminar in January 2000 to coordinate their educational activities. Policies vary widely from country to country. Chad has travelling schools whose teachers move with the nomads. Niger has opted for a mixed system, with children spending six months in a school and the rest of the year tending animals. Mali has chosen to set up a series of sites which include a school and a nearby well to attract and accommodate the nomads (Bergeret, Y., 2000). The National Commission for Nomadic Education of Nigeria, which was established by Decree 41 of 1989, is in charge of formulating policies and issuing guidelines in all matters relat16

ing to nomadic education in Nigeria. The Commission provides basic primary education for pastoral nomads and migrant fishing communities through a number of distinct programmes. It also provides adult extension education to nomads who are among the most educationally disadvantaged groups in Nigeria. The major goals of the Nomadic Education Programme include: Integrating the nomads into the national life and providing them with relevant and functional basic education; and providing the nomads with requisite knowledge and survival skills to enable them improve upon their preoccupations. Among the major constraints that the programme faces are lack of adequate funding, low level of enrolment in nomadic schools, high dropout levels, general lack of supervision and monitoring25, and constant clashes and conflicts between farmers and herders about grazing and fishing rights, which render educational activities impossible in most states of the federation (National Commission for Nomadic Education, Nigeria). Social norms, networks and relationships of authority play a critical role in pastoral livelihood systems, which education often tends to undermine. A divide often sets in between literate and non-literate community members. Although governments may no longer be trying to transform pastoralists into settled farmers, they are still trying to transform them into something else, such as modern livestock producers, as in Nigeria. Alternative approaches to nomadic education are criticized for not addressing the structural inadequacy of education systems. They are often about getting beneficiaries hooked to fit in the system, and are but a parallel second-class education (S. Kratli, 2000:3). Field research carried out on the challenges and opportunities to nomadic education in Eastern Sudan and Western Eritrea found that too many assumptions were held by policy makers and those with influence on educational provision to make a real impact. The views expressed by the pastoralists were largely ignored. The research concludes that with a greater involvement in the decision making process many of the misconceptions could be transformed and educational provisions developed which are innovative, flexible and responsive to the needs of the pastoralists. An education system that respects the culture, language and the way of life should be the goal (Ismail, A.M., 2002:1). An ethnographic research carried out in Gujarat in the west of India demonstrated that there were substantial differences between the mainstreams and Rabari nomads perceptions of literacy. The difficult relationship of nomads with the state they live in is one of the key issues shaping their perceptions of literacy. Another factor was the holistic nature of pastoralism as a religious way of life as well as the incompatibility of this with the modern world. An important part of being literate was for the Rabaris being able to talk to those who represent modern institutions, this points to the need of empowering literacy provisions. One of the main conclusions of the research is the urgent need to acknowledge the existence of many different ideologies or purposes of literacy, - and subsequently act upon (Dyer, Caroline/ Choksi, Archana, 2001:27-39). Migrants who immigrate to the US have to cope with the English language in order to be eligible for social inclusion. In the US, becoming a citizen requires a citizenship test. To pass this test one needs to speak and understand English and be literate to read the test questions. English as a second language classes serve immigrants who wish to pass the test. Citizenship, among other things, means that the person will be able to receive health and other social benefits. A review of the status of migrant education in California which, according to the Migration Policy Institute ranked number 1 in foreign-born population, was done for the CONFINTEA V. Populations with high illiteracy levels were mentioned as a major challenge by adult edu17

cators interviewed for this review. Most classes are developed for people with literacy skills in mind and hence the assumption is that immigrant adults can be taught to read and write in English even if they are illiterate in their own language. There is systematic resistance to establishing literacy programs in native languages of immigrant and refugees. Some Community Based Organisations are taking the initiative to develop literacy programs in immigrants own language, however, they face the challenge of using their own resources because it is hard to find funding for literacy programs in a language other than English. This is the case despite the fact that illiteracy is frequently mentioned as a factor in order for immigrants and refugees to succeed in learning English. (Martinez Nateras, M., 2003) Some countries, such as the Philippines, prepare the people who are about to migrate to another country. The education is seen as crucial to the promotion and strengthening of the Filipino migrant workers welfare. The education programs are varied including following issues: situation awareness education, skills development and livelihood education, organising and unionising skills training. The educational programmes are implemented by the government and the non-governmental organisations using also mass media and leaflets for awareness raising. Preparation programmes do not only tackle the issues that the migrants will face in the new country but also prepare for returning and resettling back to the home community. (Asian Migrant Centre, 2001: 68-109) Special policies and strategies for literacy education for prisoners do scarcely exist. However, the legislation of some countries like Brazil makes primary school and literacy classes compulsory, which includes the inmates. This is a very positive action considering the countrys high level of illiteracy. Other countries, such as Spain and Romania, have developed artistic and cultural activities for inmates. In Mexico, article 12 of the law on prisons states, "the academic content of the courses should include social, sanitary, artistic and ethical aspects." In India, the Thihar prison has implemented courses on agriculture, yoga, in addition to artistic workshops. There is, however, a growing trend towards formal and technical education in prisons. For example, in South Africa the correctional services in 1996 adopted the Unit Management approach in order to implement the Skills Development Act, which focuses on technical abilities. In New Zealand, the adoption of the Unit Management approach led to the implementation of technical programs in prisons. This contributes to the development of the inmates technical abilities. However, this approach could ultimately undermine the educational and social goals of the program. A direct consequence of this program is that private companies are hiring inmates as subcontractors in some countries such as United States and Brazil. This constitutes a partial privatization of the prison environment. With respect to women inmates, only some countries offer diversified courses. In most cases, courses pertain to skills that are traditionally associated to women. For example, education in Malaysia is limited to knitting and cooking. In Brazil, Mexico and Benin the situation is similar. In general, the number of inmates who drop out before finishing their program is considerable. For instance, the dropout rate reaches 50% in Romania. Most countries claim that all levels of formal education are available to inmates. But in fact the situation is quite different. Usually, only primary level courses and literacy classes are widely offered, while some high school level courses might be available. Higher-level education is rarely provided. Diplomas and certificates earned in prison are usually recognized by employers and official authorities.
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Many countries indicate that their budgets are insufficient for the implementation of educational programs in prison. Often courses and education programs are not offered because of the lack of facilities, staff, materials and equipment. This is true also of industrialized countries such as New Zealand, where the budget for the education programs in prisons is insufficient. Sometimes, even when the funds are provided, education programs do not seem to be a priority. Consider the case of the Canterbury prison in England. People in charge of education programs manage their budget, yet their funds are often used to fulfil other needs without their explicit consent. Here we see that the lack of resources is a product of a lack of interest. In such circumstances it is difficult to plan successful education programs. Note that this is taking place in a developed country. Otherwise, the cooperation of external organizations becomes increasingly important for the development of education programs for inmates. In Bolivia, because of insufficient public investment, religious groups took over education programs and workshops. This is also the case in other Latin-American countries such as Brazil, where religious groups have played a growing role. In Romania NGO's and religious groups also participate in education programs. 2.3 Strategies which are cross-cutting and focused on multiple groups There are not many examples of policies and strategies which focus on literacy and adult education for multiple disadvantaged groups in a cross-cutting way. For example the Norwegian Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs - in its 1976/1992 Adult Education Act, its 1999 Competence Reform, and its 2001/2002 Education Act - establishes the right to special education at primary and lower secondary education for adults who either do not or are unable to benefit satisfactorily from the ordinary educational provisions for adults. Also adults with a special need for training, in order to develop or maintain basic skills, have the right to such training (Section 4A-2). It is the duty of municipalities and county authorities to provide such a education for adults (Section 4A-4) and no charge is made for tuition (Section 4A-3). The Act also establishes that educational provisions shall be adapted to individual needs (Section 4A-1)26. The Skills for Life strategy in UK focuses on improving adult literacy and numeracy skills in a very holistic way. The priority groups that the strategy addresses are: - Unemployed people and benefit claimants - Prisoners and those supervised in the community - Employees public sector, low skilled, young adults - Other groups at risk of exclusion, including speakers of other languages and those in disadvantaged communities. The Skills for Life strategy was launched in 2001 and since then 839,000 adults have achieved literacy, numeracy and language qualifications (DfES, 2005). There is a wide range of partner organisations in the public and private sector that contribute to the success of the Skills for Life Strategy (National Audit Office, 2004)27. The specific strategies on prisoners and migrants will be summarised in the following: a) Skills for Life strategy on prisoners In any one year around 130,000 people are or have been in prison, with further 200,000 supervised by the National Probation Service in the community. Around 50% or these individuals have poor reading skills, 65% have poor numeracy skills, and a staggering 80% of prison19

ers have writing skills below level 1. The partnership between the Department for Education and Skills and the prison service, is working with all key partners to improve prisoners skills in custody and on release so that more of them can find work and build a life away from crime. To the end of January 2003, over 32 000 prisoners had gained accredited national qualifications from Entry level to level 2 and the Prison Service aims for a target of 36,000 qualifications for 2003-2004. The national Probation Service has also developed a strategy to tackle similar needs among those it supervises in the community. Targets have been set for 12,000 offenders to achieve qualifications in 2003-2004. (Skills for Life, The national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills. Focus on delivery to 2007) All offenders are now assessed for low literacy and numeracy on admission to prison or when initially assessed by their probation officer, and needs are very high. For example, large proportions of prisoners currently being screened on reception are at or below level 1 half in reading, two thirds in numeracy and 80 in writing. (Skills for Life, The national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills. Focus on delivery to 2007) Of the 0,8 million learners achieving qualifications in literacy and numeracy learning since 2001, an estimated of 92 000 were offenders. A new Offender Assessment System, planned to be fully operational in prisons and probation areas by June 2005, will include an assessment on literacy and numeracy. The shared system is intended to help reduce the risks of duplicate skills assessments and offenders having to restart the same level of training as they move between prisons or from prison to probation. (Skills for Life, The national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills. Focus on delivery to 2007) b) Skills for life immigrants/ ESOL The strategy groups together people under the English for Speakers of Other Languages. This group includes refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and any other groups that do not speak English but live in UK. The problem of having such a heterogeneous group is that the literacy skills of the mother tongue and the second language level vary by country of origin and gender. According to Skills for Life Strategy (2001) there are between 450,000 and 1 million people in England who do not speak English as their first language. The strategy aims to take specific action to address their language and literacy needs. Potential learners range from those who may lack basic literacy and numeracy in their first language to those who already have a high level of education. Some belong to settled communities, others are refugees or migrant workers. It is essential that the specific literacy and/or numeracy needs of these learners are not seen as secondary to the needs of English-speaking adults. The Life for Skills Strategy is also concentrating on training teachers to better meet the needs of the literacy students, especially the ones from the disadvantaged groups. Since September 2002, all new teachers in the post-16 sector who wish to specialize in teaching adult literacy and numeracy in any context are required to gain qualifications that meet the Further Education National Training Organisation (FENTO) subject specifications for literacy, numeracy and from September 2003, for ESOL (Skills for Life, Focus on Delivery 2007). Over 15,000 teachers have been trained in the literacy and numeracy core curricula and 5,000 ESOL teachers have had introduction to the ESOL curriculum. To meet the needs of the special target groups, recruitment, training and retraining of people from black, minority and ethnic groups, including refugees and asylum seekers, as teachers is an ongoing project of the Skills for Life strategy (Skills for Life, Focus on Delivery 2007).
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As a part of the Skill for Life strategy to ensure that the needs of the special target groups are addressed, eleven ESOL Pathfinders are now up and running. Activities include intensive training, ESOL delivered through ICT, vocationally linked programmes and flexible delivery to meet varying needs. (Skills for life, The national strategy for improving adult literacy and numeracy skills, Focus on delivery 2007)

3. Innovative ways of addressing special learning needs In many cases strategies of addressing the special learning needs of disadvantaged groups have proved to be successful and can therefore be considered examples of good practice, though they may be innovative in just one or two aspects. The examples of Burma, Malaysia and Nepal illustrate how critical attention to language policy can be within literacy and adult education programmes and how this can ensure that the educational process is empowering for participants from indigenous and minority communities. Although mother tongue literacy is important to preserve and strengthen indigenous identity, it is essential to simultaneously respond to communities demand to learn a mainstream language. Decisions on language policy become even more complex when they have to consider gender perspectives, since all too often existing gender hierarchies are determining who has access to which languages and which languages are used in domains of political power. The Karen Womens Organization (KWO) is a non governmental organisation set up by Karen28 women living in refugee camps along the Thai-Burmese border. They are fighting oppression as well as promoting Karen culture and language through literacy programmes. A case study of Zipporah Sein, conducted in 2003, clearly illustrates that the choice of language within literacy programmes is not just an educational issue, but raises questions about the perceived value and power of different languages within a specific context. Literacy classes were initially run in SKaw Karen, as this language was most widely spoken and used in camp publications. However, KWO recognised that follow-up courses should also take place in Pwo Karen and Burmese in response to participants request because they perceived these as the languages of power and as tools for gaining a voice within the camp leadership. KWOs aim was not just to provide Karen literacy, but to strengthen womens confidence and team skills in order to enable them to adopt leadership roles within the camps and their society as a whole (Sein, Z., 2003:1-7). A case study of the Sinui Pai Nanek Sengiks (SPNS) educational work with Orang Asli communities29 in Malaysia shows how literacy can take on a new meaning when facilitators share indigenous peoples' struggles and are sensitive to the needs of the community, which differ according to age and gender. It also illustrates the importance of being aware of the needs, suitability, culture and main issues of a community before getting involved with literacy provisions for indigenous peoples. The diverse and unusual educational activities developed by the SPNS encourage Orang Asli communities to look more critically at their own situation and to take political action. This includes the use of songs as a means to transmit awareness raising messages, the formation of a basic group to assist the SPNS in preparing suitable programmes and to create a sense of ownership among the indigenous people, the establishment of groups for income-generating projects, data and facts gathering for a better understanding of the problems before making strategic plans, the organisation of various small workshops to train about specific issues in detail, small group discussion to generate ideas and share experiences, exposures and visits for building awareness and learn from different experiences, and the use of creative media. The holistic approach adopted by the SPNS
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was aiming at the engagement of the entire community, rather than just one group. Among the outcomes of these combined literacy methods, the study mentions the organisation of conferences, meetings and liaisons regarding land disputes, knowledge, culture and education, increased confidence to speak up and voice ones opinion and an improved status of Orang Asli women (Chupil, T./ Joseph, J., 2003:1-17). In Nepal many NGOs have experimented with innovative methods of teaching mother tongue literacy which do not rely on printed materials, such as Learner Generated Materials, where participants write their own texts in workshops, and the Language Experience Approach, where participants relate stories which are written down in their language by the facilitator. In this way literacy and adult education programmes can reach even the smallest indigenous language groups and tackle problems such as a lack of textbooks in a certain language. An important first step in many indigenous communities is to raise awareness about the value of their mother tongue. This is even more significant for the younger generation who may consider the language as part of past traditions and irrelevant to their present lives. The Kirat Yakthung Chumlung (KYC), a community-based indigenous peoples organisation of the Limbu people30 in Eastern Nepal, had conducted mother tongue literacy classes since 1993 and as one of the pioneering indigenous organizations in the context of Nepal. The main objective of the literacy programme was to enable non literate native Limbu speakers to become literate in the Limbu language and Kirat Sirijonga script. Many Limbu people did not even realise that their language had a script. The courses also aimed to equip them with knowledge and skills related to socio-cultural and environmental issues, including womens and indigenous peoples rights. Rather than starting from scratch, KYC decided to adapt the governments mainstream adult literacy course to their own context. The programme has been successful because people who do not understand Nepali found it easier to learn to read and write in their own language. Most of the participants commented that from the literacy classes, they had gained awareness of the importance of their mother tongue and of education. They also felt that being literate in Limbu has built solidarity among them once they came to know that they were linguistically and culturally united. The participation of women was high in number. They were more interested in joining the literacy class because their access to educational and political institutions had been very low, so they wanted to utilize this new opportunity. The Kirat Yakthung Chumlung has also been an example for other community-based organizations to start a literacy programme in their mother tongue (Subba, S./ Subba, D., 2003:4-11). The case study of Subba, S./Subba, D. on the Limbu Literacy Programme shows that literacy education is an important way of revitalizing an indigenous language, script and culture. In addition, KYC performs other activities in the field of protection and promotion of Limbu language and Kirat Sirijonga script, such as the publication of a weekly newspaper in Limbu and Nepali language, the organization of an annual symposium in Limbu language and literature, and advocating for Limbu language classes in primary schools. Field research conducted by Subba, S./Subba, D. found a number of positive signs that Limbu communities were very much concerned about the preservation and promotion of their language. The case study demonstrates the importance of taking a holistic approach to adult education through promoting Limbu language publications, as well as advocating mother tongue education in formal education. Only when the whole community began to value their mother tongue, would it be possible to provide the environment where adults could practice their newly gained Limbu literacy skills. Literacy skills could further develop through synergetic effects obtained by promoting language preservation in written ways. However, the success of the KYCs pro22

gramme did not lie only in more effective literacy teaching. It also lay in the fact that they approached the educational inputs from a political-ideological perspective, listening to peoples views on many aspects of their lives. KYC had acknowledged, in this case, that for many indigenous people education was only one part of their difficult struggle for equality, but a very important starting point (Subba, S./ Subba, D., 2003:1-15). The experience of ARED (Association of Research and Education for Development) and CERFLA (Centre dEtudes pour la Recherche et la Formation en Langues Africaines), two closely-linked non-profit organizations operating in Fulani or Pulaar-speaking regions of Senegal, shows that it is possible to develop a non-profit business and publishing firm devoted to African language literacy and to the dissemination of indigenous knowledge. The working formula of this experience relies essentially on local sales and service receipts, though partly provided through the NGO and aid funding network, - without major underwriting from external donor agencies31. The project, which has been working over the last 16 years to sustain popular literacy in the Pulaar language, now manages a publishing venture that sells several tens of thousands volumes of literature every year, predominantly in Senegalese languages. A critical role for AREDs success was played by associations of Pulaar speakers who have emigrated to Saudi Arabia, Egypt, the Maghreb and Europe who gave their support. This has enabled ARED to give a new impetus to literacy courses for adults. Achieving literacy in Pulaar has become a symbol of honour in village society in this part of Senegal, and literacy campaigns launched on this basis have greatly contributed to a cultural renewal throughout the region (Easton, Peter/ Fagerberg-Diallo, Sonja, 2001:1-4; The World Bank, 1999). An example of successful Aboriginal literacy initiatives in action in Canada is the fact that native literacy groups have developed a variety of unique curriculum materials including: a training model for Aboriginal literacy peer and community tutors; a tutor guide using oral history from local Elders; materials for adults with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and a strategy for improving the quality of life for disabled Aboriginal people through literacy. Another program designed special curricula for learners who wanted to help their children in school. Parents learned how to support their children in doing their homework, and how to prepare themselves for parent-teacher interviews32. Another example where the curriculum was developed in collaboration with indigenous learners can be found in Cambodia where literacy classes for indigenous groups in the Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri provinces are using two types of curricula which have to date been designed and field-tested: a Khmer language curriculum and bilingual curricula (Tamuen-Khmer and Krung-Khmer). Curriculum is developed at the local level using curriculum committees made up of the indigenous peoples themselves. Linguistic and technical assistance is provided by NGOs and GOs. The Ministry of Educations role has been to provide support through regular checking committees and annual field visits to provide approval for both the Khmer and bilingual curricula (UNESCO-PROAP, 2000:43/44). Though it is deemed that literacy programmes provided by indigenous organizations themselves are more effective and contextualised, there are also many cases that show that outsiders may be successful, too, such as Layas education work in the tribal areas of Andhra Pradesh, India. A recent field study found many examples of tribal people successfully challenging injustices and initiating reform, this illustrates the effectiveness of a learning process that started with the simple step of outsiders joining a tribal community campaign, asking provocative questions, supporting some of their activities and creating an environment for deliberation and reflection. This case study also demonstrates the value of building up and
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developing long-term relationships as a model for social change and an educational approach that responds to local needs and constraints (DSouza, N.G., 2003:1). In Botswana there are several civil society organizations engaged in the development and implementation of literacy projects in minority languages, such as the University of Botswana in partnership with two local NGOs committed to cultural development and language promotion. The Kamanakao Association, which was formed in 1995, has organised a series of community-based workshops focusing on cultural revival, language development and the production of reading material in the Shiyeyi language. In a workshop with the community members to define the aims, contents and organizational structure of the Shiyeyi Adult Literacy Project, participants made it clear that their major concern was to preserve the Shiyeyi language and to record their cultural practices, both of which are endangered. A major challenge is the development of adult literacy materials, since the Shiyeyi orthography has only been recently agreed, and there are no writers with the experience of producing educational materials in the language. Therefore a group of thirteen Shiyeyi speakers were trained and a number of materials have already been produced. The Ikalanga Adult Literacy Project organised by the Mukani Action Campaign, is not facing such a challenge because Ikalanga was used in schools until 1967 (after independence the Government abolished it). Community members were also invited to define the literacy project and the contents of the materials, however, the courses could not start afterwards because of the lack of funds (Barkered, A./ Hanemann, U./ Maruatona, T., 2003:66-74). The Kuru Family of Organisations provides literacy training to the minority groups who inhabit the Kalahari area in Botswana. The San languages are phonetically one of the most complicated languages in the world and therefore highly demanding to those attempting to codify them. The Naro Language Project, which is part of this network developed a number of good quality literacy materials for their adult education program. In order to provide opportunities to practice and upgrade the acquired literacy skills, a monthly magazine is published in Naro, which enjoys great popularity among Naro readers of all ages. It was found that learners are generally interested to learn the languages which are needed in their environment, and they are also interested to learn to read and write in their own language (Barkered, A./ Hanemann, U./ Maruatona, T., 2003:66-74). An interesting experience of using modern information and communication technologies in indigenous learning programs to promote self-organization and indigenous empowerment is the use of Community Learning Centres (Plazas Comunitarias) run by the governmental National Institute of Adult Education in Mexico. In Chiapas, for example, an indigenous organisation of the Tsotsils has developed their own website within the framework of their adult literacy classes33. In the upper Amazonian region of Acre in Brazil, the Kashinawa community has been producing a profusion of visual or multimodal texts that consistently accompany their written texts, resulting from the recent introduction of literacy. By adding visual components to alphabetic texts, the indigenous community has actively taken possession of a complex process that is only comprehensible from their local cultural perspective (Menezes de Souza, L.M.T., 2003:29-42). Another example of indigenous creativity in using literacy in a more holistic way was developed by the First Nations Technical Institute in Canada. The Medicine Wheel Model of Learning postulates four stages of learning, as follows: Awareness (spirit attitudes and insights), struggle (Heart feelings about self and others), building (mind knowledge) and preservation (body skills). This holistic approach to literacy is recognition and interpretation of the symbols and messages sent to us through the spirit, heart, body and mind, then acting on those
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messages to improve the quality of life (Ningwakwe/ Rainbow Woman (Priscilla George), NN:11/12). In 1996 Priscilla George developed the Rainbow Approach to Literacy, which was adopted two years later by the National Aboriginal Design Committee for its vision. Each colour of the rainbow represents a different type of literacy, which again is a holistic approach to Aboriginal Literacy and illustrates the trend towards a notion of multiple literacies (Ningwakwe/ Rainbow Woman (Priscilla George) 2002). The Community Centres Program, within the framework of the Roma Education Initiative (REI), provides an example of good practice with a cross-sectoral and community-based approach. The REI began in 2002 as a regional network programme of the Open Society Institute-Budapest to serve Roma communities. Through school and community-based work, REI is designed to advocate strongly for systemic and policy changes that work against segregation and all forms of racial discrimination of Roma people, and to promote equal access to high quality education for all. Currently, REI is functioning in eight countries of the region where Roma populations are numerous: Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Montenegro (McDonald, Ch., 2004:1). Seven countries34 participate in the Community Centres Program with about 30 centres in different hosting institutes, such as schools, cultural houses or NGOs. In June they were altogether running 140 programs with 56 partners and 173 instructors for 6,254 participants aged between 4 and 6535. The program supports a broader view of lifelong learning embedded in a system of community development activities. The Community Centre also involves a broad range of community residents, public and private organizations, local and state agencies. Some of the services they provide include second-chance programs for drop-outs, literacy programs for adults, job-requalification training for the unemployed, language courses, health and social education, sport and recreation activities as well as arts and crafts36. Though the cross-sectoral approach in addressing the problems of minority education cannot solve all the problems, it does take into consideration and tries to target other areas beyond education. For example, in Slovakia one REI project site has incorporated a Roma health coordinator, who comes from the community and is trusted. She works with and in cooperation with the local health clinic to ensure that families from the Roma community access health care and are ready and prepared to enter school or adult learning facilities. In Bulgaria, the REI project is planning to address prenatal care and early childcare through outreach to Roma mothers through a local Roma community organization. Another REI project offers after school mentoring and tutoring to Roma youth which addresses their poor housing conditions. REI recognizes that schools - and their approaches to cooperating with minority communities must change in order to improve school success. One of several strategies is the creation of a Roma teaching assistant position in many countries of the region37, who can play a vital role in both liaising with the Roma community and helping teachers to incorporate Roma culture and language into the classroom. The use of oral histories and stories taken from the home environment to create books and reading material by both parents and children also helps affirm the Roma language. The ultimate success of these practices, however, depends on the responsibility of Ministries of Education and governments to ensure that such practices become common and standard in their education systems (McDonald, Ch., 2004:1-7). Literacy learning for empowerment and political action is the philosophy of many nongovernmental organisations engaged with indigenous and minority groups. The Te Waka Pu Whenua Centre for Maori adult education in New Zealand, opened in 1999, aims to promote the empowerment of Maori through adult education, to safeguard traditional Maori knowledge and to provide learning assistance to Maori adults in pursuit of their traditions. By de25

veloping Maori identity as a group, the aim is also to ensure their greater participation in national and international policy and to begin to change prevailing expectations around Maori childrens low educational achievement. The elders in the community were key to the success of the programme, since they acted as guides to the younger Maori people in introducing them to the traditional way of reading the land and their world, indigenous weaving skills and songs. This process was as much around creating knowledge through creative story telling or composing Maori songs, - as learning about traditional cultural beliefs. All the programmes undertaken by Te Waka Pu Whenua are programmes which are in place to promote literacy, that is literacy as defined by Maori38. The case study on this experience concluded that whether the indigenous educational activities are literacy and oral skills through learning to read their environment or communication and team building through training in weaving flax, they are essential for succeeding in the 21st century. The case study illustrates that this is not just about integration, but is transformation and presents a challenge to existing curricula and educational structures (Te Waka Pu Whenua Trust/ Kaumatua of Taumarunui, 2003:1). Literacy programmes can also become gateways to empowerment of indigenous women, as the case study on the literacy programme of the Karens Womens Organisation illustrates. Confidence building and womens active participation were key elements of the literacy classes, which had a positive impact on womens increased participation in community development issues. A continuous negotiation between teachers and participants of issues like time constraints, family responsibilities, and pressures to try to find income ensured that classes could continue with as widespread a participation as possible. Teachers were also encouraged to develop their own teaching skills in the face of initial resistance of learners against new participatory teaching styles (Sein, Z., 2003:9/10). A case study on the work of the organisation Laya in tribal education with women in Andhra Pradesh in India, however, showed that literacy was not identified as a major issue or constraint: training methods were developed to enable both literate and non-literate women to participate in the programme. This is in contrast to the common viewpoint that literacy is the entry point to womens empowerment (DSouza, N.G., 2003:1). Embedded learning is one of the newer initiatives that can help reach migrants and the more difficult to reach groups. In embedded learning literacy and/or numeracy is taught as a part of a vocational program or through family literacy, which helps parents support their children in school. Especially the family literacy projects are a way to reach the parents who have given up on learning themselves and invest more on their childrens education. The challenge in embedded learning is, however, to ensure that literacy and numeracy elements are given sufficient attention and that the programs use teachers trained in teaching literacy or numeracy. (Skills for Life Strategy, 2001, UK) Popular Education is surging as a powerful tool to empower disenfranchised people and those without a voice in mainstream society. This approach has a strong influence in organizations or educational projects where immigrants themselves are involved in the design of the learning approach and content. Journal writing is a method used with migrant workers in US in a program where the migrants were learning to write and read in the evenings after work by writing their own journals. The project helped the learners to read and write but also gave them the sense of having a voice. These pupils either implicitly or explicitly resisted schooled literacy and, and in turn were refused by the schools that defended the values of mainstream society. A project where they could read and write about anything helped to overcome the resistance towards education. (Blake, B. E., 2004: 102)
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Center for Indonesian Migrant Workers (CIMW) is a non-governmental organisation which is composed of community organisers, activists, communication workers and legal aid workers who share the same commitment to provide for the women migrant workers and to create a just, democratic, and caring society. The mission of CIMW is to empower and enable overseas women migrant workers to fight for their rights; articulate their problems and concerns; organise themselves and fight for better work conditions and relations; achieve self determination; and more meaningfully participate in social transformation (Asian migrant centre et al., 2001: 134). The educational programs are participatory and the centre has introduced a comprehensive education plan for the learners whish covers issues from basic skills to selfactualization and spirituality. In March 2000, the CIMW called learners for evaluation. The training results were that it taught and enabled women migrant workers to analyse, understand and solve their problems. (Asian migrant centre et al., 2001; 134-143) Research has shown that sign-languages are the only languages that deaf people can fully acquire. Nevertheless, most deaf people have been educated exclusively in the mediums of spoken languages which have resulted in experiences of degradation and disrespect for their sign languages, followed by feeling of insufficiency as most deaf people cannot achieve full competency in the learned spoken language. DaZiel project was established in 1999 in the University of Hamburg targeting deaf employees to improve not only their communication at workplace, but especially to bring about an awareness of their own communicative means and abilities as well as their own learning history and living reality. In this project German Sign Language functions as the basis for barrier-free learning while written German is the target language. The materials are drafted along a contrastive approach, meaning explicit comparison of the languages involved. The staff of DaZiel develops material for instruction which is continuously displayed and regularly updated on the internet. A pilot group has tested the material in Hamburg; the results have shown a growth in linguistic awareness in the groupmembers especially for their own language. (Unpublished interview with the project leader Prof. Dr. Renate Fischer) In May 2000 the Canadian Calgary Immigrant Womens Association (CIWA) initiated the Pebbles in the Sand program with the funding support of Alberta Learning, C-CALA and PanCanadian. This program experimented with the Reflect approach as a potential methodology to address the specific needs of illiterate immigrant women. The ideology of empowerment through active participation and with adults as decision-makers, which is the framework presented by the Reflect Mother Manual, is highly unique to Canadian programs in which program development in many cases is top down. The Pebbles in the Sand program aims to hand over the responsibility for personal success to the learners, so that they are able to determine their course of study. This methodology, which supports individual participants learning goals, has proven to be wildly successful in decreasing the barriers faced by immigrant women with little or no ESL skills. Linguistic achievement is only one component of a participants success outcome measured. Areas from Reflect such as community development, empowerment and self-sustainability are looked at as equal indicators of success. The program also aims to implement non-traditional components such as no residency requirements, no time limitations and no attendance policies, in order to provide services for those participants who have exhausted all other options and are still at varying stages of beginner competency. In recognition that the program cannot function in isolation, Pebbles in the Sand is working within the system of social services which most of its participants are tied to, as well as within the framework of government requirements in relation to how learning programs are created and managed for new Canadians. This makes the program highly
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inclusive, enabling illiterate immigrant women to gain independent success in the mainstream by meeting their individual needs. It is only through the creative support and the ability to think outside the box by Pebbles in the Sand donors and stakeholders that such a program has been able to push boundaries (Lopez, D., 2005:1-2). The 'Toe by Toe' project in the UK introduces a "buddy system" in prisons so that illiterate prisoners are taught to read in their own cells by their literate fellow inmates. Meanwhile 55 prisons have adopted the scheme and more than 30 others are discussing taking part. This is seen as an attempt to reach a major part of the non-readers in UK prisons who represent, according to estimates, 40% of all inmates and a total of 30 000 persons39. By encouraging inmates to write and produce their own books, an adult basic education project in the US helps to promote the practice of reading and writing by taking a "family literacy" approach, which helps male inmates to reflect on the relation with their partners, children and parents so that they learn to connect with their families in a positive and creative way40. Writing their own stories helps female inmates to reflect critically on their lives and about the reasons of their incarceration, and to gain self esteem through writing41.

4. Conclusions: Criteria for good practice Addressing special learning needs of disadvantaged groups or communities requires the acknowledgement that they are heterogeneous and may embrace individual, collective and multiple identities. Consequently, differentiated strategies are necessary to meet diverse needs. One of the important adult literacy lessons learned is that literacy programs aimed at specific target groups appear to have better results. Targeted programs are the most appropriate, effective and motivating, because of a direct relevance to the learners circumstances and needs. For example, a comprehensive evaluation of the Canadian adult literacy policies, programs and practices concluded that the impact of literacy programs could be improved with better targeting for offenders, families, employed and unemployed workers, adult upgrading students, adults with learning disabilities, and others (Government of Canada, 2000:11). Nevertheless, special learning needs should be a concern of mainstream education, and not exclusively dealt with in specialized niches which could be understood as symbols of their own marginalization. Special learning needs should increasingly be catered for by integrating them into mainstream provisions. Learning to live together is a goal that requires respect for the right to be different, and educating the society as a whole on living together with difference. Non-formal education has the advantage of being especially flexible and therefore responsive to diverse and specific needs. The use of linguistically and culturally sensitive curricula is absolutely key for the successful provision of literacy. The right to basic education for all has been acknowledged by the world community on several occasions and is, consequently, also to be acknowledged with regard to literacy and special learning needs: "Basic education for all means that all people () have an opportunity, individually and collectively, to realize their potential. It is not only a right, it is also a duty and a responsibility both to others and to society as a whole. It is essential that the recognition of the right to education throughout life should be accompanied by measures to create the conditions required to exercise this right"42. Responding to special learning needs is neither a luxury nor a minority issue but a necessary consequence resulting from respecting human dignity. Such respect does not allow discrimination or marginalization for reasons of being different or living outside the reach of mainstream educational provisions. The EFA rationale
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rejects scarcity of financial means as a valid argument for not responding to respective educational demand43. Instead, EFA opens a perspective even for poor countries to mobilize funds in a concerted effort, provided that that political will, strong leadership and effective planning capacities are at hand44. From this perspective the central tasks with regard to special learning needs are: to identify these needs effectively by giving a voice to influence political agendas respectively, to make efficient advocacy and establish a knowledge base of good practice and promising concepts in support of adequate capacity building. As it is the case in many areas of adult learning, effective co-operation between governmental and non-governmental actors and cross-sectorial approaches will be helpful. Realizing lifelong learning for all should not be equated with an extension of the formal school-system into further areas of life, but with a successful answer to new challenges: "Promoting learning, using mass media and local publicity, and offering impartial guidance and responsibilities for governments, social partners and providers. The ultimate goal should be the creation of a learning society committed to social justice and general well-being".45 A rights-based approach to literacy and adult education for disadvantaged groups has a potential for empowerment and promotes political organization and action. Democracy has to be measured by its capacity to be inclusive. Measures of positive discrimination and affirmative action are necessary to address special learning needs of disadvantaged groups. This concerns especially budgetary allocations: Educational provision responding to special needs requires extra funding which should be understood as a good and necessary investment in favour of social justice and stability. If realities of disadvantaged groups are locally specific, complex, multidimensional, fluid and dynamic, then literacy approaches must be even more flexible and responsive than mainstream and traditional approaches. Community-based literacy activities are more likely to be successful, because they are owned by local actors and founded on local economic, social and cultural necessity. Literacy and adult education programmes should follow a bottom-up approach and should be done in a participatory way (developing curriculum and programme activities in collaboration with participants), starting from an understanding of where disadvantaged groups are now. Crosssectoral approaches which take into account the socio-economic circumstances of disadvantaged groups improve the opportunities of access and acquisition of literacy. Promotion of literate environments in local languages at the grassroots level will contribute to the sustainability of learning results, as well as culturally and linguistically appropriate curricula within flexible delivery schemes and taking a flexible and responsive approach to language policy. Trainers and teachers should be able to understand the living conditions of special groups and speak their languages, if they themselves have a background of belonging to a disadvantaged group then even better. More research and efforts in monitoring and evaluation of programmes is needed to gain and provide evidence about what works and what doesnt work in literacy provisions for different groups with special needs. Finally, we should also ask ourselves: What can we, as educators and experts, learn from disadvantaged people with special needs? Specific recommendations with regard to specific groups include the following: Indigenous populations:

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Respect of the right of indigenous peoples to self-determination, meaning the right, among other things, to define, control and govern indigenous education systems including literacy provisions. Intergenerational learning activities help to preserve indigenous knowledge, heritage, traditions and culture, it strengthens the links between generations and involves elders as resource persons in learning. Intercultural approaches promote increased interactions and mutual learning between mainstream society and disadvantaged indigenous or minority groups on an equal basis. Literacy should be considered an integral part of empowerment for indigenous women in all spheres of life.

Migrants:

If adult education programs were designed in a flexible way, access to educational opportunities for adult migrants would increase dramatically. For example, more learning opportunities should be provided at the work place or in the neighbourhoods of migrant communities. The schedules of programmes should respect the living circumstances of the respective group, i.e. evening or weekend classes. Training teachers from the minority groups is extremely helpful since they understand better the specific needs of the target group Family literacy programmes have proved to be especially helpful in migrants' contexts, since some migrants might give up on education for them and put all their hope in the education of their children; they help to provide literacy for migrant children and also their parents.

Prisoners:

Education in prison should not constitute cheap labour for private companies. Education is neither simply a means to occupy prisoners. Rather, education in prison is a project seeking to promote human dignity, self-affirmation and the joy of learning. Ensure a favourable environment for the development of educational programs, providing infrastructure, space, and books for the courses. Programmes should consider the problems faced by inmates, namely violence, drug abuse, AIDS, etc. It is important that pedagogical material adapted to the various groups of inmates (e.g., youth, immigrants, etc.) be developed. The NGOs and religious groups responsible for education programs in prisons should follow formation and evaluation programs. It is important that guards and prison staff be aware of education programs and their importance. This will contribute to the creation of a favourable environment for education and rehabilitation. It could also play a role in breaking the cycle of violence found in prisons and help reduce the number of repeated offenders. Promote the cooperation with external participants. Education in prison is a public responsibility. However, it is important that civil society be involved not only in contributing human resources, but also in enhancing educational programs. It is important that literacy, formal and professional education, by means of course content, contribute to break the sexist stereotypes which reproduce violence in prisons.

References:

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dren International (DNI), September 2003, http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS1Bank-Servlet?pcart=details&eid=000012009.2004311132659 (accessed 03/05) The World Bank (2003b) Indigenous Peoples Development Plan. Chile: Tertiary Education Finance for Results Project. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDScontentserver/WDSP/IB/2005/02/10/0000903412005210113026/Rendered/INDEX/IP19050LCR11PDP/CHP088498/preappr.txt (accessed 03/05) The World Bank (2003c) Indigenous Peoples Strategy. Ecuador First Programmatic Human Development Reform Loan. Indigenous Peoples Development Plan. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS-1BankServlet?pcart=details&eid=000090344_20040726112536 (accessed 03/05) The World Bank (2000) Poverty in Indigenous Populations in Panama: A Study Using LSMS Data, Renos Vakis Kathy Lindert, January 2000 The World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean Regional Office http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS-1BankServlet?pcart=details&eid=000094946_00102002005304190 (accessed 03/05) The World Bank (1999) Sahelian Languages, Indigenous Knowledge and Self-Management. In: IK Notes 13, October 1999 United Nations/ Economic and Social Council/ Commission on Human Rights/ Indigenous Issues (2003) Mission to Guatemala. (Addendum) Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, Rudolfo Stavenhagen submitted in accordance with Commission resolution 2001/57, 24 February 2003 UNDP (2004a) Human Development Report 2004. Cultural liberty in todays world. Published for the United Nations Development Programme, New York, USA UNDP (2004b) Nepal Human Development Report 2004 UNESCO (2000) The Dakar Framework of Action (available from http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/ed_for_all/dakfram_eng.shtml, accessed April 2005)) UNESCO (2003) Education in a multilingual world. UNESCO Education Position Paper 2003, UNESCO Paris UNESCO Institute for Education (1997), The Hamburg Declaration (available from http://www.unesco.org/education/uie/confintea/declaeng.htm, accessed April 2005) UNHCR (2005). International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. http://www.ohchr.org/english/countries/ratification/13.htm Endnotes:
A research project including issues relating to cultural exclusion that has reviewed the situation of minority groups worldwide (UNDP, 2004a:6). 2 Living mode exclusion refers to a form of exclusion that denies recognition and accommodation of a lifestyle that a group would choose to have and that insists that individuals must live exactly like others in the society (ibid.) 3 Participation exclusion is when people are discriminated against or suffer disadvantages in social, political and economical opportunities because of their cultural identity (ibid.). 4 In the case of women who migrate to Canada, these barriers include little or no English skills, issues around family conflict, cross-cultural parenting, lack of employable skills, low socio-economic status, and such (Lopez, D., 2005:1). 5 The author of the analysis regrets that not much is known about the literacy skills of Canadas aboriginal peoples because the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) did not directly assess them. Statistics Canadas 2001 census showed an overall decrease in aboriginal languages as mother tongue with the exception of Inuktitut, which remains strong. Speculation is that the increasing urbanization and dispersal of aboriginal peoples within major metropolitan areas must be a factor in this decline, because of the increased exposure to dominant languages and culture (Page, J., 2004:5-13). 6 Mongolia, a country where the majority of the population is nomadic, stands as a case apart. Compulsory state education for children began in 1940. The system relied on hundreds of schools with dormitory facilities built in all rural settlements. Schools were well staffed with highly motivated, well-paid teachers mostly with a nomadic 34
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background. Within the following 20 years, Mongolia passed from two to more than 90% literacy, and today it has reached almost a rate of 100%. The crucial factors of success had to do with a sympathetic human environment and the absence of a rift between the culture of the school and that of the nomads (Kratli, S., 2000:1/2). 7 C169 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989, http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C169 8 For example, the initiatives of UNESCO and the World Bank of exploiting traditional Indigenous Knowledge (http://www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/index.htm, http://www.ik-pages.net/, http://www.unesco.org/most/bpikreg.htm, http://portal.unesco.org/sc_nat/ev.php?URL_ID=4283&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201&reload= 1105370696). 9 Such as the Human Right Committee, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination and the Special Rapporteur on Indigenous Peoples, responsible to oversee States compliance to various UN international covenants signed and ratified by States 10 20 December 2004 the 59th General Assembly of the UN approved a second International Decade on Indigenous Peoples (2005-2015) which started 1st of January 2005 (Actualidad indgena, Ao 1 N 44 27 de diciembre de 2004 Servicio de Informacin Indgena SERVINDI). 11 Education in prison, Recommendation No. R (89) 12 adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 13 October 1989 and explanatory memorandum, Strasbourg 1990 12 The report on prison education from which the recommendations largely draw, underlines that "education in prisons should have purposes no less important than those of education in the community outside. In particular, the aims of prison education should be essentially the same as those in adult education. (...) The primary aims of prison education services must be to facilitate the right to learn which all men and women have and which is a key to their human development (ibid.:11). With regard to needs of basic education, the report states that "a high percentage of prisoners are severely disadvantaged people, with multiple experience of failure. These prisoners have had little or no work or vocational training in their lives. They have low self-images and they lack participatory skills. They see themselves as having failed at school. Initially, they will be convinced that education has nothing to offer them. Many will have severe literacy problems and an associated sense of stigma. () This requires educators to move even further away from traditional prison approaches and attitudes - and, indeed, away from many of the traditional aspects of schools." (ibid.:18). With regard to literacy for prisoners, the report states that "the number of prisoners who cannot read or write at all is high enough, but when those who have a partial literacy problem (that is, an ability to read or write a little, but who still feel they have a serious difficulty with reading or writing) are included, then prison populations where one-third or more have such problems are common ()Those who have literacy problems deserve special attention from educators in European prisons. This priority is justified not only on the grounds of the large numbers who have such problems, but also because those who have difficulties with reading and writing suffer acutely. Their prospects of work are severely limited, their self-respect and self-confidence can be very impaired, their social life can be curtailed. In prison, they can feel additionally vulnerable, both in relation to prison staff and fellow prisoners, and some will take great pains to hide their problems. The inability to write or read letters or to occupy themselves by reading during lock-up time can add greatly to the burden of their sentences"(ibid.:29). 13 http://www.oph.fi/english/page.asp?path=447;490;6276 (accessed 03.05) 14 http://www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/2197/a/15254 (accessed 03.05) 15 National Commission for Nomadic Education, Information Brochure 16 http://www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=index&indexID=6 (accessed 03.05) 17 More than 70% of grade 6 students go on to grade 7, compared with less than 40% in 1992 (UNDP, 2004a:61). 18 According to other sources 9% of the Chinese population are ethnic minorities (UNESCO-PROAP, 2000:38). 19 The Chinese government asserts that the illiteracy rate in Tibet is at 44.43%, a vast improvement over the estimated 90% at liberation. However, some outside observers put the illiteracy rate in Tibet as high as 74.31% (Sangay, 1998) cit. in: Johnson, B./ Chhetri, N., 2000:5). 20 Literacy and Aboriginal Success, http://www.literacy.ca/litand/13.htm (accessed 03.05) 21 Indigenous people, also known in Nepal as indigenous nationalities, constitute 37.2% (8.4 million) of Nepals total population (UNDP, 2004b) Tribal peoples in India are called Adivasi. Officially recognized by the Indian government as "Scheduled Tribes" in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, they are often grouped together with scheduled castes in the category "scheduled castes and tribes".
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The different categories include: monolingual population in an indigenous language, bilingual population (indigenous language and Spanish), those whose mother tongue is indigenous, those whose mother tongue is Spanish, population that presents a coordinated bilingualism as a first language, and the monolingual population in Spanish (INEA, 2003:19).

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However, the literacy material available on INEAs website is only provided in eight languages: Maya, Mixe, Mixteco, Nhuatl, Tarahumara, Tzeltal, Tzoltzil and Zapoteco (http://conevyt.org.mx/cursos/indigena.htm (accessed 03.05). 25 Similar problems were outlined in a Situation Report on Nomadic Education prepared by the National Commission for Nomadic Education, Kaduna, Nigeria, www.iec.ac.uk/nomadic_conf.html (accessed 03.05) 26 http//odin.dep.no/ufd/engelsk/regelverk/lover/014101-200002/ho (accessed 03.05) 27 The main partners involved in the Skills for Life strategy are: - Department for Education and Skills (DfES): responsible for policy on improving literacy and numeracy, funding research, promoting demand from potential learners and monitoring progress against the targets. - Department for Work and Pensions and Jobcentre Plus: welfare policy and delivering support for people on benefits and advice and help for those seeking work. - Home Office, including the Prison Service, National Probation Directorate and Youth Justice Board: correctional programmes for offenders which are designed to reduce re-offending behaviour. - Learning and Skills Council: funding and planning education and training for 16+ - Ofsted: inspects education for 16 to 18 years olds in further education colleges - Adult Learning Inspectorate: Inspects all adult education and work-based training - Further education national training organisation: responsible for developing standards for teaching literacy, language and numeracy - Qualifications and curriculum agency: responsible for developing and administering national tests for literacy and numeracy - National Institute of Adult Continuing Education: Responsible for developing more effective methods for delivering courses and ways to learn. - The Basic Skills Agency: responsible for initiating and supporting innovation and development, providing high quality advice and consultancy and disseminating good practice - Ufl: Provides planning, funding and support for learndirect centres to provide online learning. - Large employer including other departments, the National Health Service (NHS) and the Armed forces: responsible for improving the skills of any low-skilled employees (National Audit Office, 2004). 28 Karen are a minority ethnic group from Burma who have been oppressed in Burma (Myanmar) throughout history. Armed conflict and ongoing civil war for the past five decades have profoundly affected access to education in Burma, particularly for indigenous groups like the Karen. There are now more than 100,000 Karen refugees living in seven camps along the Thai-Burma border (Sein, Z., 2003:2-4). 29 The Orang Asli, who make up only 0.5% of the total population of Malaysia, became a kind of refugee and illegal immigrant group in their own country as a consequence of the loss of their rights (Chupil, T./ Joseph, J., 2003:1). 30 Limbu is the mother tongue of the Limbu people, one indigenous group or nationality out of 128 in Nepal. According to the 1991 national census, there are about 300,000 Limbus in Nepal. The census also revealed that 85.5% of Limbus speak their mother tongue (Subba, S./ Subba, D., 2003:2). 31 Altogether, ARED now covers 75% of the cost of its publishing through book sales and another 25% through subsidized support and its own investment funds, making it the nearest things to a self-funding source of African language publications in francophone West Africa (Easton, P./ Fagerberg-Diallo, S., 2001:3). 32 32 Literacy and Aboriginal Success, http://www.literacy.ca/litand/13.htm (accessed 03.05) 33 Sara Elena Mendoza, INEA, personal communication February 22, 2005 34 Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosova, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia 35 http://www.osi.hu/ccp/bp_stat.html (accessed 03.05) 36 http://www.osi.hu/esp/rei/CommunityCentersProgram.html (accessed 03.05) 37 Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Slovakia 38 Literacy has long been tribally located and whanau, hapu and iwi were the providers of literacy. They shaped Maori bodies of knowledge that form the basis of Maori pedagogy. In effect, knowing about Maori knowledge, doing things in the Maori way and being Maori (Te Waka Pu Whenua Trust/ Kaumatua of Taumarunui, 2003:5). 39 See Cowling, Frank, 2004 40 Geraci, Pauline M., 2000 41 Gow, Margie, 1999, Inside stories. The creative process at work in a women's prison, in: Davos, Anita, Shifting to boundaries: feminist practices in adult education, 1999 42 The Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning, pt. 9 (UNESCO Institute for Education 1997) 43 "We affirm that no countries seriously committed to education for all will be thwarted in their achievement of this goal by a lack of resources", Dakar Framework for Action (see UNESCO 2000), pt. 10 44 ibid. 45 The Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning, pt. 10 (UNESCO Institute for Education 1997) 36

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