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THE KEY DRIVERS OF GLOBALISATION AND INTERNATIONAL MARKETING

by Manfred Lange*

ABSTRACT Although the windows of local McDonalds outlets are often smashed by its opponents, the question of who is responsible for the globalisation and who is actually driving it forward remains regularly unanswered: Is it the international companies, which simply for their own benefit expand their activities to cover all the countries of the world, or is it the governments, which have the interests of their citizens at heart? Taking as a starting point the objectives of the international companies, and also of the organisations which are attempting to establish free trade, it is easy to see that there is very little overlap between these two sets of objectives. A careful examination of the role of consumers in all parts of the world, however, shows very clearly that it is they who are the true masters of globalisation.
* Dr. Manfred Lange has many years of experience of international management in consumer goods industries, ending up as CEO of Bestfoods, Germany and Vice President of Bestfoods Europe, Brussels. Currently he teaches International Marketing at the Universities of Munich and of St.Gallen. Until 2001 he was President of the Zentralverband der Deutschen Werbewirtschaft e.V. (ZAW) (Association of German Advertising Industry) in Bonn and is Deputy Chairman of G-E-M, Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des Markenwesens e.V. (Association for Research into Branding), Wiesbaden. Address: Zypressenweg 12, 81377 Mnchen, Tel: 0049-(0)89-7143993, Fax 0049-(0)89-71019173, E-Mail: DrManfredLange@aol.com. Originally published in GfK Jahrbuch der Absatz- und Verbrauchsforschung, Vol. 49 (2003), No. 2, pp. 128143.

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1.

Discussion of Globalisation
There have been for some time quite enough books and articles about globalisation and its possible consequences, and as is appropriate to the subject, not just in German, but also in virtually all the worlds languages (see in particular the book by Naomi Klein (2000), which turned her into a leading figure within the international anti-globalisation movement). But writers and opponents of globalisation concern themselves less often with the actual causes of globalisation or with the question of what it is that is driving globalisation forward: is it the companies which wish to sell their products in virtually standardised form in all the countries of the world? Or are rather the international organisations (such as the WTO) and the national governments responsible, which through international agreements establish the conditions for free trade at world level? Or is it in fact the consumers on the five continents, who insist on buying products from foreign countries, even if, among other consequences, that damages local manufacturers? In order to identify the true causes and drivers of globalisation, it is not irrelevant to examine firstly what causes the international companies to sell their products under their corporate brands in as many of the worlds countries as possible, and secondly what governments wish to achieve through globalisation. And in order to determine whether there is an overlap between political and corporate economic objectives, or whether they are perhaps pursued independently, it is necessary to ask whether the global brands would also grow if there were no supranational free trade agreements. The key question to be answered in this article is therefore: within the field of globalisation, which is the chicken and which is the egg?

2. 2.1

The objectives of global companies

Growth Is there anybody who would not accept that every company in the world, and equally its shareholders, management and staff wish to grow, to increase sales, and if possible profits, in order to secure their long-term future? The widely accepted hypothesis is after all valid that a company which does not achieve growth and stability, is like a plant condemned to death in the long-term, or to being pushed aside by increasingly powerful competitors. The opportunities for growth within the national territory are however often limited although less often than is frequently believed and additionally, Germany and most

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other European countries are held back by stagnating and soon even declining populations, and there will also be an excessive number of elderly people. But since the competition which is often equally international will not rest and will continue to seek additional sales beyond its national frontiers, foreign markets generally provide a preferred, and often the only source of additional growth. Growth at any price is not though what is required, since the global players, even though they are not protected from making occasional mistakes, are usually clever enough to choose a rate of growth which does not endanger their existence. Certainly there are exceptions to this rule, such as for instance the recent collapsed merger between BMW und ROVER. Such mistakes are more often found with smaller privately-owned companies, which despite a lack of experience and being unable to meet the required conditions, plunge into foreign adventures, which can endanger their whole existence or even destroy them. An example would be the failed expansion into the USA by WIENERWALD, a company which enjoyed success in Central Europe.

2.2

The No. 1 Position Size by itself, measured in absolute numbers, is usually not a key objective for the multinationals, since for such companies whether they generate sales of 30, 50 or a 100 thousand million $ is usually not material in achieving a dominant position in the world market. Relative size is more important, i.e. the value of sales compared with those of competitors, and in particular the objective of being the largest and strongest in the own core market, even perhaps being world market leader. For example, Jrgen Schrempp, CEO of DaimlerChrysler is clearly pursuing with all the force at his disposal the objective of achieving the No. 1 position in the World Car Manufacturers League (Scholtys 2002). The objective of being or aiming to be No.1 in the market is totally logical, considering that in the market economy, as in sport, the motto winner takes it all definitely applies: Once a product, brand or a company has become market leader, and not just in its home country, but also in foreign markets, or even worldwide, then its position is self-reinforcing, because that sends a message to consumers, that it must be the best product, since so many consumers throughout the world cannot be wrong. Because, even in the economy as a whole everybody loves the winner. In selecting the countries to which the business is to be expanded, there is also the objective of being the First In, reflecting the dictum: second place is first loser. Following on from the fall of the Wall, the expansion into the previously closed-off countries of Eastern Europe has once again demonstrated that the company which enters a market first, achieves what are called first mover advantages and becomes a

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synonym for a whole range of products, which makes it possible for long-term market leadership to be achieved.

2.3

The multiplication of superior concepts After all the criticism which is directed against the companies which have a world-wide business and high-profile brands (such as COCA-COLA, McDONALDS, GAP, STARBUCKS etc.) and which are present almost everywhere, it is usually overlooked that such companies make use of superior marketing concepts, which were initially exclusively employed over many years in their home markets, and then adapted and continuously developed for use in foreign countries. The consequence is: Consumers simply prefer to buy the products of such manufacturers rather than those of other mostly local producers, either because the products of the former are better in quality, or cheaper, or more innovative, or are just in fact more trendy, or quite simply: because they come from the West (mostly from the USA; see Drakulic 2003). It is therefore almost impossible to be successful with some undifferentiated, and possibly qualitatively inferior product against the competition which exists in virtually all business areas in all countries of the world. Additionally, experience has shown that it is more difficult to operate and succeed in foreign markets than in familiar home markets. If companies wish to be successful throughout the world, they and their products must be top fit. The characteristic of being superior cannot though apply to all parameters within a companys range of products and services, nobody can be champion in all sports simultaneously. The secret formula for internationally successful companies is on the contrary to focus on a small number of key competencies, which may include
s

unbeatable low prices and low-cost production processes, such as with IKEA or HENNES & MAURITZ unique products (such as with McDONALDS or KELLOGGS) superior and really extensive advertising or promotion activities, such as with COCA-COLA or WRIGLEYS an extremely cheap distribution concept (as with ALDI) innovative technology (as from MICROSOFT or SONY) which can be applied everywhere in the world or simply superior marketing know-how (such as with UNILEVER or NESTL), which makes it easier to enter new markets quickly and successfully.

s s

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In the final analysis, it is not really the products or services alone which form the basis of a companys competitive advantage (anybody can easily manufacture and sell a hamburger). It is rather the whole incredibly efficient supply chain which is generated with the creation of the product or service (from the idea via manufacture through to the final product or service, as well as the way the product is marketed), which can only be imitated by others with difficulty. This was explained at the 28th. Munich Marketing Symposium by Dieter Brandes, ALDI ex-manager: it is difficult for outsiders to peer behind the curtains (of ALDI ed.) You can go into the shops, look at the prices and the product range and the uniforms of the female staff, and even perhaps watch delivery vehicles being unloaded, but thats about all (Brandes, 2002, p. 36). The real formulas for success however cannot be decoded using such techniques.

2.4

Synergies In order to be able to clearly visualise the extent of the theoretically possible cost and profit synergies (only now beginning to come into use around the world) which are used by companies active at the international level (Lampartar 2003), it is necessary to imagine for a moment that a company comprises a large number of subsidiaries, each with completely different product ranges which are produced under different brands, and all of which have their own strategies. By contrast, a tightly organised, centrally run company must be imagined. It has a homogeneous range of products and comprises only one brand. The advantages to such a company in terms of costs and marketing which are generated by such standardisation and centralised management are much greater than would have been imagined up to now compared with the company previously described. Such synergy effects arise in the following way: s by physically combining separate organisational units, and as a result saving possible so-called overheads (economies of scope) s through the centralisation of production (economies of scale) s through the optimum exploitation of the companys world-wide know-how (particularly for marketing in foreign countries) s by cutting the time needed for decision-taking processes s and last but not least, the appeal of such companies to high-calibre managers, the so-called internationals. These factors create for those companies that operate internationally advantages in terms of costs and efficiency, which can hardly be achieved any other way, and which perhaps make it impossible for other companies to catch up.

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A requirement for optimum exploitation of such synergies is not only the concentration of production and the centralisation of administration, but also a far-reaching standardisation of the companys activities (such as production, products, distribution, communications); but since nothing in this life is free, this can make optimum exploitation of local revenue opportunities more difficult. Since products can be cheaply produced and distributed to world-wide markets, where there is often only competition from local competitors, it is not always necessary to sell products at equally low prices; it is possible in other words for international companies to generate a significantly above average margin. This means that many international companies can allow themselves a disproportionately large advertising budget (up to 25% of sales) and also at the same time can generate high profits. As a result, such surpluses, where they do not have to be paid out to shareholders in the form of dividends, can be invested at will either in further expansion or in fighting local competitors.

2.5

Increasing Shareholder Value The expansion of companys commercial activities to an increasing number of the worlds countries not only increases the companys value due to its increasing sales and size. But at the same time, such expansion requires large financial resources, which actually increase exponentially, since one can assume that priority will be given to markets which can be exploited fastest, most easily and most cheaply while those markets that are regarded as complicated or risky, will only be occupied later. It is therefore not surprising that most global players are quoted on the stock market, and that most of them are traded on Wall Street since through bank credits, loans or other expensive sources of finance, such expansion programs could not be undertaken. Therefore unless financing is done from internal sources, generated from retained profits, financing via the stock market forms an integral and essential part of the expansion strategies of global companies. The disadvantage of this relatively inexpensive resource for funding expansion however is that the stock market has to be involved. This means that it (in other words, the analysts, the shareholders, the media etc.) has to be convinced of the benefits of the global expansion strategy concerned, and that it regards the associated risks as less than the associated benefits which should flow from the investment. If however at some point in time the risks involved in international expansion, perhaps as a result of political strife or war, grow significantly, then it can be this same Wall Street which slams the door on the further globalisation of companies quoted on the stock market. The continuous increase of shareholder value (that means the increase of the share

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price plus paid out dividends) together with limited risks therefore form for such companies an essential conditio sine qua non. Another way of generating the means required to provide or to limit the resources needed for world-wide expansion is the use of franchise- and licence models, as is done for instance by McDONALDS or COCA-COLA: In such cases, the necessary hardware, i.e. the physical investments (sales outlets, central warehouses, plants etc.) are usually financed by the franchisee or licensee, while the provider of the brand or the concept only supplies the software, i.e. the formulas, the advertising concepts, the production know-how etc. where the capital requirements are usually modest.

2.6

The usage of international media A further motive for international companies to build distribution as quickly and widely as they can across the whole globe is the possibility only open to such companies of advertising in the relatively inexpensive (in terms of persons contacted) international media (such as CNN or MTV) or to make use of those international sports events such as world championships, which are transmitted globally on TV. When at the final of the Football World Cup in Seoul in 2002, over a thousand million people were sitting in front of their TV screens, these current or potential customers could easily and cheaply be introduced to or at least reminded of international brand names through perimeter boards. And in fact, the list of manufacturers of branded products which used this opportunity read like a Whos Who of global companies. This type of advertising is denied to brands which are only available in single countries or continents because of the associated high proportion of wasted contacts.

2.7

Further objectives In addition to the motives listed above, there are other reasons for setting out to achieve global positioning, such as s the ambition of some managers to turn their companies, and therefore also themselves into the biggest in the world, in other words into the No. 1, irrespective of whether this is economically justified or not (which in the case of DaimlerChrysler still remains to be seen) s to draw a top salary, appropriate to the increased size and the internationality of their company (which in the case of the above company has already happened) s to achieve control over the sources of raw materials s to follow customers, which as a result of their own international structure do not wish to work with local suppliers or providers of services (for instance advertising

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agencies or market research companies), but prefer one partner, with whom they can work on a supra-regional basis or in order to maximise tax benefits, by transferring completely legally profits to those countries where they are most lightly taxed (Strauss 2000).

Such objectives, which within a companys hierarchy of motives may be secondary or even in part purely emotional or actually irrational, may in fact at least implicitly form the basis of the above mentioned business objectives; but they do not provide a sufficient rationale for successful expansion at world level. Corporate objectives which neither make sense economically or in terms of marketing strategy, have often though provided a justification for stringing together a number of heterogeneous companies into a pure conglomerate, in order to become big, or at least to give the appearance of being big. Such a strategy whose objective is simply to impress will quickly demonstrate that it is not a solution to a problem, but rather the cause of a (new) problem (such as for instance with VIVENDI or AOL-TimeWarner).

3. 3.1

The objectives of governments and of international organisations

Free trade, peace, democracy Theres no denying the fact that human beings who trade with one another, who allow mutual equity stakes or financial investments to be made, have better relationships both personally and politically. This results in avoiding or at least reducing the risk of armed conflicts. Peace in the world becomes more secure and the developing political systems come under increasing pressure to organise themselves in a more democratic way. It is therefore almost immaterial whether the establishment of peace and democracy is the main objective of the liberalisation of markets, as it is pursued by international organisations (such as IMF, WTO) or by national governments, or whether this is only a desirable, more or less automatic consequence of this process. Thus the main motive of the founders of the European Union was reconciliation after the Second World War, since the commercial benefits of the economic and currency union were not altogether clear before. Only later did the Ceccini Report try to demonstrate in terms of opportunity cost what the consequences of not uniting would be. They thought that at latest, when the single currency was introduced, the unification of Europe would become irreversible, and thereby long-term peace between the countries involved would be secured. Even the upholding of human rights and the adherence to democratic structures can be more effectively monitored by international organisations, if there are commercial

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relations between the countries concerned. If additionally, the international conglomerates apply pressure to uphold environmental and social standards in the manufacture of the products which they sell world-wide, then it is likely that there will be further beneficial effects both for environmental standards and for the quality of life among certain parts of the population.

3.2

Prosperity Similarly as companies necessarily work in their own interests, so also governments naturally attempt to create or improve conditions for their own countries and communities of countries by increasing exports (and as little imports as possible) in order to
s s s s s

generate growth in their economies and as a result increasing employment prevent or reduce unemployment generate additional income for the population and finally to increase tax revenue.

By contrast, it would be inconceivable that governments would sign agreements with other countries, which would damage their own economies to a greater or lesser extent. Such a redistribution of wealth from richer to poorer countries is occasionally publicly called for, but hardly any real attempts are made to bring it about, particularly during an economic period which actually is not so rosy for the so-called donor countries (Vorholz 2003). Rather it is hoped that world free trade will generate a winwin-result for all the partners involved. And since even the LDCs (low developed countries) which are to be integrated in the free trade system will pursue their own advantage and cannot not be forced to sign agreements which could possibly be disadvantageous for them, it is to be expected that at least the envisaged balance-sheet of these agreements will produce a more or less even relationship between the desired benefits (through possible exports) and unavoidable disadvantages (through the acceptable imports). But even without international free trade agreements, some countries can generate above average economic development; free trade agreements are for them not the only prerequisite for increasing GNP. International surveys have demonstrated that there are a lot of countries in the world which have flourished and generated wealth as a result of totally different factors (such as mineral wealth, stable exchange rates, a favourable geographical location, high productivity, low transport costs, prevention of corruption etc.), but which only over a period of time opened up their markets to inter-

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national competition. Trade liberalisation was (for these countries ed) less a cause than a consequence of growth (Uchatius, 2002).

3.3

Further objectives As with companies, there are also for governments additional motives either for driving globalisation forwards, or for permitting it. For instance, the grant of credits from the IMF or the World Bank also provide an effective stimulus to the opening up of markets. As is legitimate and in conformity with the principle of he who pays the piper, calls the tune the donation of development aid can be tied in with certain conditions. They might include for instance further steps towards liberalising the local economy, observing human rights, protecting the environment, establishing a democratic system, and finally opening up the internal market to the donor countries.

3.4

Compatibility of the objectives It would be too simplistic to assume that the international organisations, which have as part of their function responsibility for globalisation, are only promoting free trade in order to act as a kind of stepping stone for the international companies. Certainly it cannot be excluded that the lobbyists for such companies attempt to prevent unhelpful restrictions on imports, but nevertheless the global players only play a subordinate role in free trade negotiations. Homogeneous products such as agricultural produce, raw materials or semi-finished goods are the important issues, and not finished goods such as soft drinks (like those from COCA-COLA), furniture (such as from IKEA) or trainers (such as from NIKE). The international manufacturers of branded goods have such flexible strategies available to them that they can get along without supranational agreements of this type and adjust their strategies on the spot to meet the local legal situation. If there are for instance high import duties in a country, they can get around them with local production, while limitations on capital transfers can be circumvented with licence or franchise agreements. Insofar the overlap between politically driven and business-driven globalisation is quite limited, one can rather talk of objectives which are more or less independent of each other. The opponents of globalisation who continue to wish to pillory internationally well-known brands do not recognise or are unwilling to admit that the spread of such products is subject to totally different laws and is barely affected by the reduction of import duties or import restrictions. It is in fact very much more affected by the behaviour of the consumers, which is discussed in more detail in the following section.

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4. 4.1

The role of the global consumer

Preferences Except in a few cases of real need or where there is compulsion, no consumer in the world can be compelled to buy a product against his will, which he does not need, or which in comparison to other competitive products, he does not prefer. This particularly applies if the products on offer include those from foreign countries, and if additionally equivalent products from locally-based manufacturers are also available. Obviously the consumers often like or prefer products from foreign countries (such as McDONALDS, COCA-COLA, NIKE, BENNETON etc.) compared with local offers; sometimes, as a result of so-called economies of scale, the former are often quite simply cheaper. That tastes and preferences throughout the world are converging in almost all areas is a widely observed phenomenon, as for instance with food (Schmer, 2002), fashion (o.V. 2002), electronic products, sport articles, or, as already for decades, with cars. Often the consumer can more readily identify himself with international brands because they incorporate western values. This American way of life has over the last few decades been brought to the most remote corners of the world by satellite-TV, Hollywood films, pop-music and the Internet. It promises so much more fun and enjoyment than previous traditional life-styles, that particularly with young people, it is hardly possible to escape its impact.

4.2

Everybody loves the winner If a product has become market leader, or if it is possible to advertise as world market leader, then it is even more easy for the consumer to choose it, following the principle millions of consumers cannot be wrong! Thus for example, McDONALDS advertises in the USA with the slogan Billions and billions served. How after all can one stand aside, if it is possible to buy a product, which is highly regarded and/or bought in this or similar form everywhere in the world. Internationality in itself provides for many consumers a not to be underestimated motive for buying. The personal philosophy or the cultural perceptions of traditional backpackers may be offended, if as a result of the globalisation of preferences, deep in the jungle, they encounter native people wearing baseball caps with the TEXACO logo on them. But as Toynbee demonstrates (Toynbee 2001), this shows distorted thinking. Why after all should less developed people be denied things, which provide some of the daily pleasures of those who are better-off?

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Whether the world will as a result of the global proliferation of branded products become culturally totally standardised, is certainly the subject of heated debates. Will a Muslim fundamentalist and a godless western hedonist find an affinity because they use the same toothpaste? asks Fischermann. He does not think that common usage of international consumer goods will continue to destroy or to further smooth out cultural roots and differences (Fischermann and others, 2000).

4.3

International communication In the creation and reinforcement of consumer preferences advertising of global brands has an important role, although, with advertising, the same considerations apply as discussed earlier on in relation to forced purchases. They simply do not exist, and international advertising only works if it encounters a pre-existing latent consumer need. The idea that advertising can manipulate people in the sense of making them buy products which they do not need or do not want to buy, was already refuted many decades ago. But it is also necessary to take into account that advertising for global brands is usually not only superior in quantity terms (as discussed above), but is also often very impressive in terms of content. It is usually in English, and so assumes from the outset a cosmopolitan attitude on the part of the consumer. It addresses deep feelings and cannot therefore fail to work with people, who certainly wish to be counted as members of the world community of sophisticated and modern consumers.

4.4

Branding Although branded products have been in existence for over a hundred years, it is only now that the role of branding in the building of consumer preferences both in the home market and international markets is being increasingly understood. The reasons for this are firstly the increasing anonymisation of markets and secondly the frightening extent to which the consumer is overwhelmed with stimuli, impulses and contacts. This means, well-known brands can help the consumer to define his identity, and to make his selection from all the agonising range of choices available. Perhaps the consumers are also aware that the brand owners must continuously ensure that they are worthy of the trust which the consumers repose in them, if they do not wish to risk losing from one day to the next the consumers preference for their brand possibly at world-wide level. For the consumer a brand can be regarded as a permanent guarantee of quality, which cannot be expected generally of local products, which may not even be branded.

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5.

Globalisation and marketing: Who drives whom?

The question as to who are the real drivers, or alternatively which is the chicken and which the egg of globalisation leads on to the question whether the companies would or could continue their international expansion, if a free trade environment had not been created before by official organisations. The answer to this question is relatively straightforward: Aside from the continuously decreasing number of cases where the importing or selling of foreign products within a domestic country is expressly forbidden, generally the world-wide consumers can less and less be hindered to demanding global products, as the international companies can be kept away from continuing their international expansion strategies. It is also necessary to keep in mind that superior marketing concepts certainly can no more be kept secret due to public communications-media such as the Internet, mobile phones or satellite-TV (There are no barriers to ideas). It is therefore not so much the state or supranational organs which open up or close the route for the global brands, but rather the local consumers who speed up globalisation, what they like to continue to do for a large number of mentioned reasons (Deckstein 2002). This key pre-condition for international marketing however demonstrates as well how fragile international marketing strategies can be and how unstable the globalisation itself. On account of political or religious disputes, or even as a result of wars, local consumer preferences actually could turn against international products and local consumers could then return to national products. Then even the best known international brands and the strongest advertising campaigns wouldnt help much. Eric Schlosser, who recently has published a worth reading book on the subject of the Fast Food-Generation, also emphasises that for instance the global fast-food industry could collapse much faster than anyone expects, and that its power is entirely dependent on the behaviour of its customers (Schlosser 2002).

6.

Summary
In summary, the question as to who are the real drivers of globalisation can therefore be answered as follows: (1) International companies are for globalisation both drivers and driven. On the one hand, they drive globalisation forward in their own interests and do not rest until their products are on sale in the most remote corners of the globe; but even they are dependent on political developments and on the attitudes of consumers to inter-

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(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

national products. Up to now, globalisation and international marketing have stimulated and driven each other forward, but that does not always have to be the case. Both are mutually interdependent and must therefore ensure that their activities can be based on a broad acceptance from the local population. The striving for expansion by international corporations has profited from the increasing rate at which markets world-wide are being opened up. But even without political agreements on free markets, strong brands and superior marketing concepts can still be internationally successful. In order to protect their position, international companies have available to them a whole range of tools which can be adapted to local economic and political conditions. Those countries which participate in the globalisation process also benefit at least at the level of specific sectors from the removal of customs barriers and restrictions on imports. But equally, even without free trade agreements, such countries can create or improve favourable prerequisites for their participation in world trade. Globalisation is therefore for them not the cause of national economic wellbeing, but the result of national prosperity. As far as the acceptance of international products is concerned, it is here that the sovereignty of the consumer which can be either positive or negative can be noticed. In the final analysis, it is the consumers who at world level decide on the success of international products. Therefore we should not expect that throughout the world in future only hamburgers from McDONALDS will be eaten and soft drinks from COCA-COLA will be drunk. The true Masters of Gobalization are therefore the people themselves who are involved either as consumers or as citizens of their own country. It is not the manufacturers or the governments alone who in the final analysis continuously drive globalisation forward, but the consumers who, consciously or unconsciously do so and they could at any time, if they so wished, stop it.

References Brandes, D. (2002): Konsequent einfach: Die Aldi-Erfolgsstory (Consistently simple: The Aldi Success Story), in: 28th Munich Marketing Symposium, FGM-Verlag, Munich. Deckstein, D. (2002): Wer in Zukunft das Sagen hat (Who In Future Has The Say), in: Sddeutsche Zeitung, 18.11.2002. Drakulic, S. (2003): Die Hosen des Hochmuts. Der Osten schaut nach Westen und sonst nirgendwohin (The Price Of Arrogance: The East Looks West And Nowhere Else), in: Sddeutsche Zeitung, 14.2.2003.

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Fischermann, Th./Heuser, U.J. (2000): berall Marlboro-Land? Die These von der kulturellen Vereinheitlichung ist umstritten (Marlboro Land Everywhere? The Hypothesis of Cultural Standardisation Is Controversial), in: Die Zeit, 6.7.2000. Klein, N. (2000): No Logo! Der Kampf der Global Players um Marktmacht. Ein Spiel mit vielen Verlierern und wenigen Gewinnern (No Logo! The Battle between The Global Players For Market Hegemony. A Game With Many Losers And Few Winners), Munich. Lamparter, D.H. (2003): berall ist Mercedes drin. Jrgen Schrempps Truppe hat Chrysler und Mitsubishi wieder auf Touren gebracht. Jetzt muss der Daimler-Chef beweisen, dass seine Welt AG mehr ist als die Summe ihrer Teile. Ein Synergie-Report (Mercedes is Everywhere. Jrgen Schrempps Troops Have Got Chrysler and Mitsubishi Going Again At Full Blast. Now The Daimler Boss Must Demonstrate that his Global Organization Is Greater Than The Sum Of Its Parts. A Synergy Report), in: Die Zeit, 20.2.2003. o.V. (2002): Die Modebranche sucht Sicherheit bei starken Marken. Modegeschmack gleicht sich weltweit an (The Fashion Business Seeks Security From Strong Brands. Tastes In Fashion Are Becoming Standardised Throughout The World), in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8.7.2002. Schlosser, E. (2002): Fast Food Gesellschaft. Die dunkle Seite von McFood & Co. (Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side Of McFood & Co), Munich. Scholtys, F. (2002): Stern-Fahrt. DaimlerChrysler: Konzernchef Schrempp will mit der Premiummarke Mercedes-Benz hoch hinaus (A Journey To The Stars: DaimlerChrysler Boss Aims High With The Mercedes Premium Brand), in: Manager-Magazin, 11/2002, S. 15. Schmer, D. (2002): Spaghettisiert euch. Alle Welt beklagt den amerikanischen Einfluss, doch die globale Leitkultur kommt aus Italien (Spaghettify Yourselves. The Whole World Deplores American Influence, But The Worlds Leading Culture Is From Italy), in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 24.9.2002. Strauss, G. (2002): Study: Companies pay less in taxes, in: USA-Today, 20.10.2000. Toynbee, P. (2001): Wer hat Angst vor einer globalen Kultur? (Who Is Frightened Of Global Culture), in: Hutton, W./Giddens, A. (eds.): Die Zukunft des globalen Kapitalismus (The Future of Global Capitalism), Frankfurt, pp. 231 ff. Uchatius, W. (2002): Vergesst die Globalisierungsdebatte! Arme Lnder gelangen auf unterschiedlichsten Wegen zu Wohlstand (Forget the Globalisation Debate! Poor Countries Find Very Different Routes to Prosperity) in: Die Zeit, 4.7.2002. Vorholz, F. (2003): Der Liberalisierungs-Schwindel. In den Agrarverhandlungen der WTO bleiben die Armen auf der Strecke (The Liberalisation Fraud. The Poor Are Left Behind In The WTO Agricultural Trade Negotiations), in: Die Zeit, 20.2.2003.

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Yearbook of Marketing and Consumer Research, Vol.2 (2004)