ABSTRACT

TITLE: STUDY IN

PROJECT

ON

PROTECTION STATION WITH

OF A

TURBOALTERNATORS AND TRANSFORMERS THERMAL POWER SPECIFIC AND BRIEF STUDY OF RELAYS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO KTPS C STATION
The entire modern Turbo-Alternators is 2 pole machines and are driven by steam turbines. Since the efficiency of steam turbine is high at large speeds, the Turbo Alternators are designed for speed up to 3000 rpm. Modern Turbo Alternators have typical ratings of 60 MW, 120 MW, and 250 MW, 500 MW, 1000 MW. In this project we are studying the protection of Turbo Alternator. The Turbo-Alternator protection can be provided with two types of relays, one is with single function relays and the other is comprehensive multi function relay having encapsulated in one single module. The latter has a number of protection functions within the relay case and does have a number of advantages as compared with single functions generator protection relays. The relay is more compact and requires less external connections. Using numerical techniques, enhanced features such as measurement functions, event and disturbances recording, alternative setting group can also provide remote communications, printing and testing facilities. These features can simplify the tasks of commissioning, maintenance, and trouble-shooting and post-fault analysis.

In addition, a self monitoring feature, together with remote communications, allows the monitoring of the relay and the generator on demand, will improve availability of the protection system.

CONTENTS
PART I: 1. 2. 3. 4. INTRODUCTION BRIEF HISTORY OF K.T.P.S. IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTION. CIRCUIT BREAKERS IN POWER PLANT.

5. OVER VIEW OF RELAYS.

PART II: 1. PROTECTION OF GENERATOR. 2. PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER. 3. PROTECTION OF GENERATOR TRANSFORMER UNIT. 4. CONCLUSION.

BIBILOGRAPHY

PART I

INTRODUCTION
THIS PROJECT DEALS WITH THE PROTECTION OF TURBO-

ALTERNATOR & TRANSFORMER.

The generators are the most expensive piece of equipment in A.C. power system and are subjected to most possible troubles than any other equipment. The Aim of the protection system is to protect against all these abnormal conditions and yet to keep the protection simple and reliable has resulted in considerable divergence of opinion on the choice of the protection. Transformers used in the power system are also subjected to so many troubles. These are used to step-up or step-down the voltage. In order to have continuous power supply we have to protect transformer also.. The purpose of the power system is to generate & supply electrical energy to consumers. The system should be managed to deliver this energy to the utilization points with both reliability and economy. The power system represents a very large capital investment so it should be protected so as to give the best service to the consumers.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE KOTHAGUDEM THERMAL POWER STATION

Kothagudem Thermal Power Station is one of the major power generating station of the Andhra Pradesh. The main raw material is coal is supplied by Singareni Collieries, Kothagudem and Water sources is from Kinnerasani project, which is about 12 Kms from the Paloncha. Kothagudem power station comprises of four powerhouses namely KTPS A, KTPS B, KTPS C, KTPS 5TH stage KTPS A KTPS B KTPS C KTPS 5TH Stage ----4 X 60 MW 2 X 120 MW 2 X 120 MW 2 X 250 MW

Total capacity

1220MW.

A PROFILE OF KOTHAGUDEM THERMAL POWER STATION

Foundation for Indias power sector was laid in the year 1897 with commencement of 2000 KW micro hydel project at Darjeeling, being the load center. The Andhra Pradesh state electricity board. Here it is often called as APSEB. The APSEB is responsible for promoting the coordination of generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy through out the state of Andhra Pradesh. In a step to power sector reforms, APSEB has been divided in to two corporations. i.e. Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited (APGENCO) and Andhra Pradesh Power Transmission Corporation Limited respectively on 1st February, 1999.

IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTION:
A fail free power system is neither economically justifiable nor technically feasible. Faults can occur in any power system components generator, transformer, motors, buses and lines though the transmission lines being exposed to environment are most vulnerable. Faults fall into two general categories - short circuit faults and open circuit faults. Short-circuit faults are most ever kind, resulting in a very abnormal high currents. If allowed to persist even for short period of time, short circuit can lead to extensive damage to equipment. Undesirable effects of short-circuit faults are unmerited below: Arcing faults (most common) can vaporize equipment in vicinity leading to, possibly, fire and explosion, e.g. in transformers and circuit breakers. Power system components carrying abnormal currents gets over heated, with the consequent reduction in the life span of their insulation. Operating voltages can go above or below their acceptable values, leading to development of another fault or damage to utilization equipment. Consequent unbalanced system operation causes overheating of generator rotors. Power flow is severely restricted, or even completely blocked, while the short circuit lasts. As a consequence of blockage of power flow, power system areas can lose synchronism. The longer the fault last, the more is possibility of loss of synchronism. Open circuit faults cause abnormal system operating and danger to personnel. Voltage tends to rise well beyond acceptable values in certain parts of the system with possibility of insulation failure and development of short circuit fault. While open circuit faults can be tolerated for a long period of time than short circuit fault, these cannot be allowed to persist, and must be removed. We shall devote our attention to most severe type of fault, i.e. the short circuit faults. There are also other abnormal operating conditions, which require remedying, but do not fall under two categories of faults mentioned. Two unbalanced conditions are one is heavily unbalanced generator and the other is loss of excitation. Faults should be instantly detected and faulty section be isolated from the section in the shortest possible time. It is obviously not possible to do this manually, and it must, therefore, be accomplished automatically. Faults are detected automatically by

by means of relays, and faulty section isolated by C.B. connected to the boundaries of section. The combination of relays & C.B. is known as protective system.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS IN POWER PLANT

INTRODUCTION Power switching ON and OFF operations in any electrical system needs isolation equipments. In a situation where power handled is very low, say a fan or a lamp, this can be achieved by a simple ON/OFF switch. But as load capacity increases, for example an ordinary water heater where current is of the order of 7 to 10 amps, the switch used becomes spring loaded so that the make and break actions becomes fast and need not depend totally on manual operation. For higher loads, special circuit breaking equipment called circuit breakers are used. A circuit breaker (CB) consists essentially of current carrying contacts called electrodes. These contacts remain engaged when the circuit is ON, but under predetermined conditions, gets separated to interrupt the circuit. When the contacts are separated in order to interrupt the current, an ARC is struck between them. ARC PHENOMENA The arc consists of a column of noised gas with temperature of about 25000K, in which the molecules have lost one or more of their electrons resulting in positive ions and electrons. The electrons, which have a negative charge and being light, are attracted towards the positive contact (the anode) very rapidly and the positive ions are attracted towards the negative contact (the cathode) relatively slowly. For the initiation of the arc, electrons must be emitted from the cathode as soon as the contacts begin to separate and this emission is mainly because of (I) Field Emission and (II) Thermal Emission. The electrons so liberated from the cathode make many collisions with the atoms and molecules of the gases and vapour existing between the two contacts during their travel towards the anode. These collisions cause ionization of atoms and the molecules thus liberating more electrons.

For the current to be interrupted at zero passage, two processes are to be considered. Firstly, cooling of the arc must be strong enough to bring the arc temperature down to the values where the gas is no longer ionized. The current will then be prevented from re-establishing in the opposite direction. Secondly, after the current has ceased to flow, the dielectric strength between the arcing contacts must be high enough to withstand the voltage, which will immediately start to build up.

ARC INTERRUPTION
The common methods used for interruption the arc are (i) High Resistance Interruption: In this method the arc is so controlled that its effective resistance increases with time so that the current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain it. The resistance can be increased by Lengthening the arc Cooing the arc Splitting the arc Constraining the arc (ii) Low Resistance Interruption (Current Zero Interruption): - In this method, the arc resistance is kept low until the current zero where the arc extinguishes itself naturally and is prevented from re-striking inspite of high re-striking voltage. A rapid increase of dielectric strength is necessary for successful interruption and this can be achieved by Lengthening of the gap Cooling Blast effect Following are the recommended properties for a good arc quenching medium. 1. High Dielectric Strength 2. High Thermal Conductivity 3. Good Physical & Chemical Stability 4. Non-inflammable 5. Good Arc Extinguishing Properties

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 1. Low Voltage Circuit Breakers: For voltage level of 1500 volts AC and 3000 volts DC, air is used as the medium of arc interruption and these circuit breakers are termed as low voltage circuit breakers. These breakers are fast in operation, free from fire hazards and can be easily maintained. For arc extinguishion, and arc chute is provided which elongates the arc length thus increases the resistance in the path, resulting into more cooling effect. These improved effects help in early arc extinguishion. In manually operated breakers a thermal release is provided which trips the breaker in case current goes beyond the pre-set value. Electrically operated breakers are provided with optional separate relay system for added protection of the circuit. 2. Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers Generally circuit breakers up to 33 kV are categorized as medium voltage circuit breakers. Usually these circuit breaker uses Oil, Sulphur Hexaflouride Gas (SF6) or Vacuum as medium for arc interruption. These breakers, normally, are of metal clad design and the form of truck can be raked in or racked out in switchgear. The arc extinguishing principle differs with different extinguishing medium. 3. High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Circuit Breaker of 66 kV and above are normally termed as high voltage breakers. These breakers can be broadly classified into (I) Oil Circuit breakers and (II) Oil less circuit breakers. The arc extinguishing medium normally used in these breakers are Oil, SF6 and Air Blast etc. 3a. Oil Circuit Breakers Oil circuit breakers are further sub divided into (I). Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers and (II). Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers. In bulk oil breakers large quantity of oil is used for arc extinguishing as well as insulating the current carrying parts. In minimum oil breakers oil is used only for

arc quenching purpose, their current carrying parts are insulated by air and porcelain or organic insulating materials. During breaker opening operation, the beat generated from arcing decomposes the oil, which liberates mainly hydrogen, carbon and copper vapour. More the breaking current, larger the arc, more the hydrogen vapour is generated. The hydrogen provides the cooling effect and takes away heat of arc as the gas is generated in a small chamber, gas gets pressurized and its cooling effectiveness increases thus resulting in arc extinguishion. Further a small vent is provided in arcing chamber which causes a small blast of hydrogen inside the chamber. 3b. SF6 Circuit Breakers SF6 gas is stable up to 5000C and can be used with insulating materials such as ceramics, glass, epoxy etc. up to 150 0Cwithout affecting them. At normal pressure in the interrupters, the gas does not condense up to 40 0C approx. This makes SF6 gas suitable for use in all temperature ranges. General properties of SF6 gas are Non toxic Colourless Odourless Generally two types of SF6 breakers are found. (a) Flow type generally used in high voltage system (b) Puffer type used in medium voltage system. The arc extinguishion in flow type circuit breaker is done by establishing a flow of gas from breaking contacts. The flow is established at breaking contacts from highpressure zone to low pressure zone. For gas vapourization, a compressor and reservoir is provided on the breaker. In puffer type breaker the gas is enclosed in a sealed chamber. The chamber is also having breaker contact and piston attached to the moving contact. When breaker operates the gas on one side of the piston gets pressurized due to compression effect. This compressed gas passes through circuit breaker contact through a hole in the piston thus extinguishes the arc.

3c. Air Blast Circuit Breakers In these breakers a blast of air is established at breaking contacts for compressed air system at a pressure of 18-20 Kg/cm2. The blast do the neccessary cooling and thus extinguishes the arc. The advantages of ABCBs over an Oil CB are Elimination of fire hazard High speed operation Short and consistent arc duration As the arc energy is small, contact burning is less. Suitable for frequent operation Less maintenance

3d. Vacuum Breakers: A high vacuum of the order of 10-8 to 10-9 torr is established in the arcing chamber. This increases the mean free path of the particles to several meters there by avoiding any electron collision and avalanche effect. Thus the arcing is extinguished. Advantages of Vacuum Breakers are Vacuum is a superior dielectric medium Small and compact size of interruption unit High breakdown for short gaps.

OVER VIEW OF RELAYS

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker is isolate the defective element from the rest of the system. The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the electrical quantities, which are different under normal and fault conditions. As the technology in the protective system is developed, the relays are also developed in the complex power system. The different types of relays are i. Electromagnetic type. Attractive type Induction type

ii. Static Relays Microprocessor based relays are a. RAMDE b. SPAM 150C iii. Numerical Relays

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY TYPE:

i. Attractive Type: These are the first and fore most types of relays. The relays operate by virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays may be actuated by A.C. or D.C. quantities. ii. Induction type: These type of relays operate on the principle of induction motor and are widely used for protecting relaying purposes involving A.C. quantities. These are not used for D.C. quantities. STATIC RELAYS: Static techniques for power system protection are now well established and have been developed over a period of more than twenty years use of silicon transistor, MST, microprocessor and static techniques has made it possible to design high performance

and more sophisticated characteristics into relays which are necessary to meet the requirement modern complex power system. It is now possible for static relays to be designed to replace all functions of previously performed by electromagnetic relays. The power consumed by static relay is low & are fast in operation there is no moving parts hence it requires less maintenance use of printed circuit board avoid wiring errors. DISADVANTAGES: a. The characteristics vary with the temperature and aging. and their electrical connections. c. The relays have low short time over load capacity compared with electromagnetic relays. RAMDE: RAMDE is an integrated microprocessor controlled RMS measuring motor protection relay. Ramde can be used for both synchronous & asynchronous motors. Two types: RAMDE 1 used for synchronous motors. RAMDE2 used for asynchronous motors or other applications. The current measurements are based on RMS values. Therefore taking into considerations the harmonics common in today industrial environments. The current unbalance protection is independent of frequency and phase sequence. And therefore also works for motors fed view frequency converters or for reversible motors. APPLICATIONS: For large motors and those which are vital to the process a sensitive differential protection is recommend for supplementing the short circuit protection in RAMDE. DISADVANTAGES: 1. No under current protection. 2. No memory locations (registers).

b. The reliability of the scheme depends upon a large number of small components

3. It will only consider the magnitude of currents. It will not consider sign of currents. SPAM 150C: The micro processor based motor protection relay SPAM 150C is an integrated designed current measuring multifunction relay for the complete protection of A.C. motors. This motor protection relay is secondary relay device, which is connected to the current transformers of the protected motor drive. The three phase currents and the neutral current of the protected device are continuously measured on the basis of this measurement, the thermal condition of the motor is calculated and the faults of the network are detected in fault situation, the protective units of the relay provide alarm or trip the circuit breaker. APPLICATION: The main area of application covers large or medium sized three-phase motors in all types of conventional contactor or circuit breaker controlled motor drives.

NUMERICAL RELAYS
These are the latest relay device used in the present world. This numeric relays works on the numeric values of specified quantity from which it is to be measured. There are based on the approximation of specified value. There are no mechanical settings in this relays.

THE ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL RELAYS

Several setting groups under range of parameter adjustment Remote communications built in Internal Fault diagnosis Power System measurements available Distance to fault locator Disturbance recorder ry protection functions (broken conductor, negative sequence, etc.) CB Monitoring (State, condition) User - definable logic Backup protection functions in-built Consistency of operation times - reduced grading margin It consists of one or more DSP microprocessors, some memory, digital and analogue input/output (I/O), and a power supply. Where multiple processors are provided, it is usual for one of them to be dedicated to executing the protection relay algorithms, Auxilia

while the remainder implements any associated logic and handles the Human Machine Interface (HMI). By organizing the I/O on a set of plug-in printed circuit boards (PCB's), additional I/O up to the limits of the hardware/software can be easily added. The internal communications bus links the hardware and therefore is critical component in the design. It must work at high speed, use low voltage levels and yet be immune to conducted and radiated interference from the electrically noisy substation environment. Excellent shielding of the relevant areas is therefore required. Digital inputs are optically isolated to prevent transients being transmitted to the internal circuits Analogue inputs are isolated using precision transformers to maintain measurement accuracy while moving harmful transients. Additionally, the input signals must be amplitude limited to avoid them exceeding the power supply voltages, as otherwise the waveform will appear distorted. Analogue signals are converted to digital form using an A/D converter. The cheapest method is to use a single A/D converter, provided by a multiplexer to connect each of the input signals in turn to the converter. The signals may be initially input to a number of simultaneous sample-and-hold circuits prior to multiplexing, or the time relationship between successive samples must be known if the phase relationship between signals is important. The alternative is to provide each input with a dedicated A/D converter, and logic to ensure that all converters perform the measurement simultaneously. The frequency of sampling must be carefully considered, as the Nyquist criterion applies : fs > 2 x fh Where : fs = sampling frequency fs = highest frequency of interest

If too low a sampling frequency is chosen, aliasing of the input signal can occur (Figure 7.12) resulting in high frequencies appearing as part of signal in the frequency range of interest. Incorrect results will then be obtained. The solution is to apply an antialiasing filter, coupled with an appropriate choice of sampling frequency, to the analogue signal, so those frequency components that could cause aliasing are filtered out. Digital sine and cosine filters are used, with a frequency response, to extract the real and imaginary components of the signal. Frequency tracking of the input signals is applied to adjust the sampling frequency so that the desired number of samples/cycle is always obtained. A modern numerical relay may sample each analogue input quantity at between 16 and 24 samples per cycle. All subsequent signal processing is carried out digitally in software, final digital outputs use relays to provide isolation or arc sent via an external communications bus to other devices.The relevant software algorithm is when applied. Firstly, the values of the quantities of interest have to be determined from the available information contained in the data samples. This is conveniently done by the application of the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), and the result is magnitude and phase information for the selected quantity. This calculation is repeated for all of the quantities of interest. The DSP chip in a numerical relay is normally of sufficient processing capacity that calculation of the relay protection function only occupies part of the processing capacity. The excess capacity is therefore available to perform other functions. Of course, care must be taken never to load the processor beyond capacity, for if this happens, the protection algorithm will not complete its calculation in the required time and the protection function will be compromised. Typical functions that may be found in a numerical relay besides protection functions are described in this section. Note that not all functions may be found in a particular relay. In common with earlier generations of relays, manufacturers, in accordance with their perceived

market segmentation, will offer different versions offering a different set of functions. Function parameters will generally be available for display on the front panel of the relay and also via an external communication port, but some by their nature may only be available at one output interface. Numerical relays perform their functions by means of software. The process used for software generation is no different in principle to that for any other device using real-time software, and includes the difficulties of developing code that is error-free. Manufacturers must therefore pay particular attention to the methodology used for software generation and testing to ensure that as far as possible, the code contains no errors. However, it is virtually impossible to perform internal tests that cover all possible combinations of external effects, etc., and therefore it must be accepted that errors may exist. In this respect, software used in relays is no different to any other software, where users accept that field use may uncover errors that may require changes to the software. Obviously, type testing can be expected to prove that the protection functions implemented by the relay are carried out properly, but it has been known for failures or rarely used auxiliary functions to occur under some conditions. Where problems are discovered in software subsequent to the release of a numerical relay for sale, a new version of the software may be considered necessary. This process then requires some form of software version control to be implemented to keep track of : a) The different software versions in existence

b) The differences between each version c) The reasons for the change.

d) Relays fitted with each of the versions.

With an effective version control system, manufacturers are able to advise users in the event of reported problems if the problem is a known software related problem and what remedial action is required. With the aid of suitable software held by a user, it may be possible to download the new software version instead of requiring a visit from a service engineer. A numerical relay usually provides many more features than a relay using static or electromechanical technology. To use these features, the appropriate data must be entered into the memory of the relay. Users must also keep a record of all of the data, in case of data loss within the relay, or for use in system studies, etc. The amount of data per numerical relay may be 10-50 times that of an equivalent electromechanical relay, to which must be added the possibility of user-defined logic functions. The task of entering the data correctly into a numerical relay becomes a much more complex task than previously, which adds to the possibility of a mistake being made. Similarly, the amount of data that must be recorded is much larger, giving rise potentially to problems of storage. The problems have been addressed by the provision of software to automate the preparation and download of relay setting data from a portable computer connected to a communication port of the relay. As part of the process, the setting data can be read back from the relay and compared with the desired settings to ensure that the download has been error-free. A copy of the setting data (including user defined logic schemes where used) can also be stored on the computer, for later printout and/or upload to the users database facilities. Following are the various protections recommended for the generator and generator transformer protection.

P R II AT

INTER TRIPS When considering protection of the generator the prime mover must always be included. For example in the response to a winding failure inside the generator it would not be sufficient just to trip out the main breaker and disconnect the unit from the electrical system. We would also need to trip the stop valve and shutdown the prime mover so as to prevent further damage. Similarly if a problem occurs within the prime mover which necessitates tripping the unit, inter trips must be provided to trip out the generator breaker as well. When the generator is tripped from the system, its excitation system must also be deenergised by tripping the field breaker. FIGURE

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIONS

protection of alternators are classified based on the rating of the machine and the
purpose for which the machine employed.

Basically protection schemes are categorized into three classes. 1. CLASS-A Protection. 2. CLASS-B Protection. 3. CLASS-C Protection. 1.Class-A-Protection:This scheme gives the protection against the faults within the unit and auxiliaries directly connected to the unit where in the entire unit with its auxiliaries and prime mover to be shutdown instantly. The unit is tripped in this scheme via reverse power protection. Class-A-Protection schemes:1.Generator differential protection 2.Generator stator 0-to-100% Earth fault protection 3.Buchholz protection (UAT&GT) 4.Generator Transformer & unit auxiliary Transformer overall differential protection 5.Protection against interturn faults 6.Generator rotor Earth fault protection 7.Generator loss of excitation 8.Backup impedance protection 9.Protection against motoring a) Low forward power protection b) Reverse power protection 10.Generator,Generator Transformer and unit auxiliary over fluxing protection 11.Generator Transformer unit protection 12.Generator over voltage protection 13.Breaker fail protection 2.Class-B-Protection:This scheme gives the protection against the fault occurring in the prime mover or Auxillaries where safe shutdown of the unit is possible .

Class-B-Schemes:

1.Generator Transformer oil temperature very high. 2.Commands from automatic voltage regulator control III. Class-C-Protection:This scheme gives the protection against the faults occurring in the grid affecting the unit where the unit can be isolated from the grid but the primemover and auxillaries retained for synchronizing the unit back to grid at the earliest. Class-C-Schemes: 1. Generator negative phase sequence protection. 2. Generator overload protection. 3. Generator pole slipping. 4. Under frequency protection . 5. Generator Transformer over current & Earth fault protection.

CLASS-A-PROTECTION SCHEMES
1.Generator differential protection:Fig .1 shows the schematic diagram of percentage differential protection. It is used for the protection of generators above 1MW. It protects against winding faults i.e. phase to phase and phase to ground faults. This is also called biased differential protection. The polarity of the secondary voltage of C.T. s at a particular moment for an external fault has been shown in the fig. In the operating coil, the current sent by the upper C.T. is cancelled by the current sent by the lower C.T. and the relay does not operate. For an internal fault the polarity of the secondary voltage of the upper C.T. is reversed as shown in the fig 2. Now the operating coil carries the sum of the currents sent by the upper C.T. and the lower C.T. and it operates and trip the circuit breaker.
The percentage differential protection does not respond to external faults and overloads. It provides complete protection against phase to phase faults. It provides protection against ground faults about 80 to 85% of the generator winding it does not provides protection to 100% of the winding because it is influenced by the magnitude of the earth fault current which depends upon the method of neutral grounding. When the neutral is grounded through an impedance, the differential protection supplemented by sensitive earth fault relays.

Due to the difference in the magnetizing currents of the upper and lower C.T.s the current through the operating

FIGURE

The current entering and leaving the protected object are determined current transformers and compared by relays by means of differential circuit as shown in fig. A fault inside the protected zone is fed from either one side or both sides depending upon the current sources present, thus producing a difference current in the differential circuit. If this differential circuit exceeds a set of percentage of the current flowing in the protected object, the relay picks up. The relay used is designated 87G & is RADHA & RADSB type. It is to operate 10% (0.5 amp) relay current which corresponds to 1000 Amp fault current. 2. EARTH FAULT PROTECTION: a. STATOR EARTH FAULT (MAIN): The generator neutral is earthed through the primary winding of the neutral grounding transformer of rating 500 KVA, 15.75/.24 kV ratios. The secondary winding of transformer is shorted through loading resistance of .42 ohms for an earth fault in the generator the E/F current flow in the primary of the neutral grounding transformer. As a result a voltage across the resistor is developed which activates stator earth fault sensing relay. The reason for this kind of protection is due to mechanical damages resulting from insulation fatigue creep age of conductor bases, vibration of conductor or other fittings of cooling systems. The earth fault relay designated is RAGEA type 64G. The relay has an inverse definite minimum time characteristics. Generally 5% Generator winding starting from neutral point remains unprotected because a fault in this portion will generate too low voltage for relay operation. b. STATOR EARTH FUALT PROTECTION: The relay is connected across of the generator PT secondary edges. When there is no E/F the sum of phase voltages of the generator. Hence the voltage across the relay is zero. The voltage across the point a & b will assume a positive value when one phase voltage drops because of earth fault on that phase. The relay designated is 64G , RAGEA static type relay. It has inverse time voltage characteristics.

C. ROTOR EARTH FAULT: First ground leakage in the rotor circuit of the generator does not adversely effect the operation,Danger arise if a second fault occur causing current to be diverted in part at least, from the intervening turns which can burn the conductor causing severe damage to the rotor. If a large portion of winding is shorted the field flux pattern may change the flux concentration at one pole and wide dispensation at the other the attractive forces which is proportional to the square of the flux density will be stronger at one pole than the other which will cause high vibrations and may damage the bearings and may sufficiently displace the rotor thereby fouling the stator. Rotor E/F protection is provided by monitoring the I/R value of rotor winding. < 5.5 K < 2.2 K 3. Stator Inter Turn Fault: When leakage occurs between the turns in the same phase of a winding the induced voltage is reduced and there will be a voltage difference between the center of the voltage triangle and neutral of the machine. Therefore, in a generator having one winding per phase, a voltage transformer is connected between each phase terminals and, the neutral of the winding, the secondary winding transformer leads being connected in open delta, when inter turn leakage occur at the ends of the open delta, it is detected by the polarized voltage relay, for generators having several parallel windings per phase, the neutral ends are connected together to as many neutrals as parallel windings per phase. These neutrals are then joined through current transformer to current relay, or though voltage transformer to voltage relay. If an inter turn fault occur in the machine, the current transformer carries transient current or alternatively voltage transformer produce thereby picking up relay and tripping the generator. The relay designated 59 ( U>) and RXEG / RXEDK type static relay is used for this type of protection. alarm Trip

GENERATOR INTER-TURN FAULT 4. NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE: The currents in three-phase machine are normally in balance, but if a fault occurs on the supplied or supplying system, this balance can be influenced. Single phase and two-phase faults, phase rupture or asymmetric loading on the system can give rise to unbalanced currents, hence negative sequence currents. Three currents generate a machine stator flux that has the same rotational speed as the rotor flux but rotates in the opposite direction. Relative to the rotor, the stator flux therefore rotates at double the power system frequency and generators eddy currents in the rotor. The high frequency of these eddy currents causes the outer parts of the rotor, and the winding to become heated. If the negative sequence current is of high magnitude, or if it persists for long periods of time, these rotor parts can be damaged due to overheating. It is normally assumed that a generator can sustain negative sequence currents which exceed a given minimum value for a period of time t, which is determined from the following equation: t = K ( I m / I nsc ) 2 where I m = rated current of the machine I nsc = negative sequence current K = a constant in seconds that is characteristic for the generator. This constant represents the length of time the machine can withstand a negative phase-sequence current equal to rated current. The validity of this equation is based on the assumption that all the energy generated by the negative sequence current is transmitted in the form of heat to the rotor without any losses, to the surroundings.

FIGURE

The relay is used is designated 46G and RARIB static relay is using for this type of protection. 5. GENERATOR BACKUP IMPEDANCE PROTECTION: Three-phase zone impedance is provided for the back-up protection of generator against external three phases and phase to phase fault in 400 KV systems. The zone of impedance relay should be extended beyond 400 kV switchyard and it should be connected to trip the generator after a time delay of 1 to 1.5 seconds so that the generator is tripped only when 400 kV protection has not cleared the fault even in the second zone. The relay used is designated 21 G and RAKZB type relay is used for this protection.. 6. LOSS OF EXCITATION: Failure of field system leads to losing synchronism and resulting in running above the synchronous speed. It acts as an induction motor, the main flux being produced by wattles stator current drawn from the system. Operation as an induction generator necessitates the flow of slip frequency current in the rotor, damper windings, float wedges excitation under these conditions requires a large reactive component which approaches the value of rated out put of the machine. The induced currents in the rotor as result of this condition, rotor would get over heated due to the slip frequency current. The magnitude of the reactive power drawn from the system is a function of the machine reactance and the system source impedance. The resultant current will not be steady state, but is pulsing, and conventional time delayed over current relays cannot protect the generator. Also it could over load the grid, which may not be able to supply the required MVAR. When loss of excitation is accompanied by under voltage it will initiate class. A trip other wise class B trip if the grid is able to sustain the voltage dip. The relay used is designated 40 G and RAGPC is suitable for all types of synchronous machines to protect from the loss of excitation.

7. POLE SLIPPING: The asynchronous operation of machine while the excitation is still the intact unlike the loss of excitation, cause sever shock to the both machine and grid due to violent operation oscillations in the both active power and reactive power. Because of these machine fall out of step or usually known as pole slipping trip. The oscillations may disappear in few seconds, in that case it is not desirable to trip the machine. If however an angular displacement of the rotor exceeds the stability limit of the rotor will slip a pole pitch. If this disturbances has been sufficiently reduced by the time this has occurred, the machine should regain synchronism, But if it does not. It must be isolated from the system. The swing curves can be detected by the impedance relay. The relay has two measuring elements set at two values near the impedance as seen from the relay as a relay impedance seen by the relay changes it comes in the operating zone of the two relays one after the other. The sequential operation is observed by auxiliary relays. Since the fault would be with in the 55 ms. However, during pole slipping, two elements would operate sequentially and a trip command is given when both have operated. The relay can be set to be in the operation for swing up to Corresponding to the stability limit of the generator. The relay used is designated 98 G and is of solid-state design of ZTO type. In order to discriminate against swing on the grid the tripping is through an impedance relay (98 GY) set with a reach up to the 400 kV yard. RXZF / RXPE relay is used for protection against pole slip or out of step. 7. OVER VOLTAGE: The generator winding is rated for 15.75 kV terminal voltage, sustained over voltage would unduly stress the winding insulation and may lead to failure after some time. To protect the machine against the over voltage the protection relay senses the voltage at the secondary of the bus duct PTs. The relay is set to operate at 10% rise in the terminal voltage. A time delay of 3 seconds is provided to take care of transient over voltage arising from line charging, switching capacity faults etc. The relay used is designated 59 G & RXEG type static relay used for this protection. + _ 90 deg.

G.T. OVER FLUXING: The iron core of the generator transformer carries the flux to produce required EMF. If the flux increases UN dually the magnetic circuits of the generator, generator transformer become over saturated resulting in high magnetizing current. This in turn leads to higher to iron losses, which will increase the winding temp of the transformer. Since core can be damaged because of this over heating, protection has to be provided against it. The flux is dependent on ration of voltage & frequency. The condition of over fluxing could arise in the case the voltage at the machine terminals rise or its frequency drops or both occurring simultaneously. Particularly this condition will arise if the machine AVR misbehaves thereby unduly increasing voltage even if the grid frequency is low. The relay used is designated 99 GT and is GTT 21 type which senses v/f At the secondary of the bus duct P.T. And it gives alarm and trip signals at different time delay. The adopted setting for relay if v/f = 1.2 P.U. i.e. 20% higher than rated v/f ratio. Alarm is set at 0.5 to 1 sec. & trip at 12 sec. This v/f relay generates an AVR raise block. Surge voltage originating from lines because of switching or atmospheric disturbances are dealt with directly by lightening arrested and surge diverter. 8. LOW FORWARD POWER PROTECTION: When the generator synchronized with the grid, losses it driving force the generator remains in synchronism. The generator should be isolated from the grid after the steam flow ceases and the flow of power to the grid reduces to the minimum i.e. the point when generator starts drawing power from grid and acts as motor. When load on generator drops to less then 0.5%, generator low forward power relay gets energized and with turbine tripped or stop closed, trip the generator with the time delay of 2 seconds. This is protection to trip generator on the other than the electrical fault. And also this protection used for few electrical faults where the generator trip can be delayed. However, provision for time lag unit is there to prevent UN desired operation from transient power reversal. The power relay used is designated 32 G1 and RXPDK type relay used for this type of protection.

9. REVERSE POWER PROTECTION: The generator must be disconnected from the grid as soon as turbine stop valve is closed, completely shutting off the steam. Continued full speed turbine rotation causes lot of turbulence of the trapped steam, which result in increase of temperature. Thus turbine will be subjected to excessive thermal overstress, vibrations and distortion. So there is back-up arrangement to trip generator if it does not trip with in 2 seconds i.e. on low forward power (L.F.P.) protection. This is known as reverse power protection, which acts in two stages. 1.Reverse power relay operates after 5 seconds time delay and includes stop valve closing/turbine trip. 2.Reverses power relay acts after 15 seconds time delay which trips the generator irrespective of the either stop valve closing or turbine trip. This acts as a final back up to L.P.F. protection.

10. UNDER FREQUENCY PROTECTION (81G): The under frequency protection Prevents the steam turbine & Generator from exceeding the permissible operating time at reduced frequencies. Ensures that the Generating unit is separated from the network at a present value of frequency that is less than the final stage of system load shedding. Prevents the AVR from exiting the machine at reduced speeds when protective relays may not perform at all. Prevents over fluxing of the generator. The over fluxing relay is used to protect against small over fluxing for long periods while the over voltage and under frequency relay also protected against large over fluxing for short times. The stator under frequency relay measures the frequency of the stator terminal voltage.

 Though under frequency tripping is recommended by turbine manufacturers, care should be taken by grid operator personal in ensuring, that machines not run at lower frequencies and instead resort to means like load shedding in the event of over load. Requirements: 1. Have one alarm stage two tripping stages. 2. Shall have settings of range 45 Hz to 55 Hz with a least count of 0.1 Hz for each stage. 3. Shall have under voltage blocking. 11. LOCAL BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION: This is protection against the main generator breaker failure which may occur due to(1) Mechanical failure (2) Trip circuit not healthy Hence, this protection acts as a back up to the main generator by tripping all breakers connected to that particular bus. The relay designated as 51 and RAICA used for breaker failure protection. RELAY SENSING: (1) (2) D.C. to the relay extended through trip command (either 86 G or 286 G or Over current element senses actual fault persisting. B/B Protection trip) When both the above conditions are satisfied LBB protection acts as with a time (0.2 sec) to trip all other breaker connected to the bus. The LBB protection initiates bus bar protection.

PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
NATURE OF TRANSFORMER FAULTS: Power transformers, being static, totally enclosed and oil immersed develops faults only rarely but the consequences of even a rare fault may be serious unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the system. For the purpose of discussion, faults can be divided into three main classes: 1) Faults in the auxiliary equipment, which is part of the transformer. 2) Faults in the transformer windings and connections. 3) Overloads and external short circuits. 1. FAULTS IN AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT: The detection of faults in auxiliary equipment is necessary to prevent ultimate failure of the main transformer windings. The following can be considered as auxiliary equipment. i) Transformer Oil: Low oil is a dangerous condition in a transformer because live parts and the leads to bushings, etc. which have to be under oil, gets exposed if the oil drops below the specified level. Oil level indicators with alarm contacts are available to give indication for immediate attention. ii) Oil pumps and Forced Air Fans: The top oil temperature normally gives indication of the load on the transformer. Increased oil temperature might be an indication of an overload or it might be due to fault in the cooling system, such as failures of the oil pump or the blocking of a radiator value, or no operation of fans. A thermometer with alarm contacts will indicate rise in the oil temperature due to any of these faults. An oil flow indicator is commonly used to indicate proper operation of oil pumps.

iii) Core and Windings Insulators: Incipient faults may occur initially, which may develop into major faults if not taken care of at the initial stages. Insulation failure may develop because of the following: a) b) The insulation of laminations and core bolts may be of Poor quality or The insulation between the windings, between winding and the core has been damaged accidentally during erection. and the conductor insulations may be of poor quality; may have been damaged mechanically; may be brittle because of aging or overloading. c) Badly made joints or connections: The incipient faults need to be attended to immediately and as soon as possible. Gas actuated relays described later in this chapter provide indications alarm for incipient faults. 2. WINDING FAULTS: Electrical faults, which cause immediate serious damages and are detected by unbalance current or voltage, may be divided into the following classes: i) Faults between adjacent turns or parts of coil such as phase-to-phase faults on HV and LV external terminals or on the windings itself or short-circuit between turns of HV and LV windings. ii) Faults to ground or across complete windings such as phase-to-earth faults A short circuit between turns can start with a point contact resulting from mechanical forces or insulation deterioration due to excessive overload or a loose connection, breakdown of transformer insulation by an impulse voltage. The puncture of the turn insulation by an impulse is supposed to cause a path of destruction, through which normal frequency voltage can maintain an arc. However, if the turn voltage is insufficient to maintain the arc it will quench by the oil at the first current zero. Faults to ground, or across a large part of the winding will result in large values of fault currents as well as the emitting of large amounts of gas due to the decomposition of oil This type fault is not difficult to detect, but rapid clearance of fault is essential to avoid excessive damage and to maintain system stability. on the HV and LV external terminals or on the windings.

3. OVERLOADS AND EXTERNAL SHORT CIRCUITS: Excessive overloading will result in deterioration of insulation and subsequent failure. It is usual to monitor the winding and oil temperature conditions and an alarm is initiated when the permitted temperature limits are exceeded. External short circuits may only be limited by the transformer reactance and where this is low fault currents may be excessive.

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS:

Differential protection is the most important type of protection used for internal phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth faults and is generally applied to transformers having ratings of 5 MVA and above. Any deviation from the normal ratio of the current intensities, at the input and output ends, must of necessity be caused by a fault in the protected part, so that the unbalance current can be employed directly for tripping and indicating the fault. For this reason current differential protection combines highest selectivity with the lowest tripping time.

The differential protection of transformer is also known as Merz-Price Protection for the transformer. Figure shown an ordinary differential protection for a three-phase star-delta power transformer. In a star-delta transformer, the load currents in the two windings are not in direct phase transformer, the load currents in the two windings are not in direct phase opposition, but are displaced by 30 degree centigrade and to allow for this the CT secondaries are connected in delta on the star side and in star on the delta side. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER: The differential scheme described suffers from the following drawbacks: i) Unmatched characteristics of current transformer. ii) Ratio change as a result of tapping. iii) Magnetizing inrush current.

CT Characteristics:
Unless saturation is avoided, the difference in CT characteristic due to different ratios being required in the circuits of different voltages may cause appreciable difference in the respective secondary currents whenever through-faults occur. This trouble is aggravated in the case of transformers due to unequal ration current transformers being employed on either side of protected transformer. A source of ratio error, which results in circulating currents under through-fault condition, is unequal burden imposed on the current transformers due to unequal lead lengths. Ratio Change as a Result of Tapping: Tap changing equipment is a common feature of a power transformer that effectively alters the turns ratio. Compensating for this effect by varying the tapings on differential-protection current transformers is impracticable. Based or percentage differential relays ensure stability with the amount with the amount of unbalance occurring at the extremities of tap-change range. Based relays are better suited to the overall protection of variable-ratio transformers.

Magnetizing Inrush Current:

When the transformer is energized, the transient inrush of magnetizing current following into the transformer may be as great as ten times full-load current and it decays relatively slowly. This is bound to operate the differential protection of the transformer falsely. This magnitude of the magnetizing inrush current is a function of the permanent flux trapped in the transformer core and the instant on the voltage cycle when it is switched on. There are a number of ways of ensuring immunity from operation by magnetizing surges. Firstly, the relay may be given a setting higher than maximum inrush current; secondly the time setting may be made long enough for the magnetizing current to fall to a value below the primary operating current before the relays operates. The simple remedies are incompatible with high speed and low primary operating current. In third method the harmonic content of the current flowing in the operating circuit is filtered out and through a restraining coil. Gas Actuated Relays: When a fault occurs inside the transformer tank gas is usually generated, slowly for an incipiently fault and violently for heavy faults most short circuits developed either by impulse breakdown between adjacent turns at the turns of the winding or as a very poor initial contact which will immediately heat to arcing temperature the heat produced by the high local current causes the transformer oil to decompose and produce a gas which can be made use of to detect the winding faults.Based on this following relays are available: 1. Gas accumulator relay popularly known as buchholz relay actuated by the gas formed. 2. Rate of pressure rise relay that acts on the measurement of the rate o9f formation of gas. 3. Pressure relays and pressures relief devices, which have for their actuation a measurement of the total accumulated pressure. 4. Gas analyzers, which act on the analysis of products of decomposition. Buchholz relay is the simplest for protection, which is commonly used in all transformers provided with conservator. It consists of a chamber connected in the upper side of the pipe run between the oil conservator and the transformer tank, and containing two cylindrical floats, one near the top of the chamber and other opposite orifice of the pipe to the transformer. Under the normal conditions the floats are up,

but on the occurrence of, say a between-turns fault gas bubbles produced by the breakdown of the oil flow out of the transformer in the direction of the conservator. On reaching the Buchholz relay they are trapped and there by reduce the oil level in the chamber and cause the upper float to fall. This is usually a slowly fault and when the float has fallen through a pre determined distance a pair of contacts, which are controlled by the float, close and give an audible or visual warning. However, if the fault is heavy, the surge of the gas and oil up the pipe towards the conservator engages the lower float, which is pushed over instantaneously and engages its associated contacts, which in turn the circuit breaker. Leakage of oil causes the upper float to operate. Care must be taken during oil changing to avoid spurious signals. The main advantage of the Buchholz relays are that they indicate incipient faults, for e.g., between turns faults or core heating and so many enables a transformer to be taken out of service before serious damage occurs. One important limitation, however, is that they do not protect the connecting cables which must therefore have a separate protection. Hermetically sealed transformers are common in the United States. These transformers are some times fitted with hydraulic relays. Which respond to the rate of change of pressure in the gas cushion above the oil. ON LOAD TAP CHANGER (OLTC): On load tap changer for use with power transformers could be in their own tank suitable for housing in the same tank along with transformers. On load tap changer suitable for mounting in the same tank along with the transformers are available in three phase unit for neutral end connection and single phase Unit for connection in the middle of the winding. The design of this on load tap changer is based on modular construction and can be used at neutral end of windings up to 400 KV system or at the line end of windings up to 220 KV system. The important features of the OLTC are: i) ii) iii) The tap changer is of resistor type and this ensures minimum arcing at the diverter switch. The main current is never interrupted during a tap change. The ohmic values of the transition resistors are chosen to reduce the voltage variations during tap a change to a minimum.

PROTECTION OFGENERATOR TRANSFORMER UNITS

In large high voltage systems generators are connected through step-up power transformers to the main transmission circuit. For supplying generator auxiliaries a unit of transformer is connected at the generator terminals. It is usual to provide common differential protection for both generator and stepup transformer and the intervening connections. This differential protection which covers a zone from generator neutral to HV circuit breaker must take into account the phase shift and current transformation in the step-up transformer. Magentizing inrush surges due to restoration of voltage on fault clearance may cause unwanted operation of protection scheme unless precautions are taken. Also the effective setting will differ depending on position type of fault, i.e.HV phase or earth. A typical overall differential protective scheme is shown in fig. A biased differential relay with a setting of 20% and a bias of 20% is generally satisfactorily. This overall differential protection does not include the until transformer, which has separate differential protection. For protection against earth-faults an earth-fault relay can be put in the generator neutral or in the secondary winding of the step-up transformer. The differential protection is effective against earth-faults in case the HV star side of the generatortransformer is resistance earthen and thus restricted earth-fault protection provided. In case it is solidly earthen the differential protection is quite adequate, but still a separate restricted earth-fault protection of the instantaneous type is preferred and the differential protection under such a case acts as a backup protection to the restricted earth-fault protection. A scheme of restricted E/F protection along with differential protection for a resistance earthen transformer on the HV side shown in the fig.

FIGURE

MOTOR PROTECTION
INDUCTION MOTORS In order to understand the type of protection required, it is necessary first to review the main characteristics of both the induction motor and the synchronous motor. In the induction motor the stator windings are placed around the stator in such a manner that when a three-phase voltage is applied, a rotating magnetic field is set-up. For example, with the applied voltage having a frequency of 60 Hz on a four-pole machine, the speed of the field is 1800 rpm. This is called synchronous speed. This rotating field cuts the rotor conductors. The rotor consists of a series of solid conductor bars shortcircuited at each end to form what looks like a squirrel cage. In order to improve the magnetic circuit, the conductors are embedded in a laminated iron core. The flux of the rotating magnetic field induces current in the rotor conductors. Interaction of this current with the flux produces a torque, which causes the rotor to rotate. The magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed but the rotor turns at a slightly lower speed. This is essential in order to maintain some induced current in the rotor conductors. The actual difference between operating speed and synchronous speed is known as slip. Typically, the value of slip will vary between 18 and 33 as the load increases from no load to full load. When the stator winding is first When the stator winding is first energized, the rotor is stationary, so a very large current is induced into the rotor conductors as the rate of cutting by the rotating flux is maximum. Correspondingly, a very large stator current is drawn, perhaps 7 or 8 times full load current. As soon as the rotor begins to accelerate the current drops rapidly to about 5 or 6 times full load current. As soon as the rotor begins to accelerate the current drops rapidly to about 5 or 6 times full load current and remain fairly Constant at this level until the speed reaches about 80 percent of synchronous speed. At this point, as the rotor approaches synchronous speed and the slip rate reduces, the stator current falls of rapidly until at 100 percent synchronous speed it is zero.

Torque to the amount of mechanical turning force, which is available to drive the load, says a large fan. The torque required by the fan is almost a straight line from zero up to operating speed. When the motor is first switched on, the small amount of excess torque causes the rotor to accelerate. At about 40% synchronous speed. This point is known as the pullout torque. From this point, as the speed approaches synchronous speed, the amount of torque available rapidly falls, until it is zero at synchronous speed. This is because the magnitude of current induced in the rotor conductors decreases as it approaches synchronous speed. The motor will operate at the point where the torque developed by the motor, equals the torque required by the fan. The actual speed at which pullout torque is determined by the design of the motor and depends upon the ratio of the resistance to the reactance of the rotor conductors. The characteristic of the motor can be changed to meet the requirements of certain loads by adding or subtracting resistance in the rotor winding. This is achieved by using a wound rotor instead of the squirrel cage. The rotor winding is no longer short circuited, instead, it is brought out to slip rings and these in turn are attached to an external resistance which can be varied to suit requirements. Another effect of this is to provide variable speed control. i. INSULATION FAILURE: The most common type of motor fault that can occur is insulation failure on the stator windings. This causes a phase to ground fault, as the insulated conductors are fitted tightly into the slots of the iron core. In many cases this ground fault leads to a phase to phase short circuit. ii. OVER HEATING: Another common problem with motors is overheating, which may lead to deterioration and eventual failure of the insulation. Overheating can be caused by overload, where the driven machine, say, a fan or pump, is working above the motors rated capacity. iii. STALLING OR LOCKED ROTOR: If the overload is very great, perhaps due to a mechanical defect, then the motor will stall and, the stator current will increase to a high value, perhaps 7 times normal rated current. This condition is called locked rotor and can quickly cause severe damage to the rotor and stator windings because there is no cooling with a stationary rotor.

iv.

LOSS OF VOLTAGE:

Another cause of overheating is low voltage. Even when the driven load is normal, with low voltage, excess current will be drawn by the stator windings, overheating can also be caused by the loss of one phase of the supply voltage. For example, if a single fuse were to fail the remaining two phases would draw excessive current to continue driving the load. Even a difference between the three phase voltages of the power supply can cause overheating. The unbalanced system conditions cause negative sequence currents to circulate in the stator windings and this produces overheating in the iron core. v. RAPIC RESTART AT REDUCED SPEEDS: A hazardous condition can occur with complete loss of voltage, particularly on large, heavy machines. If the voltage is rapidly restored while the machine is still running down in speed, an extremely large current will be drawn by the motor as it attempts to arrest the fall in speed and then accelerate the machine up to normal speed again. In some cases, due to the inertia of the heavy machine, this acceleration has even caused the driveshaft to break. BASIC MOTOR PROTECTION: Generally speaking, motors up to about 1,000 horsepower operate at 600 volts or less, while larger motors commonly operate at 4,000 volts or higher. Small motors are generally energized through a contractor switch, which provides some built-in protection. The contactor is held closed by the contractor coil. If the supply voltage falls, the contractor opens and remains open until the operator effects a manual start. A thermal overcorrect relay is usually built-in to protect the motor against over currents. For medium size motors, say, 300 horse power and up, the contractor switch is operated by external protection relays. In order to close the contractor contacts and start the motor, the contractor coil is energized by closing the push button. This will close the seal-in circuit allowing the push button to be released. As long as there is voltage on the contractor coil, the contractor remains closed and the motor will run. To stop the motor we must press the stop button to open the circuit. Protective relays operate in the same manner that is, by opening their contacts in the contractor coil circuit.

The thermal relay (49) provides overcorrect protection. It consists of a heater element, which operates a bi-metallic switch. Excessive current flow will cause the switch to open and thus interrupt the power supply to the contactor coil. The thermal relay must be chosen and set to march the damage (thermal limit) curve of the motor as provided by the manufacturer. In practice, we try to adjust the thermal relay so that its tripping curve is quite to the damage curve in order to prevent inadvertent tripping. However, it is impossible to get the curves to match exactly, and we will probably find that, for high values of current, the bi-metallic switch is too slow. One way around this problem is to add a time overcurrent relay. The time overcurrent relay is set for a higher pick-up. The bi-metallic relay protects for lower values of overload, while the overcurrent relay protects for higher values. An improved method of protection against overheating directly measures the actual temperature of the winding and stator core. When the motor is constructed, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are embedded in the stator slots along with the stator winding. These RTDs (also known as search coils) are connected detector. The detector is made of material, which has a linear change in resistance as temperature changes. Hence, by measuring the value of resistance, the relay can accurately determine the temperature inside the motor. When the temperature exceeds a specified limit the relay operates and de-energizes the motor. Overheating can be caused by phase unbalance. Protection is often provided against unbalance by the installation of a negative sequence overvoltage relay (47). The relay is connected to measure negative sequence only. This is normally zero or at least very low under balanced conditions. The relay is set to operate when negative sequence voltage rises to, say 4% of normal terminal voltage. When the relay operates it trips all of the motors on the bus. This relay also protects against phase reversal of the power supply which could occur, for during a maintenance period. For a high magnitude fault current, both the time overcurrent relay and the thermal relay take over 10 seconds to operate. Moreover, in many instances the contractor does not have sufficient interrupting capacity for high fault current. The motor is normally protected against this condition by a set of fuses which are located up-stream of the contractor. Typically, if the rated current of the motor is, say 120 amps. It operates before the motor damage curve is reached.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS: The main feature of the synchronous motor is that the rotor winding must be provided with DC current in order to set-up its own magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field, produced by the stator, locks together with the rotor field and causes the rotor to rotate at precisely synchronous speed. Synchronous speed depends upon frequency, and on the number of poles in the rotor and stator. For example, at 60 Hz a 2pole motor has a synchronous speed of 3600 rpm; a 4-pole motor 1800 rpm, and so on. As load increases, the rotor will continue to rotate at synchronous speed but the stator will draw more current from the power supply system. The DC supply for the rotor may be produced by a DC generator, which is coupled to the motor, or perhaps the supply may be from an outside DC source. Synchronous motors are used where a precise, constant speed is require. Another advantage of the synchronous motor is that any adjustment of the DC excitation current adjusts the power factor of the motor. Reducing the field current of the synchronous motor increases the demand for VARs from the system and so causes the lagging power factor to fall. Increasing the field current actually delivers VAR to the power system, so the motor operate at leading power factor. This feature is most useful in large industrial installations where the synchronous motor is commonly employed for power factor correction, thus reducing electricity bills. Protection for the synchronous motor is similar to that for the induction motor, but with the addition of a few special relays. One particular condition to protect against is that of over-excitation of the rotor. Conceivably automatic power factor control or voltage control could result in excessive DC current flowing through the rotor field windings leading to overheating of the rotor. Protection is provided by either an overexcitation relay (76) or a thermal bi-metallic relay (49) connection into the field winding circuit. Another more direct method measures the resistance of the field winding and from this calculates the temperature. These relays are wired to sound an alarm, or perhaps in an unattended station, to trip the unit.Overheating of the stator winding is protected by overcurrent relays, thermal relays, and current balance relays, just as with the large induction motor. Another relay often found on synchronous motors is the loss of excitation relay (40). If field current is interrupted for some reason or another, the motor will operate as an induction motor, at lower speed, drawing a heavy reactive load from the power system. This will cause serious overheating of both the rotor and the stator windings. The loss of excitation relay operates by measuring current in the

FIGURE

excitation circuit on by measuring the flow of vars into the stator windings. In power factor relay (5) is often used which is set to operate the power factor falls below about 0.5 lagging. This also protects against loss of excitation. Alternatively, an impedance relay may be used, as described in an earlier tape on generator protection. The loss of excitation relay may be connected to only alarm the operator, so that he may restore excitation. Alternatively, in an unattended station it will trip the unit. In special cases the synchronous motor is protected against loss of synchronism. The motor could fall out of step if to correct power factor, the excitation was at a minimum setting and the mechanical load increased. This could also happen if there gas a sudden reduction in supply voltage. When pole slipping does occur, the state current increases and the lagging powerfactor falls to a very low value, about.25. If the motor continues to slip, the stator current and power factor will fluctuate over a wide range as the rotor tries to pull into step. Then out-of-step relay (78) detects the initial decrease in power factor and trips the motor during the first slip cycle. Synchronous motors are fitted with undervoltage relays (27) so as to prevent rapid re-start if loss of voltage occurs. This is the same as in induction motors. Additional protection for this condition in sometimes provided by an underpower relay (37). This relay measures power being fed into the synchronous motor and it is usually set to operate when power falls below 38 of non load maximum operation, that is, close to zero. Alternatively, a reverse power relay (32) could be installed. This relay will only operate if the motor actually feeds power back into the bus and it can only do this if the bus is connected to other motors which are drawing power. In all probability this could be the case as most synchronous motors are used in large industrial installations.

SUMMARY OF MOTOR PROTECTION: 1) STATOR FAULT 50 50 G 51 G 87 49 51 51 21 18 50 47 46 27 40 76 49 55 78 37 32

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays Instantaneous Ground Relays Inverse Time Ground Relays Differential Protection Relay 2) OVERLOAD Thermal Relays Time Overcurrent Relays 3) LOCKED ROTOR Time Overcurrent Relay Impedance Relay Acceleration Relay Supervised Instantaneous Overcurrent 4) PHASE UNBALANCE Negative sequence Overvoltage Relay Current Balance Relay 5) 6) LOSS OF VOLTAGE EXCITATION Undervoltage Relay Loss of Excitation Relay Overexcitation Relay Rotor Winding Temperature Relay Power Factor Relay 7) SYNCHRONISM Out-of-step Relay Underpower Relay Reverse Power Relay

GENERATOR PROTECTION AGAINST SYSTEM DISTURBANCES As the generator is synchronized to the power system, it is responsive to disturbances, which occur on the system. As shown in fig. E-1, certain protective devices are installed to protect against these conditions. One typical example is that of frequency. Large steam turbines are designed to operate within a very narrow range of speed i.e. between 49.5 and 50.5 Hz. High frequency can occur as a result of load rejection, perhaps as a consequence of tripping transmission lines or load feeders. However the turbine governor will normally control the turbine speed and maintain frequency close to normal. In case the governor loses control, the turbine is fitted with an over speed trip, which is set to operate at 110 per cent, say 55 Hz. Low frequency can occur as a result of system overload. If the turbine generator operates below 49.5 Hz, serious vibration and consequent damage may occur to the large, low-pressure turbine blades. The turbine is permitted to operate at low frequency only for very short periods of time typically: 48.5 47.5 --49.5 Hz 48.5 Hz 60 Minutes accumulated 10 Minutes accumulated

A frequency relay (81) is installed to alarm or trips. In practice, in a large interconnected power system, the frequency rarely falls outside normal limits. However, such an extreme situation can occur, if the power system becomes disconnected into separate areas or islands, so that each generation of group of generators is supplying its own block of load. In some areas we will have too much generation available, hence the frequency will initially rise. In other areas there will be insufficient generation, and if load shedding is not rapidly initiated, the generator will become overloaded. The consequences will be: 1) A fall in frequency; 2) A fall in voltage; 3) A rise in stator current. The voltage regulator will increase excitation on the generator in order to maintain line voltage, and this may lead to overheating in the rotor. To protect the rotor, overcurrent protection is sometimes installed in the excitation circuit. This relay is set to alarm the operator.

The stator winding may be protected from overheating by the installation of an extremely inverse time overcurrent relay (50/51) set to operate just before the stator winding short time thermal limit is reached. To present this relay operating during normal operation, a combined instantaneous element is usually connected as a permissive for the time overcurrent contacts. This will prevent operation of the unit below 115 per cent of maximum rated current. During a cold start-up, several hours are required to bring a steam turbine generator unit up to speed. During this low speed period of the generator voltage at this low frequency may be high enough to overexcite the main transformer primary. To avoid this problem, an overvoltage relay (59F) may be installed to compare voltage and frequency; this is known as a volts-bertz relay. This relay will operate at about 115% of rated voltage when frequency is normal. At low frequency the voltage trip point will be proportionally lower. This relay will also protect the stator insulation against overvoltage at normal frequency. Protection against closing the breaker out of phase is provided by connecting a directional time overcurrent relay (67). When power flows into the generator, this relay will operate and trip. Another type of relay, which is often installed, is a synchronizing relay. This type will not allow the breaker to close unless the phase angle is within a determined range (usually 10 degrees either side of synchronism). Operation of the generator is subject to the following limits: 1) Minimum excitation; 2) Overheating of the stator winding due to overload; and 3) Overheating of the rotor winding due to excessive excitation on current. The limits of generator operation are indicated by the units capability curve. A typical units curve is shown in Fig.E-2. This shows the combination of megawatts and mega vars that can be produced by the generator at different power factors. Positive vars are vars supplied by the generator. Negative vars are fed into the generator from the power system. We cannot maintain the same MVA at lower power factor, due to the temperature limit of the rotor winding. The capability of the generator is reduced at low lagging poor factor.

On the leading power factor side, very low excitation current may cause the rotor to fall out of step, due to loss of magnetic torque. This is the steady-state stability limit. There is yet another limit beyond this the overheating of stator iron which results from excessive flow of capacitive currents. Usually the excitation to a dangerous level. What would happen if the generator suffered a complete loss of field perhaps due to a defect in the excitation circuit? In this situation, remember, the generator is still connected to the power system, and is still delivering megawatts because it is still being driven by its prime mover. However, it will no longer supply vars. On the contrary, it will draw var from then system in order to maintain excitation. The power factor will move to, say, 0.5 leading. So the generator will continue running and producing power as an induction generator. However, this will probably lead to low voltage at the generator. However, this will probably lead to low voltage at the generator terminals, and, more importantly, serious overheating will occur in the stator iron. If the field cannot be restored promptly, the unit should be down. The loss of field relay (40) may be used for alarm or to initiate tripping of the unit. Earlier loss of field relays worked by measuring current in the excitation circuit. When this fall below a pre-set level, the relay operated after a time delay. Nowadays, loss of field is detected by measurement on the generator high voltage side. One method is to use a mega var meter set to operate when the imported (that is negative) mega vars reach a high level, implying that the unit is operating as an induction generator. A more common method is to install an impedance relay, which compares the state of voltage and current. The impedance characteristic is shown in Fig. E-3.

FIGURE

Following are the various protections recommended for the generator and generator transformer protection:
Type of Fault GENERATOR STATOR Short Circuits ANSI Device No. 87 g 87 GT 21 G Asymmetry Stator Overload Earth Fault Stator Loss of excitation Out of step Monitoring 51/27 G 46 g 51 G 64 G1 64 G2 40 G 98 G 32 G / 37 G Protection Functions Generator differential Overall differential Minimum impedance (or alternatively Over Current / Under voltage) Negative sequence Overload 95% Stator earth fault 100% Stator earth fault Loss of excitation Pole Slip Low forward power/reverse power (double protection for large generators) Minimum frequency Over voltage or over current Over fluxing volt/Hz. Over Voltage Dead machine PT fuse failure Rotor earth fault Overall differential Over Current Transformer differential Earth fault over-current Restricted earth fault HV winding cum overhang differential Transformer differential Over-Current Residual over current Restricted earth fault

Blade fatigue 81 G Inter turn fault 59 G / 87 GT Mag. Circuits 99 G Higher Voltage 59 G Accidental Energisation 27/50 G Monitoring 60 G GENERATOR ROTOR: Rotor Ground 64 F GENERATOR TRANSFORMER Short Circuits 87 GT 51 GT Ground Fault 87 T 51 NGT

87 NT Overhang 87 HV UNIT AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER Short Circuit 87 UAT Ground fault 51 UAT 51 NUAT 64 UAT

DESCRIPTION OF REG 316*4

The main areas of application of the REG316:4 system are the protection of

generators, motors and unit transformers. The use of standard interfaces makes REG316*4 compatible with process control systems. Different forms of data exchange with higher process control levels are possible, e.g. one-way reporting of digital states and events, measured values and protection parameters. All important protection functions required for the protection of generators, motors and unit transformers are included. The system can therefore replace several relays of a conventional protection scheme. The following table give a survey of the most significant protection functions. The desired protection functions to suit the particular application can simply be selected from a comprehensive library using the personal computer. In the REG316*4 analogue to digital conversion of the input variables takes place immediately after the input transformers and all further processing of the digital signals is performed by microprocessors and controlled by programs. Standard interfaces enable REG316*4 to communicate with other control systems. Provision is thus made for the exchange of data such as reactionless reporting of binary states, events, measurements and protection parameters or the activation of a different set of settings by higher level control systems. The menu-based MMC (man/machine communication) and the device's small size make the tasks of connection, configuration and setting simplicity itself. A maximum of FLEXIBILITY, i.e. the ability to adopt the protection for application in a particular power system or to coordinate with, or replace units in an existing protection scheme, is provided

in REG316*4 by ancillary software functions and the assignment of input and output signals via the MMC The hardware concept for the REG316*4 generator protection equipment comprises four different plug-in units, a connecting mother PCB and housing (Fig.1): _analog input unit _central processing unit _1to 4 binary input/output units _Power supply unit _Connecting mother PCB _housing with connection terminals In the analog input unit an input transformer provides the electrical and static isolation between the analog input variables and the internal electronic circuits and adjust the signals to a suitable level for processing. The input transformer unit can accommodate a maximum of nine input transformers (voltage-, protection current- or measuring transformer). Every analog variable is passed through a first order R/c low-pass filter in the main CPU to eliminate what is referred to as the aliasing effect and to suppress HF interference (Fig.2). They are then sampled 12 times per period and converted to digital signals. The analog/digital conversion is performed by a 16 Bit converter. A DSP carries out part of the digital filtering and makes sure that the data for the protection algorithms are available in the memory to the main processor.

The processor core essentially comprises the main microprocessor for the protection algorithms (Intel 80486) and dual-ported memories(DPMs) for communication between A/D converters and the main processor. The main processor performs the protection algorithms and controls the local MMC and the interfaces to the station control system. Binary signals from the main processor are relayed to the corresponding inputs of the I/O unit and thus control the auxiliary output relays and the light emitting diode (LED) signals. The main processor are relayed to the corresponding inputs of the I/O unit and thus control the auxiliary output relays and the light emitting diode (LED) signals. The main processor unit is equipped with an RS232C serial interface via which among other things the protection settings are made, events are read and the data from the disturbance recorder memory are transferred to a local PC. On this main processor unit there are four PCMCIA slots. This is a standardized interface mainly used for PCs. Provision is made there for adding optionally 2 boards, type III, or 4 x type II, constituting the interface between the protection installation and the station control system (Station bus interface, SBI). Furthermore the main processor contains a second serial interface, type RS232C, which is also used as a interface to the station control system. The SBI is used for reading out events, setting values and measuring values as well as for transmission of disturbance recorder data to systems of higher order. REG16*4 can have one to four binary I/O units each. These units are available in three versions : a) two auxiliary relays with two heavy-duty contacts, 8 opto-coupler inputs and 6 signaling relays. b) two auxiliary relays with two heavy-duty contacts, 4 opto-coupler inputs and 10 signaling relays.

c)

14 opto-coupler inputs and 8 signaling relays.

According to whether one or two I/O units are fitted, there are either 8 LED's or signals visible on the front of the device. Both analogue and binary input signals are conditioned before being processed by the main processor. As described under hardware above, the analogue signals pass through the sequence input transformers, shunt, low-pass filter (anti-aliasing filter), multiplexer and A/D converter stages and DSP. In their digital form, they are then separated by digital filters into real and apparent components before being applied to the main processor. Binary signals from the opto-coupler inputs go straight to the main processor. The actual processing of the signals in relation to the protection algorithms and logis then takes place.

Measuring
The measuring function UlfPQ measures the single-phase rms values of voltage, current, frequency, real power and apparent power for display on the local MMC or transfer to the station control system. In the case of the voltage inputs a choice can be made between phase-to-neutral and phase-to phase voltages. The measurement of the three-phase real and apparent powers is performed by the power function.

Ancillary functions :
Ancillary functions such as a logic and a delay/integrator enable the user to create logical combinations of signals and pick-up and reset delays.

Plausibility check :
The current and voltage plausibility functions facilitate the detection of system asymmetries. e.g. in the secondary circuits of c.t's and v.t's

Sequence of events recorder :

The event recorder function provides capacity for up to 256 binary signals including time marker with a resolution in the order of milliseconds.

Disturbance recorder :
The disturbance recorder monitors up to 9 analogue inputs and up to 16 binary inputs. The capacity for recording disturbances depends on the duration of a disturbance as determined by its pre-disturbance history and the duration of the disturbance itself. The total recording time is approximately 5s.

Man/Machine communication (MMC)

Local control of the REG316*4 is provided by a convenient menu-based operator program which enables settings to be carried out, the values of parameters to be viewed, messages and measured values to be read, etc. The operator program runs on a PC connected to the interface on the front of the protection device.

Minimum PC hardware requirements :

PC with 80486 processor Operating system MS-DOS and 1 hard disk > 3MB free 1 serial interface (RS232C) 1 parallel interface (Centronics) Block graphic capability (640x200 or better) The user interface on REG316*4 is designed such that the user scarcely has to refer to the operating instructions. Among the many positive features provided are : 1. extremely user-friendly menu-based operator programs with choice of functions from the full screen and a graded series of windows.

2.

Provision for creating, processing and checking sets of parameter settings off-line i.e. while not connected to the protection device.

3. 4. 5.

Transfer of sets of parameter setting from and to floppy disk Messages and confirmations to guide the user and avoid errors. Provision for the user to enter comments to describe each input and output.

Remote communication :
REG316*4 is able to communicate with a station monitoring and evaluation system (SMS) or a station control system (SCS) via an optical fiber link. The corresponding serial interface permits events, measurements, disturbance recorder data and protection settings to be read and sets of parameter settings to be switched. Using the LON bus permits in addition the exchange of binary information between the individual bay controllers, e.g. signals for station interlocking.

Self-diagnosis and supervision :

REG316*4's self-diagnosis and supervision functions ensure maximum availability not only of the protection device itself, but also of the power system it is protecting. Hardware failures are immediately signaled by an alarm contact. In particular, the external and internal auxiliary supplies are continuously supervised. The correct function and tolerance of the A/D converter are tested by cyclically converting two reference voltages. Special algorithms regularly check the processor's memories (background functions). A watchdog supervises the execution of the programs. An important advantage of the extensive self-diagnosis and supervision functions is that periodic routine maintenance and testing are no longer necessary.

Supporting Software :

The operator program facilities configuration and setting of the protection, listing parameters (MS windows) are available for viewing and evaluating the disturbances stored by the disturbance recorder. Where the disturbance data are transferred via the communications system to the disturbance recorder evaluation station, the file transfer program EVECOM (MSWindows) is also used.

CONCLUSION A fail free power system is neither economically justifiable nor technically feasible faults can occur in any power system component i.e., Generators, Transformers Buses, Transmission lines being exposed to environment are the most vulnerable. Faults fall into two general categories. They are 1. Short Circuit Faults

2. Open Circuit Faults Short Circuit faults are most sever one, resulting inflow of abnormal high currents even for a short period of a time. Short circuit faults can lead to extensive damage to equipment. And also undesirable faults / effects of short circuit faults are enumerated below. Arcing faults can vaporize equipment in the vicinity leading to possibly, fire and explosion. For example transformers and circuit breakers. Power system components carrying abnormal currents gets over heated with consequent reduction in the life span of their insulation. Operating voltages can go above are below their acceptable range. Values leading to development faults or damage to utilization of the equipment. Consequent unbalanced system operation causes over heating of the Generator rotor. Power flow is generally restricted or even completely blocked, while short circuit lasts. As a consequence of blockage of power flow, power system areas can loss synchronism possibility is more. Similarly Open circuits faults cause abnormal system operation and also very dangerous to personnel. Voltages tend to rise well behind acceptable values in certain parts of the system, with possibility of insulation failure and development of short circuit faults. Where as open circuit faults can be tolerated for a longer period than short circuits, as these can not be allowed to persist and must be removed. We shall devote our attention to eliminate the more severe faults e.g., short circuits faults.

These are abnormal operating conditions which require immediate repair / remedy, but do not fall into the two categories of faults i.e., S.C. and O.C faults. To such important condition are heavily unbalanced the generator operation and loss of generator excitation. Faults should be instantly detected and the fault section to be isolated from the healthy portion of the system in the shortest possible time. Its not possible obviously for the manual

operation. Therefore it must be accomplished automatically. So that we need some protection. Faults are detected automatically by means of relays, and also fault section is isolated by circuit breaker connected at the boundaries at the outer section i.e., lines and transformers. Combination of relays and circuit breakers is known as the protection section. The high capital cost of generating and transmitting plant accentuates the need for reliable protection to minimize damage and repair outage time, and in addition to assist in maintaining system stability. The degree of protection is to be provided for the faults identified one with minimum amount of protection should be provided consistent with the adequate coverage against the faults. Normally generator faults are, 1.STATOR FAULTS a. Phase to Phase faults. b. Phase to earth faults c. Inter turn faults. 2.ROTOR FAULTS 3.MECHANICAL FAULTS a.Over speed b.Failure of primemover c.Vacuum faults 4.EXTERNAL FAULTS. So, automatic tripping is required for the above faults with a minimum possible time. Here such salient feature of a power system protection a relay have the following characteristics.

1.Speed 2.Sensitivity 3.Selectivity 4.Reliability 5.Economy

Speed :- Faults at any point in the system must be detected and isolated in the shortest possible time. This time is of the order of 30 100 ms depending upon the fault level of the section involved. Sensitivity: - Relaying equipment must be sufficient to operate reliably when required under conditions that produce the least operating tendency. Selectivity:- Relaying equipment must be clearly discriminate between normal and abnormal conditions, so that it never operates unnecessarily. Protective system must isolate at fault keeping as much of the systems inter connected as possible. Reliability: - Realying equipment must be found in healthy operating conditions when called upon to ask as near might two consecutive operations of relays at particular stations. Economy :- the most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the economic aspect. Some times a compromise method is to be adopted. As a rule the protected equipment should not cost more than 10% of total cost. However when the apparatus to be protected is of outmost important e.g., generator, generator-transformer, transmission lines. Now a days the relays are available with software version with above five properties, as cost is slightly varying also for protection of equipment static relays i.e., software version all utilizing in the latest thermal power stations lines as required. So without protection equipment there is no generator, generator T/F, transmission lines etc., protection is most important in all the aspects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great pleasure for us to express our deep sense of gratitude to Sri MSSSSSS.VENKATESWARA RAO, BE,MBA,ADE,MRT, K.T.P.S.-C Station for his esteemed guidance in preparation of this project. It is only due to his close supervision and excellent suggestion that we could complete this project work successfully. We are very much thankful to Sri S.K.Prabhakar, C.E.,K.T.P.S., for his kind permission to carry out this project work. We are also very much thankful to Sri Dhoti Houl, H.O.D.(E.E.E.),

Sri Sambi Reddy for their kind co-operation and encouragement for successful completion of this project work.