AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION OF AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Akshat Autoline Pvt Ltd. an ISO 9001:2000 Certified Company, which undertakes various type of PCB assembly with SMT & Leaded components through mordern and latest machines. It is capable of doing reverse Engg of products, additional features in existing designing and it's own design based on customer satisfaction AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED Is one of the leading companies engaged in the manufacturing of thick film micro hybrid ckts & customized electronics circuits? The company plants and offices situated in India (Meerut), Roorkee, Partapur, Pune is equipped with state of art infrastructure facilities & employ around 200 skilled professionals FEPL has independent international business division which is responsible for marketing & sales of the companys in house product & other related ems in the internationals markets. The Cutting Edge : * Testimony of our products conforms to internationals standards most competitive prices and timely deliveries. * Achieved high manufacturing standards & our name is trusted for its quality. * A very long list of satisfied customers in every field of industry. * Having the most reputed projects of nationals & internationals level. * The company is continuously penetrating into other markets with an objective to set up a world wild distribution network. 1.2 QUALITY ASSURANCE AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED maintaining quality is number one priority from start to finish. Our Quality Control Engineers are involved in products development from the earliest design stage. There is a system to control and updating all the drawings and specification. Any changes or deviation must be originated and approved by the engineers in writing. Life test conducted by ERTL and ETDC confirm the effectiveness of our quality programme. Through the statistical process control, chemicals and mechenical processes continously monitered and based on control charts prompt Corrective action is taken with continous effert to improve process. capablity for defect prevention rather than detection. The quality of our Hybrids is endorsed by components approval centre for
2

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

telecommunications (CHCT), centre for the Development Telemetics (C-DOT) and Indian Telephone Industries (ITI). After the satisfactory reports, the circuits are packed for shipments to avoid any damages during transportation, the necessary as built Drawings, Technical Data & Test Certificates are provided along with the dispatch documents. After sales service team provide service as & when required. Necessary reviews meeting for knowledge sharing, training etc. are held between all the departments for Ca/Pa actions, to avoid repitition and continous improvement in service at all stages. Over the year, we have developed a very mature process success through holes,resistors on top of dielectrics and multilayer circuits with as many as 14 seprate depositions. All these process capablities give us the maximum flexiblity and enable us to choose the most econimic approach for high density packaging. Four trimmers are employed to trim Thick Film resistence within a0.5% tolerance. This capablity of holding close tolerance in trimming resistance enable us to manufacture very precise circuits. We Offer Both SIP and DIP circuits as per the customer requirments. All kind of SMD components can be mounted by reflow soldering. All circuits are 100% electrically tested using dedicated test stations simulating the required test condition. We offer achoice of conformal coating for rugged performance in harsh enviorments. 1.3 MISSION/STRENGTH OF AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED AKSHAT AUTOLINE PVT LTD. challenges the limitless possiblities of electronics comming together as one body, with an aim of at contributing to the international community, being in harmony with enviorment conservation and participating in its development. Strength is the leading electronic (SMPS & customized products, Thick Film Hybrid Micro circuits & Regulators) company which is run by qualified technocrats & professional having a big experience of executing the most prestigious projects in country & are known as pioneers in there area of activities. our experts have rich experience of marketing, design, engineering, procurement, manufacturing & production of electronics circuits.

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Battery Bank chargers for UPS application : * 192V / 4.5Amp. * 240V / 4Amp. * 410V / 4Amp. * 135V / 7Amp.

1.4 PRODUCTS, SMT LINE AND QUALITY OF AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED SMPS based battery bank chargers.Telecom power supply with PFC. Multioutput AC/DC converter Multioutput DC/Dc converter CE Marked AC/DC power supply.AC high/low detect Curcuits. EMI/EMC compliance. Application Area * Telecom Industry * Medical * Railways * Defence Akshat Autoline Pvt Ltd. is fully equipped with antistatic measure, load testing,chamber for burn in at high temp, to ensure quality and improve reliability of the products through:* In-QC (Quality Control) * Out-QC * Burnin chamber * Load tester * Antistatic Flooring * Antistatic wrist band * Antistatic trays 1.5 ACHIEVMENTS OF AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED Started new unit (Akshat Autoline Pvt Ltd.) in 1998 for PCB Assembly. 1984 - Started with requirement of Govt. owned telecom companies. 1986 - Subscriber Interface Circuit (SLIC & CO line ) designed for UPTRON EPABX Indegenization of Hybrid IC for L&T for their PLCs. 1987 - CDOT line HMC introduced.
4

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

1988 - Indegenization of Hybrid Ics for photocopier application For Xerox. 1990 - Electronic Ignition Modules developed. 1991- Approval obtained for Active Filters (Low Pass, Band Pass & Notch ) for MARR system. 1993 - Introduced RF circuits for Security systems. 1994 - Introduced Wide band amplifier for CATV application . 1995 - Introduced very Low Freq. amplifier for EEG machine. Hybrid IC for Electronic Energy Meter developed. Hybrid IC for Zoom Card application developed for Xerox. 1998 - Multiple O/P High Voltage Power Supply (AC & DC ) developed for Xerox for Celinium Drum Technology Range of Photocopier having following specification: I/P :24V DC O/P: DC 5.4 KV 50V AC 3.75 KV 60 V , 1.0 KHz 1999 - Hybrid IC for static chargers Sensor developed for Textile Industry. Hybrid IC for OLTE system developed for HFCL 2000 - RF Receiver / Transmitter developed for Car security system. 2000 - Developed washing machine control cards with in-house Micro-controller programming for Electrolux. 2001 - High voltage power supply (AC & DC ) developed for Xerox for new technology range of copiers having following specification : I/P : 24V DC O/P : AC 3.9 KV 60V,600 Hz AC 2 KVp-p 140Vp-p, 2.4KHz (Saw tooth ) DC 4.5 KV 10% Developed 140W SMPS with Multiple DC O/Ps for Xerox I/P : 12 Vde O/P : 5 KVdc / 100A 2003 - Developed Low Watt Battery Charger ( 10W to 50W ) using latest SMPS technology for Universal input Voltage Range. 5V/2A, 12V/1A, 12V/4.5 A, 9V/2.5 A

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2004 - Developed 50W DC to DC Converters in Quarter Brick Size using CLEE substrate. Developed 290W (14.5V/20A ) SMPS with I/P Voltage Range of 85-265 VAC for export having Active Power Factor Correction. Electronic Ballast (SINGLE AND TWIN TUBE) WITH INSTANT START, CONSTANT LIGHT O/P, HIGH EFFICIENCY & DISTORTION <10%. 2005 - Developed SMPS 500W (54V/10A) Battery Charger cum Load with Battery charging features and Protection Circuits for telecom application for Export. Indigenization of Power Supply Modules (24V/5A & 24V/2.5A) for Industrial application having EMI/EMC & UL approvals. 2005 - Developed IGBT driver Hybrid IC for UPS application. 2006 - Developed 70W Multiple Output supply for Petrol Pump having high input voltage protection feature. 2007 - Developed Multi Layer Hybrid IC X-Band & C-Band driver of communication system for Defence. Started new unit (Akshat Autoline Pvt Ltd.) in 2007- Developed following Battery Bank chargers for UPS application : * 192V / 4.5Amp. * 240V / 4Amp. * 410V / 4Amp. * 135V / 7Amp. Developed Battery charger 13.5V / 7Amp. & for Telecom application. Developed High Watt Multiple O/P SMPS having 3 Input for Industrial application.Developed 48V/10A SMPS for Universal I/P range having EMI / EMC & UL approvals.

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

CHAPTER 2
OBJECTIVE, NEED AND SCOPE

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Objectives of the Research Project Objectives of the Study The present study is focused to examine the AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LTD. Objectives: For progress of any company the first requirement is the proper working. There are mainly six departments in AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED for systematic work. 1) Production flowchart 2) IQC and Store Section 3) Assembly Section 4) Wave soldering 5) Touch-up Section 6) Testing Section 7) SMT Section 8) FQC Section 9) Switching Mode Power Supply 10) Electronic Ballast Need of the Research Project Need of the study is in Akshat Autoline because in Akshat Autoline many electronic circuit are design and manufactured. The firm is doing job work for many multinantional companies like Birla, Yamaha, Electrolux, LG, Modi Xerox and Many other Reudiated companies. Scope of the Research Project I worked on Akshat Autoline Pvt. ltd. for a report. For my report I collect data for analysis.
The study focused on the significance on the Main circuit which are

design and manufacture in this firm.

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.1 OBJECTIVE 1

PRODUCTION FLOW CHART

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.1 Production Flow Chart

10

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.2 OBJECTIVE 2

In-coming Quality Control(IQC) And Store Section

2.2 IQC In-Coming Quality Control. We know when materials come in the firm then it is very important that check the material; it is right or wrong in quantity or test. So, IQC section is important in this
11

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

way. Without the best materials, any engineering will fail. That is why AKSHAT AUOLINE ensures that their materials quality is always top-notch. There products never compromise with substandard quality materials. Before purchasing materials for their boards, their quality testing team carefully checks everything being sent to us. They stand by the quality of our material and integrity of our services and products. They will not settle for less than excellence, and we are ready for your most rigorous requirements. 2.2.1 IQC of Material (Physically) In this process we check the material physically. We check the components quantity, length, etc. This is check according the parameters. In this we check the resistance value orally. Acc. To this Table:- RESISTANCE CODING DIGIT COLOUR

This signify (Silver = +-10%, Gold = +-5%, Brown = +-1%, Red = +-2% if no fourth band is shown the tolerance = +- 20%. CAPACITOR GUIDE
12

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

I guess you would really like to know how to read all those different codes. Not to worry, it is not as difficult as it appears. Some capacitors just tell you right out. Take your electrolytic and large body types of capacitors: these usually have the value printed on the body of the cap. For example,:100F 250V, or something like that would be imprinted right on the body. It would also have marks pointing to the negative end of the capacitor. START HERE FOR THE SMALLER Non-Polarised Capacitors. It's mostly the smaller caps have two or three numbers printed on them, some with one or two letters added to that value. Take a look at the table below.

As you can see it all looks very simple. If a capacitor is marked like this 105, it just means 10+5zeros = 10 + 00000 = 1,000,000pF = 1000 nF = 1 F. And that's exactly the way you write it too. Value is always in pF (PicoFarads). The letters added to the value is the tolerance and in some cases a second letter is the temperature coefficient mostly only used in military applications, or industrial components. So, for example, it you have a ceramic capacitor with 474J printed on it: 47+4zeros = 470000 = 470,000pF, J=5% tolerance. (470,000pF = 470nF = 0.47F) The only major thing to remember here is to move the decimal point back six place for (uf) and three for (nf). Below in table A, is a simple version for direct conversions to make it easier for you.

2.2.2 IQC of Material (Electrically):

13

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

After physically test we check the components by electrically. According the components we check it. As-LCR-Q Meter, Diode Fester, Zener Diode Tester, MOSFET tests etc. Are they equipments which help of we checking components. 2.2.3 Material Management in Store: After IQC, Material Send to the store room where we check the quantity of material and write on register their quantity and receipt details. We put the material on right place in store room. There we set the place every component according to its name first letter. So, if any person issue the components there we find it easily and our time will be consume. Be careful with separation of components when doing inspection. Wearing gloves if there is a need to touch components. Enclosing components in vacuum packages when inspection is finished. Preventing free components from long exposure. Keeping an eye on the wet resistance tags on the packages. components must be labeled with a specific tag.

14

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.3 OBJECTIVE 3

ASSEMBLY SECTION

2.3 ASSEMBLY SECTION

15

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

As we know that there are seven steps in the assembly section of the firm. So, to proper understanding of the assembly section of the firm we take these sections individually step by step. So, now we take first step of the assembly section. 2.3.1 Issuing the component: The first step of the assembly section is the issuing the components, i.e. first we issue the components from the store room which we required to desired work. So, after issuing the components from the store, we check these and now we give the desired shape these components. When we issuing the component from the store room. We check that all components are correct or not. If there are any types of problem we send these components to the replacement and take the new components. So, all of this work is done in the first step of the assembly section. So, after satisfaction of this work now we look the second step of the assembly section. 2.3.2 Preforming of components: Preforming of components is the second step of the assembly section. This is the major step of the Assembly section. In this we can say performing means cutting, capacitor dia making and twisting of legs of the components as per our requirement. So, the meaning of performing is to make the dia of the components. So, that they can easily take place in the P.C.B because we know that initially the components size is very large , So that we dont assemble these components easily in the P.C.B we cut these components legs as we required. So as a result we find that these components easily take place in the P.C.B. So, in performing of components there are main cutting, dia making and twisting of legs operation are performed. And the performing of components is performed by several machines.
16

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED Resistance Preforming: First we take the resistance performing. In AKSHAT

AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED there are mainly three sizes are used. These sizes are 10mm, 12.5mm, 7.5mm. These are also one another machine which is multipurpose machine used of 7.5 to 16mm. These lengths of the resistance dia are shown in the figure. This machine is called Resistance performing Machine and the cost is near about Rs.1400/-.
Capacitor and transistor performing: Just like resistance, capacitor and

transistors performing is also done in the firm. So, for capacitor and transistors performing. These are following machine are used. a) Motorized Capacitor/Resistance dia machine b) Motorized chain cutter c) PCB drilling machine Motorized Capacitor/Resistance dia machine: This is very useful machine for any firm because as we know that every component in any PCB required shape. So, some shape is very easy and is making by the help of machine. This machine is called Dia making machine and used for making the dia of resistances, capacitors etc. The cost near about this machine is approx 5000/Rupees. Motorized chain cutter: As we know that capacitor are in the very long chain form i.e. The capacitors which are coming in the firm are in the form of a very long chain. So, to cut these capacitors from the chain we use motorized chain cutter. This is automatic machine which can move forward or reverse according to our need. This machine cut the capacitor chain but not used to make dia. This machine cost is approx 5000/- rupees.

PCB drilling machine:

17

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

As we know in any firm we used several PCB and we need a hole in these pcb for using purpose , so the pcb drilling machine is used. By using thgis machine we make hole in PCB in very short time. The cost near about this machine is 10,000/- Rupees.

I.C. Preforming: As we know that I.C. is very useful component for any firm

because every PCB we used at least one I.C. So, I.C. performing is very necessary for any firm. So this I.C. performing is done by the help of machine. This machine is called I.C. Dia machine By using this machine we make the dia of the I.C. So, that this I.C. easily insert in the PCB. The cost Near About this Machine is 400/Rupees. 2.3.3 Premounting and Mounting of components: Premounting implies that to tape that part of the PCB which we dont need soldering. So, in the mounting process there are two operations are perform. Mainly these operations are: Tapping Jumper Fitting The tap has provisions for a print circuit board on which is located the transmitter /receiver hardware, which permits communication to end. Jumper fitting, implies that, some part in a PCB we required short circuit. So, in this part we use jumper. This jumper is cut by the help of jumper cutting machine. So, jumper machine is used to make the jumper and the cost is near about 250/- rupees. 2.3.4 Visual inspection before soldering: As when we assembled are PCB than before soldering we required a visual inspection means we checked that all the component in our PCB. i . Check the base PCB for good quality of tracks, size and physical looking of PCB. i i . Check polarity of capacitors, according sample/Drawing.
i i i . Check cathode of diodes and zeners in proper manner. 18

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

i v . ICs and all other components in proper place and in proper direction. v . Assembled components should be inserted in PCB are looking as unique fitting of components. Correct these problem and than send this PCB to the soldering process. 2.3.5 Soldering: Soldering is defined as "the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys which have relatively low melting points". In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the surfaces to be soldered together. Consider that soldering is more like gluing with molten metal, unlike welding where the base metals are actually melted and combined. Soldering is also a must have skill for all sorts of electrical and electronics work. It is also a skill that must be taught correctly and developed with practice. PREPARING TO SOLDER
Step 1: Warm Up The Iron: Warm up the soldering iron or gun thoroughly.

Make sure that it has fully come to temperature because you are about to melt a lot of solder on it. This is especially important if the iron is new because it may have been packed with some kind of coating to prevent corrosion.
Step 2: Prepare A Little Space: While the soldering iron is warming up, prepare

a little space to work. Moisten a little sponge and place it in the base of your soldering iron stand or in a dish close by. Lay down a piece of cardboard in case you drip solder (you probably will) and make sure you have room to work comfortably.
Step 3: Thoroughly Coat The Tip In Solder: Thoroughly coat the soldering tip

in solder. It is very important to cover the entire tip. You will use a considerable amount of solder during this process and it will drip, so be ready. If you leave any part of the tip uncovered it will tend to collect flux residue and will not conduct heat very well, so run the solder up and down the tip and completely around it to totally cover it in molten solder.
Step 4: Clean The Soldering Tip: After you are certain

that the tip is totally coated in solder, wipe the tip off on the
19

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

wet sponge to remove all the flux residue. Do this immediately so there is no time for the flux to dry out and solidify.
Step 5: You're Done: You have just tinned your soldering tip. This must be done

anytime you replace the tip or clean it so that the iron maintains good heat transfer. 2.3.6 Extra leg cutting of Components: This is another process of assembly section. When soldering is done than the extra leg is cut by the help of hand cutter. 2.3.7 Handling of Assembled PCB: This is the last process of assembly section. In this process all the PCBs are kept in the trays and send to the next section. i.e. Touch-up Section (Post Soldering Section). So, this is all about the first section i.e. Assembly Section of the Akshat Auto line private limited.

20

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.4 OBJECTIVE 4

WAVE SOLDERING

2.4 WAVE SOLDERING Wave soldering is a large-scale soldering process by which electronic

components are soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB) to form an electronic assembly. The name is derived from the use of waves of molten solder to attach
21

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

metal components to the PCB. The process uses a tank to hold a quantity of molten solder; the components are inserted into or placed on the PCB and the loaded PCB is passed across a pumped wave or waterfall of solder. The solder wets the exposed metallic areas of the board (those not protected with solder mask, a protective coating that prevents the solder from bridging between connections), creating a reliable mechanical and electrical connection. The process is much faster and can create a higher quality product than manual soldering of components. 2.4.1 WAVE SOLDERING PROCESS DEVELOPMENT OF WAVE SOLDERING: The advent of the printed wiring board made it much easier, quicker and cheaper to assemble electronic equipment. The time saving benefit when making multiple solder joints was found first with hand soldering. However, bringing all the joints into a single plane, with the board as a barrier between solder and components, also created a structure in which soldering could be automated by solder dipping. EXERCISE: Probably you will have thought of most of the points below, which highlight the challenges in developing any method of machine soldering:

Unless the surfaces are unusually clean, flux always has to be applied in order to encourage wetting. When flux is heated, first its low-boiling constituents evaporate, and then it starts to decompose, generating smoke. It is easy to tin a component by dipping first in flux and then in solder, because the vapour and fumes can escape easily. However, just placing a flat fluxed board in contact with hot solder will trap solvent vapour between the two surfaces, preventing even contact between solder and joint, and resulting in solder skips

Within a short time of exposure to air, the surface of molten solder grows a layer of oxide. Not only is this oxide unsolderable, inhibiting wetting, but the layer impedes free flow of the solder

Unless the operation is very carefully carried out, it is difficult to avoid leaving surplus solder or solder spikes, even when the joint is fully molten when the source of solder is removed

22

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Some degree of movement of solder relative to the surfaces to be joined helps accelerate the wetting process, and is needed to make sure that solder reaches areas of the joint that are difficult to access.

SOLDER SPIKES: Many of the first in-line machines used the drag soldering

principle, where the board was moved across a static pot. The relative motion scrubbed the solder across the board and allowed flux volatiles to escape, and solder peel-back from the joint was enhanced by arranging for the board to exit smoothly at a slight angle to the pot surface. Automatic machines fluxed the board before solder immersion, and could incorporate pre-drying of the assembly to reduce the quantity of flux volatiles. A cover layer of oil was generally used to reduce oxidation, although this meant that cleaning was almost unavoidable.
THE WAVE SOLDER SEQUENCE: This process has to be carried out in a

controlled and reproducible manner to ensure a high yield of good quality joints at the lowest possible cost. As a result, wave soldering machines have become increasingly sophisticated, many variables. The temperature in an attempt to control the

experience of the wave soldered joint, the typically shows a steady temperature rise to over 100C, then a rapid rise to a peak of 240250C at the time of solder immersion. On immersion, the area of the board in contact with the wave rapidly attains thermal equilibrium with the molten solder, so that all joints reach the same temperature. The fact that a large quantity of liquid metal is present to transfer heat is a key difference between wave soldering and reflow soldering, and one that explains the lack of a stabilization plateau region.

23

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED THE WAVE SOLDER PROFILE: Measuring the temperature profile has been

particularly surface

important devices:

in

wave thermal

soldering to reduce the damage to mount damage is less of a problem with through-hole components, because the board acts as a heat shield.
WAVE RIDER: Used for measuring the temperature profile and immersion time.

As with reflow, there is a critical contact time for soldering to take place that is a minimum time a joint must be in contact with the solder to ensure a good joint. This depends on the type of joint, the solder pot temperature, and the board type constructions differ in their thermal characteristics. There is a corresponding optimum contact time for an assembly, which is just long enough to ensure that all joints become fully wetted. This time will depend on what joint types are in the assembly and must be as long as the longest individual critical contact time. Generally contact times between 34s are suitable for most applications, but 12s is used for boards with sensitive components. Working backwards, contact time determines the required conveyor speed and wave dimensions.
WHERE WAVE SOLDERING IS USED: Wave soldering has numerous

applications including component lead tinning, component manufacture, hybrid circuit assembly, and continuous wire tinning, but its main application is for soldering circuit board assemblies. The process for a through-hole component starts with selecting the part, cropping and forming it where necessary, inserting it into the board, and then applying molten solder to form the bond between the circuit board and component termination.
VIEW AND TOUCH-UPS: The solder joint faults introduced by the wave

soldering process are normally major defects, that is they require rectification. Typical of these are bridges, spikes and solder skips, excess solder defects being the most common. When problems happen, they tend to affect wide areas of the
24

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

board, and most test systems have difficulty in dealing with a number of shortcircuits on a single assembly. It is therefore common practice to introduce a rework stage immediately after wave soldering. If a cleaning process has been specified, this rework is usually carried out after cleaning, but may sometimes be done beforehand, provided that the board is not excessively contaminated by flux and that care is taken to avoid the flux residues hardening and becoming more difficult to remove. OVERALL INSPECTION BY THE TRAINED OPERATOR: In what is graphically referred to as view and touch-up, an operator both inspects and reworks the board. This is usually done under low magnification using a magnifier. A benefit is that there is direct feedback from inspector to rework operator on the location and type of defect! However, there are dangers in assigning dedicated operators to this task:

It builds into the company ethos the belief that wave soldering is intrinsically a low yield process, and that some element of rework is essential, whereas good designs and well-controlled processes will give good results without adding cost

Operators may attempt to produce a higher cosmetic standard of joint than is actually needed, in the process actually reducing the reliability of the joint by reworking it. This becomes more likely when the operator load is reduced by yield improvements.

2.4.2 WAVE SOLDERING MATERIALS

25

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

FLUX: Fluxes used for wave soldering (also referred to as preparation fluids) are usually low-viscosity liquids, and consist of a flux base combined with:

Activators Solvents (thinners) Surfactants and foaming agents (where needed).

There are four main categories of flux used in wave soldering:

Conventional rosin-based fluxes, which use a base of isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol or propan-2-ol, but usually referred to as IPA) and contain 520% of solids (rosin + activators). These fluxes will leave residues, which may or may not need to be removed, depending on their nature and properties

Similar low-solids fluxes that have a solids content in the range 15%. They may be based on rosin or synthetic colophony substitutes. Low-solids fluxes are designed not to require post-solder cleaning

Water-soluble fluxes, which contain active organic acid components in an alcohol base. The residue from these fluxes needs to be removed from the circuit assembly with a water wash

Water-based fluxes in which active acidic components are blended with water. Depending on the concentration of active components in the mixture, these fluxes may be classified either as no-clean or clean with water types.

In order to get consistent fluxing results, either the condition of the flux has to be maintained scrupulously (with foam, wave or brush methods) or virgin flux has to be used once only (with spray fluxing). Low solids and no-clean fluxes tend to be most difficult to maintain in consistent condition, which in turn means that the industry is moving towards sealed spray fluxing systems.

2.4.3 FLUXING

26

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

The correct quantity of flux has to be applied evenly to the entire surface to be soldered: unfluxed areas will not be soldered well, and over-thick deposits will lead to voids and solder balling. It is also desirable to flux the inside of any through holes, to aid wetting and solder pull-through. The in-line application of flux can be achieved by a number of different methods, of which the main current techniques of foam and spray fluxing are described below.
FOAM FLUXER: The foam fluxer was the type most commonly fitted in

automatic soldering lines. With this method a flux foam is generated by passing low pressure air (<1bar) through aerator tubes immersed in a tank of liquid flux. Despite their common name, most of these stones are in fact made of polypropylene! [Having said this, ceramic tubes are reported to be more reliable and easier to keep clean] The tubes, often fitted in pairs, are designed to break up the stream into tiny bubbles, and are covered by an open chimney that channels the foam upwards. The assembled board travels across the crest of this wave of foam, and a thin coating of flux is left on the board as the bubbles burst. SPRAY FLUXER: Most spray systems use a pressurised canister of flux feeding a spray head at which the required amount of material is atomised by air pressure or ultrasonic energy. A major benefit of a sealed system is that the flux is applied as received, so that there is no chance of contamination, and complicated flux controls are unnecessary. There are other advantages that outweigh the increased cost of the equipment compared to foam fluxers, and have made sealed spray systems popular, even as a retrofit option:

The quantity of flux deposited per unit area of board can be adjusted and is relatively well controlled

27

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

The area sprayed can be confined to the board, reducing flux usage and avoiding flux build-up on any carriers Running costs are substantially reduced, because there is minimal evaporation of flux thinner By applying a thinner layer, better wetting is achieved and there is less flux residue Long component wires (up to 18 mm) and high component density present no problem The technique works with a wide variety of fluxes. REMOVING EXCESS FLUX: Flux application is rarely totally even, and a fluxed board will usually drip surplus flux onto the preheater, reducing its efficiency and creating a fire hazard. There are two ways of removing excess flux, both of which are usually integrated into the fluxing unit:

A fixed brush the width of the machine, similar to those used in foam fluxers for foam support An adjustable angled air knife.

On current machines, the air knife is the option normally fitted, as this avoids physical contact with the board. A brush head is only suitable for assemblies that are not sensitive to such contact. An additional benefit is that the air knife will drive flux up into plated holes to enhance top side wetting. 2.4.4 PREHEAT: A freshly fluxed board cannot be wave soldered successfully unless its underside has been heated to a temperature of about 100C, the exact temperature depending on the flux being used. The reasons for preheating a board are:

To evaporate volatiles: Should excess flux solvent be left on a board through insufficient preheat application, a vapour blanket can form between the board and the solder wave. Needless to say this not only slows down the heat transfer between the molten solder and the board, but can also cause the solder

28

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

to spit. This is a major cause of small globules adhering to the underside of a board.

To start flux activation: Some fluxes like rosin, depend on heat (7080C) to become active at all. The level of activity of other types of flux also increases with increasing temperature.

To reduce thermal shock on the assembly: The thermal gradient between room ambient and soldering temperature is enough to cause serious damage to many materials, especially non-metals, and SM components should be specified to be compatible with wave soldering.

To meet the thermal demand of the assembly: When making joints with liquid solder, you need to have sufficient thermal energy available to ensure that the interface remains liquid. If you dip a totally cold surface into solder, you will first freeze a film of solidified solder that masks the surface but is not in intimate contact with it. This has the result that heat transfer is impaired, so that the joint area takes longer to reach a temperature high enough for the solder to wet. In all soldering processes, the parts to be assembled must be hot enough before solder is applied to avoid this happening.

29

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.5 OBJECTIVE 4

TOUCH-UP SECTION

2.5 TOUCH-UP SECTION:

30

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Touch-up Section of any firm is very important section because in this section we connect that components which we dont mount at the time of wave soldering i.e. In any PCB there are some components we can never be mount at the time of wave soldering. So, in this case the components are to the PCB in this Section. These components are like transformer, Connector, Toroids, Dumble etc. In spite of there are some components which are not available (less quant) at the time of wave soldering and some components which are not connect (soldered) correctly to the PCB, that components are also Soldering in the touch-up Section. There Are Five Sub-Section In the Touch-Up Section of Akshat Autoline Private Limited.
1) MOUNTING AND SOLDERING OF ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS: As

we Know in the mounting, we tapped that part of PCB in which their we dont required soldering means that parts which are soldered in the Touch-Up Section. So, here this tape is removed on the PCB and there additional components are soldered but before we discuss solder wire and proper technique of soldering and Desoldering.
SOLDER: Solder is an alloy (mix) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40%

lead. It melts at a temperature of about 2000C. Coating the surface with solder is called tinning because of the tin content of solder. Lead is poisonous and you shouls always wash your hands after using solder. The best size of solder for electronics is 22SWG. (SWG= Standard wire gauge). PROPER TECHNIQUE OF SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING: Soldering is the process of joining two metals together to form an electrically and mechanically secure bond using heat and a third metal alloy known as solder Poor soldered joints will fail, causing partial or complete failure of the circuit (CCT). NOTE: If part of a CCT fails, it could permanently damage a board, depending on the circuit design.
31

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

The first thing you will need is a soldering iron, which is the heat source used to melt solder. Irons of the 15W to 30W range are good for most electronics/printed circuit board work. Anything higher in wattage and you risk damaging either the component or the board. If you intend to solder heavy components and thick wire, then you will want to invest in an iron of higher wattage (40W and above) or one of the large soldering guns. The main difference between an iron and a gun is that an iron is pencil shaped and designed with a pinpoint heat source for precise work, while a gun is in a familiar gun shape with a large high wattage tip heated by flowing electrical current directly through it. Before use, a new soldering tip, or one that is very dirty, must be tinned. "Tinning" is the process of coating a soldering tip with a thin coat of solder. This aids in heat transfer between the tip and the component you are soldering, and also gives the solder a base from which to flow from.

Warm up the soldering iron or gun thoroughly. Make sure that it has fully come to temperature because you are about to melt a lot of solder on it. This is especially important if the iron is new because it may have been packed with some kind of coating to prevent corrosion. While the soldering iron is warming up, prepare a little space to work. Moisten a little sponge and place it in the base of your soldering iron stand or in a
32

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

dish close by. Lay down a piece of cardboard in case you drip solder (you probably will) and make sure you have room to work comfortably. Thoroughly coat the soldering tip in solder. It is very important to cover the entire tip. You will use a considerable amount of solder during this process and it will drip, so be ready. If you leave any part of the tip uncovered it will tend to collect flux residue and will not conduct heat very well, so run the solder up and down the tip and completely around it to totally cover it in molten solder. After you are certain that the tip is totally coated in solder, wipe the tip off on the wet sponge to remove the entire flux residue. Do this immediately so there is no time for the flux to dry out and solidify. You have just tinned your soldering tip. This must be done anytime you replace the tip or clean it so that the iron maintains good heat transfer. DESOLDERING In electronics, desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit for troubleshooting, for repair purposes, component replacement, and to salvage components. Electronic components are often mounted on a circuit board, and it is usually desirable to avoid damaging the circuit board, surrounding components, and the component being removed. Needed Tools To desolder components you will need the following tools:

Soldering iron (25 W or 30 W, dont use one above this power spec) Solder Desolder pump (a.k.a. solder sucker) Cleaning cloth Cleaning sponge Small flat-tip screwdriver Isopropilic Alcohol (Isopropanol), do not use regular alcohol Toothbrush

33

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Preparation Turn your soldering iron on and wait for it to get hot (three minutes, more or less). Wet the cleaning sponge and clean the soldering iron tip, making the movement. Make sure you repeat the movement until you has covered the entire tip. Some smoke will appear, dont worry, thats normal since the sponge is wet. During the desoldering process you may need to clean the soldering iron tip again. Every time you see the soldering iron tip with black parts it is time to clean it again. Locating the Components Terminals

The next step is to take a good look at the component you want to remove and locate its terminals. As we mentioned, a printed circuit board has two visible sides, The component side, where the components are located, and the solder side, where the components are soldered. So, we should locate the component on the component side and find its terminals on the solder side. We will use as an example an electrolytic capacitor from a PCB; we show. So, we will need to locate its terminals on the solder side of the PCB. Cleaning The Terminals First thing you need to do after finding the terminals of the component you want to desolder is to clean them with isopropilic alcohol (a.k.a. isopropanol) using a toothbrush. Just wet the toothbrush with isopropilic alcohol and brush the terminals. Do not use regular alcohol.

34

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Preparing to Desolder Now you will solder the component you want to remove. Yes, you read it right. You may be asking yourself why you should solder the component if you want to desolder it. Actually, this is a very powerful trick to allow old solder to be removed. What happens is that old solder (many years old) is very hard to be melted by the soldering iron and sucked by the solder sucker. So what you will do is to mix new solder with old solder. This mix is easier to melt and to be sucked. There is another trick to be used during this process. With the soldering iron tip you should push the terminal back and forth in order to make it lose from the border of the hole. Many times the terminal is stuck at the border of the border, making it hard to be removed. You should repeat this process at least two times in each direction. After swinging the terminal with the soldering iron tip, you should leave the terminal more or less in the middle of the hole. Desoldering the Component To desolder the component you will need to use the solder sucker (solder pump). You should arm it by pushing its lever down. To use it, you should press its button, which is a trigger: its lever will get back to its normal position sucking everything located near its tip, hence its name. It works like if it was a small vacuum cleaner. Here is the process: with one hand, you should melt the solder located at the components terminal, with the other, you should handle the solder sucker and aim its tip to the melted solder and press its button. The melted solder should be all gone.

35

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Here is a tip: never keep your solder sucker armed after the job is done. This will make it to lose its pressure. You also must pay attention to the correct way of handling the soldering iron, as we show in Figure 15. If you are left-handed you should invert the hands, of course. Repeating the Process It is very rare to suck all the solder at the first round. You will need to repeat the process. You may need to solder the component again in order to mix new solder with the old one, facilitating the solder to be melted and sucked. Another tip is to move the terminal back and forth with a small flat-tip screwdriver, in order to lose the terminal from the hole. Then you will need to repeat the process again until you see that the terminal is lose from the hole, you can see both terminals at the end of the process. Pay attention on how the terminals are centered and there is no solder holding the terminals to the holes. Removing the Component To remove the component, just pull it with your fingers. If it is still stuck, there are some additional tips depending on the component. If the component uses axial terminals (i.e., the terminals are in opposite sides of the component), you can hold the terminal on the component side of the board with a needlenose pliers and pull it while, on the solder side of the board, touching the terminal with the soldering iron tip. This kind of component is rare in boards used in computers, however. If the component uses radial terminals (i.e.,
36

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

the terminals are near at each other and placed on the same side of the component like in the electrolytic capacitor we used as example), you may push it at one of its side with your thumb while touching the corresponding terminal with the soldering iron tip on the solder side of the board. For example, if you are pushing the capacitor left to right, you should heat the terminal located on the left. With electrolytic capacitors you can never use pliers to pull them off, because usually when you do that the capacitor will pop on your hand while its terminals will remain soldered. With components that have a hard surface like transistors and integrated circuits you may use pliers, if you think it will be useful. For integrated circuits with DIP (Dual In Parallel) packaging, you can use a small flat-tip screwdriver to help you out. Just insert the screwdriver at one end of the integrated circuit (between the board and the component) and use it as a lever to lift the integrated circuit while heating the integrated circuit terminals on the same side as you put the screwdriver. Then do the same thing to the other side. Repeat that until you can fully remove the integrated circuit. Beware. You can only follow those tips after performing all the standard procedure we described in this tutorial. If you try to pull a component without sucking its solder the way we explained, you may pull together with the component the metallic tube from the hole. This metallic tube is what makes contact between all the printed circuit board layers. If you do that, you will destroy the board, since the contact between the layers will be gone. The Final Touch The final touch is cleaning the board. After removing the component the board will have a brown resin all around the component holes. To remove this brown resin, use a small flat-tip screwdrive. Dont push the screwdriver too hard or you will remove the board lacquer (green on the board we used in our example). Now the board is ready to get a new component in the place of the removed piece.

2) TOUCH-UP OF ASSEMBLED PCB:

37

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

In this process the components of the PCB are checked whether they are in proper level of PCB or not. If not then they are pushed down by heating the soldered points of that components. We should also solder the dry points and other bad solder points where soldering is not done well.

Touch-Up instruction of Reader Card: i. ii. iii. iv . v. v i. Check the proper soldering and touch-up dry soldered joints. Touch-up conical pads. Solder all unsoldered pads. Press and solder all the lifted components Touch-up for shorting pads. Cut the excess leegs of components like resistor, capacitor and transistors, use by the help of cutter.

Touch-Up instruction for Mother Card: i. ii. iii. iv . v. v i. Sold the reader card at its location in mother card. Check the proper soldering and touch-up dry solder joints. Touch up for conical joints. Solder all the unsolder pads. Press and solder all the lifted components Touch-up for shorting pads. and transistors, use by the help of cutter. v i i . Cut the excess legs of resistor, capacitor

Assembly of Mosfet with Heat Sink:

38

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Firstly apply Si-paste over the Mica-Sheet and then place it into Heat Sink Now apply some Si-paste over the back surface of Mosfet. Now place it over the Mica sheet then place a rubber washer and a metal washer and tight the screw both together until it become fixed. 3) Visual Inspection of Assembled PCB: Visula inspection is very important process of any firm. Visual-inspection of Assembled PCB is to be done by proper candidate who knows what is important for visual inspection of assembled PCB. Sequence of Visual Inspection i. ii. iii. First of all take the cards which are to be inspected. Check the cards by similarity methods in comparison with already inspected (approved) Sample card. Check Components iv . For right polarity of components. For right value of components. For right placing of components For right direction of components. For proper heights of components.

Check Soldering for removing soldering defects. Dry soldering. Shirtings Pin-Hole Unevenness of soldering Bending of legs Improper solder shape Open-holes Unwanted solder balls Track lift/break
39

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Extra Track

So, this all types of error are removed by the help of visual inspection. So, at time of visual inspection take passion and concentration for visual inspection. Each card after the visual inspection is sent to the next process that is called cleaning of cards. 4) Cleaning of Assembled PCB: As we know that when a cards goes to several process than there are several marks of dust taking place Means PCB become dirty. So, Iso Prophyl alcohol is a clear flammable liquid & completely miscible in water used. It is been widely used in the manufacture of Printed Circuit Boards, Cleaning of PCBs to remove flux residue. Also used as Glass Cleaners and as propellant in Aerosols. It has other innumerable applications for general Industrial cleaning purposes. After that we give air pressure on the card for making it dry. So, that dust is removed easily and card is properly cleaned. 5) Pretesting of Assembled PCB: This is also a very important process of any firm. In-protesting, we test the PCB card, because in this process there are several problems will be come. So, before sending this PCB to next Section first we pre-testing take place.

40

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.6 OBJECTIVE 6

TESTING SECTION

41

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.6 TESTING SECTION: As we know testing is the most important process for firm to check the quality and the fault in the product. Many techniques are used for testing in AKSHAT AUTOLINE PVT. Ltd. 1) VISUAL INSPECTION In the visual inspection, we check the components for right polarity, value, placing, direction and proper height. In soldering we check shorting, dry soldering, Pin-Hole etc. if comes any above problem in PCB is returned to the assembly section foe corrective action. Proper Technique of Testing 1.1. Visual inspection for checking right polarity, right placing and right values of components. ICs Diodes Capacitors Transistors Connector Zener diodes And all other types of components which are important to keep in particular way. 1.2. Visual inspection for shorts and dry soldering if any, remove it. 1.3. Find out the DC voltage power supply and check the impedance at the diode
42

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED 1.4. Range of multimeter. When the positive lead of multimeter is connected with

the positive of power supply and negative lead of multimeter is connected with negative of power supply. When the positive lead of multimeter is connected with negative of power supply and vice-versa , the impedence is to be near about a diode drop. It is ok then circuit has not any terminal short circuit.
1.5. Dont give high-voltage direct to the circuit but increase the voltage from low

to high up to the required value of voltage. 1.6. If there is not any type of misbehavior of circuit we try to do other test of circuit. 2) PRE-TESTING After visual inspection PCB is checked electrically Its output and tunning of potentiometer is carried out to get specified output the output ranges are checked and confirm its value within the limits. In the test report output limit is given according to that we check the output. 3) Burn-In test and CRO Test: Under this test the output of Each PCB is monitored on oscilloscope to datas like ripples, rise and fail time and frequencies. After CRO test PCB is kept for minimum 2hrs. after than output variations are checked and confirm to its limit. 4) Load Testing and Input Range Check: After endurance test ouput of each PCB is checked at output load variation short circuit, 40% input voltage variation, Drop protection test , open circuit and cut off voltage test. Reading of these test are noted and confirmed to be within specified limits. 5) Safety Precaution: i) ii) .
43

The entire unit is put on back light sheet. All the parts of the body keep away from unit

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

iii) iv)

KEEP soldering irons in their protective STAND when not in use. Always CUT wire LEADS so the clipped wire falls on the table top and not toward others.

v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) xii)

DO NOT TOUCH the tip end of a soldering iron to check for heat. AVOID an EARTH GROUND when working with AC powered units. ONLY work with powered units WHEN NECESSARY for troubleshooting. AVOID SKIN CONTACT with chemicals. Avoid PINCHING wires when putting equipment back together. Use a HEAT SINK when soldering temperature-sensitive components. NEVER SOLDER a circuit that has the power applied. DOUBLE CHECK circuits for proper connections and polarity prior to applying the power.

xiii)

When soldering a multi-pin component, avoid excessive heating to one area of the component; DO NOT go from pin to pin in a straight line.

xiv)

Keep the INTENSITY on oscilloscopes as LOW as possible when in use and all the way down when not in use to avoid burning out the screen.

6) Final Testing: This test is done after the burn in test and the load test. In this the mounted PCB is checked on potentiometer device so the value which is set is same or changed and also to check if there is any short on the PCB. This final test is done in the supplied load and the output voltage which was set during the Pre-Testing. 7) Varnish and RTV: This varnish is turn at soldering side of PCB to shine the PCB and dont effect of moisture and RTV (RTV silicone rubber) is used in some components so that these are not loose, that component fix on its place.
8) C.R.C of PCB (Conformal coating) 44

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Conformal coating is a protective non conductive dielectric layer that is applied onto the printed circuit board assembly to protect the electronic assembly from damage due to contamination, salt spray, moisture, fungus, dust and corrosion caused by harsh or extreme environments. It is usually used in products that are used in outdoor environments where heat and moisture are prevalent. Coating also prevents damage from rough handling, installation, reduction of mechanical and thermal stress. It also prolong the lifeof the product during its operation. At the same time, it helps to increase the dielectric strength between conductors enabling the design of the PCB to be more compact and small. It also acts to protect circuitry and components from abrasionand solvents. PROCESS OF CONFORMAL COATING Before coating a printed circuit board, it must be cleaned and de-moisturized within 8 hours of conformal coating. De-moisturizing can be done in an oven with temperature set to 88 Celcius to 98 Celcius for 4 hours. Methods of coatinginclude spraying, brushing or dipping. Chemical vapor deposition is used to coat with paraxylene. Steps of a spray coating are as listed below. a) Board is cleaned. b) Protected areas like terminal pins, connectors are masked off or removed. c) Coating is applied using a spray process on both sides of the PCB and its edges. d) Coating is cured using oven according to the coating type. e) Masking is removed and any removed parts are reassembled. f) Board undergoes full production testing to ensure. Functionality of board is not affected by the process. After this Testing Sectiopn our PCB goes to the next Section i.e. FQC Section(Final Quality Control).

45

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.7 OBJECTIVE 7

SMT SECTION
(SURFACE MOUN TECHNOLOGY)

46

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.7 SMT SECTION (SURFACE MOUNT TECHNOLOGY) SMT section is very important section because in this section we use small size chip type of resistors, capacitors, transistors etc. These are four Sub-sections. You will understand the application of solder paste SMT process from the Three main points of the view. Materials Machine and Method Defects and Trouble shooting In SMT process some materials are used PCB (Print Circuit Board) Components Solder Paste Adhesives Cleaners

Components are: Chip SOT Melf SOP QFN PLCC etc.

47

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

These components are used in SMT process. 1) Solder Paste/ Glue Printing on PCB: In printing we use solder paste and glue. According to the card we select the solder paste. PASTE POWDER TYPE SELECTION MESH SIZE 75-45 45-25 38-25 25-20 15-5 COUNT (-200) (+325) (-400) (+500) (-500) (+500) (-500) (+635) N/A FINE PITCH CIRCLE (MM) 0.65 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 APERATURE(MM) 0.65 0.5 0.3 0.15 0.05

POWDER TYPE i ii iii iv v

I.

SOLDER PASTE HANDLING: Long term storage of solder paste is best achieved by refrigeration 0-80c (32-46 F).the material should be stored edictally upon receipt.

II.

Typically self life is four months verify products technical bulletin for exceptions.

III.

Solder paste never be stored at room temperature 19-250c. room temperature stability is intended to provide manufacturing flexibility after storing the product.

IV.
V.

Paste should always be used on a first in first out (FIFO) basis. Solder paste should be allowed to reach room temperature 19-25oc without force heating. We recommend and a period of 3-4 hrs. of out of refrigeration before the paste is used.

48

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Work on printer we remind some important parameter of printing. Important Parameter of Printing Snap off Printing speed Release speed Well centered

SNAP OFF: Snap off means distance between PCB and Stencil should be Zero. PRINTING SPEED: Unit of Printing speed mm/sec. It is important that squeeze print the solder paste which speed depend on the card. RELEASE SPEED: When we print the solder paste after that stensil stand upward that time we carefully release PCB otherwise solder paste will be disturb from its place. WELL CENTERED: For print, it is important that card is well centered otherwise solder paste is not deposit on its right place. Remember these parameters some defects comes in printing. These are: Scrapping (scooping) Excess paste Dog ear Smearing Insufficient Deposit 2) Pick And Place the Components:
49

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

When we print the solder paste or glue on the PCB after that components mount in it. In this we use pick-place machine. In this process we enter the card in machine and mount the components on it. In the firm we use two model of Pick-place Machine. I. One is that, which mount the component one by one. This machine model No- KJ-22 this machine consume high time. We lead the feader both front and back side 20-20.
II.

Second is that, which speed is 11000 /hr. these are six head which 6 components placed at same time. There are use 80 feeders front and back sides 40-40. After use pick-place machine when PCB comes out from the machine we check that component move on its right place because mounting time some components disturb on its fix place. PCB transfer to the next section before we visit inspection of the card. We check some point Shifting Missing Tombstone Wrong Direction Wrong Value

Because we work on machine. So, defects come in the card.

50

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

3) Reflow (Soldering melting on components): The reflow process consists of applying a eutectic solder paste to a circuit board, placing devices onto the paste, and then conveying the board through an oven with successive heating elements of varying temperatures. In the oven, each board typically goes through the following stages: Gradual preheating Brief duration at high soldering temperature Controlled cooling process The maximum temperature, the rate of heating, the time a device spends at each temperature, controlled heating, and controlled cooling are critical parameters for effective soldering. You should properly and fully characterize any new PCB design to achieve good reflow results. The graph in figure: illustrates the four basic stages of a reflow oven:

REFLOW STAGES In the preheat stage, the solder paste dries while its more volatile ingredients evaporate. After preheating, the leads should be kept at about 150 C for one to two minutes so the flux in the paste can clean the bonding surfaces properly. During the
51

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

flux activation stage, the solder on all areas of the board should be roughly the same temperature. The devices enter the reflow stage when the temperature increases at a rate of 1 to 3 C per second. To prevent warping, bridging, and cold solder joints, keep the package body above the solder's melting point (183 C) for at least 60 seconds. The device body temperature which may vary from the temperature of the leads by as much as 15 C should not exceed 220 C. The package should be within 5 C of the actual peak temperature for 10 to 30 seconds. Small devices with a volume of less than 350 mm3 will heat up more than larger packages. These devices have a maximum temperature rating of 240 C. 4) VISUAL INSPECTION OF THE ASSEMBLED PCB: After the soldering some defects comes in it. So, in this we check the components. Defects of Visual inspection Tomb Storing Bridging Missing Wrong value Wrong direction Shifting

These are points we check at the time of visual inspection and correct that problem. This is process of top side PCB where we use SMT process and throw whole technology both. But some PCB are that which we use THT process on the top and SMT process use bottom than we cannot use solder paste we use glue to mount the components. So, that this is the process of SMT section. After that we transfer PCB in next section i.e. - FQC section. Where card check and then mount other components from assembly section.

52

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.8 OBJECTIVE 8

FQC SECTION
(FINAL QUALITY CONTROL)

53

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.8 FQC (Final Quality Control) As we know FQC (final quality control) is the most important procedure for a firm to check the quality and after that cards are dispatched. There are four sub-section in the FQC section of Akshat Autoline Pvt Ltd. 1) FQC Physically 2) FQC Electrically 3) Stickers and Marking 4) Packing
FQC Physically: In this we detect those faults which are not detected by

meters. This detection is very critical and most important. Physically faults are like dry, shorting, liftings, track problems, pin-holes, uneven solder wrong values, wrong directions, wrong place, missing components and green masking. These are checked and correct them.
FQC Electrically: After physically test we check electrically in this the reading

of all the outputs are noted before handle over to the store. Outputs are checked according to the test report.
Stickers And Marking: Card checked by physically and electrically we post

the stickers of tested OK and AKSHAT AUTOLINE Pvt. Ltd. And marked on it. After this the PCB is sent to the packing department.
Packing: There are various steps in packing and dispatching cards. System

packing lab is the area where packing material is inspected before dispatch exchange of cable etc. packing is the art which provide the protection for the pack product and helps in the transportation.

54

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.9 OBJECTIVE 9

SWITCHING MODE POWER SUPPLY

55

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.9 SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply) is an electronic power supply unit (PSU) that incorporates a switching regulator in order to provide the required output voltage. An SMPS is actually a power converter that transmits power from a source (e.g., a battery or the electrical power grid) to a load (e.g., a personal computer) with ideally no loss. The function of the converter is to provide a reliable output voltage often at a different level than the input voltage. When mechanical shafts are rotating, a simple gear train can deliver power to a shaft at one speed from a shaft at a different speed. However, fluid power can be converted from a source with one pressureflow ratio to another pressureflow level without rotation by using the switching action of a hydraulic ram. Similarly, when AC power is being delivered from an AC source, a simple transformer can be used to convert power at one voltage level to power at another voltage level with low losses. Likewise, the switched action of an SMPS can convert DC power with low losses. 2.9.1 PRINCIPLE In an SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse-width modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. Typically, the spectral density of these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such, switching transients, like ripple, introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered with small LC filters. CLASSIFICATION SMPS can be classified into four types according to the input and output waveforms:
AC in, DC out: rectifier, off-line converter input stage DC in, DC out: voltage converter, or current converter, or DC to DC converter AC in, AC out: frequency changer, cycloconverter, transformer DC in, AC out: inverter

REASONS FOR CHOOSING SMPS

Size and weight: Smaller due to higher operating frequency (typically 50 kHz1 MHz)

Output voltage: Any voltages available. Voltage varies little with load.

56

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

Efficiency, heat, and power dissipation: Output is regulated using duty cycle control, which draws only the power required by the load. In all SMPS topologies, the transistors are always switched fully on or fully off.

Complexity: Consists of a controller IC, one or several power transistors and diodes as well as a power transformer, inductors, and filter capacitors.

Radio frequency interference: EMI/RFI produced due to the current being switched on and off sharply. Therefore, EMI filters and RF shielding are needed to reduce the disruptive interference.

Electronic noise at the output terminals: Noisier due to the switching frequency of the SMPS. An unfiltered output may cause glitches in digital circuits or noise in audio circuits.

Electronic noise at the input terminals: Very low cost SMPS may couple electrical switching noise back onto the mains power line, causing interference with A/V equipment connected to the same phase. Non power-factor-corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic distortion.

Power factor: Ranging from low to medium since a simple SMPS without PFC draws current spikes at the peaks of the AC sinusoid.

Risk of equipment damage: Can fail so as to make output voltage very high. Can in some cases destroy input stages in amplifiers if floating voltage voltage, exceeds transistor breakdown causing the base-emitter

transistor's gain to drop and noise levels to increase. Mitigated by good failsafe design. Failure of a component in the SMPS itself can cause further damage to other PSU components; can be difficult to troubleshoot. EXPLANATION:
57

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

SMPS the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collectoremitter region of a pass transistor in its active mode).

A SMPS regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltageout/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted. In contrast, a switched-mode power supply regulates either output voltage or current by switching ideal storage elements, like inductors and capacitors, into and out of different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements (e.g., transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when "closed" and carry no current when "open", and so the converters can theoretically operate with 100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated heat). For example, the DC component (i.e., the time average) at one terminal of an inductor will match the DC component at the other terminal. If a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the corresponding electrical ground are placed in series and the switch is driven by a square wave, the voltage waveform measured across the switch will also be a square wave. Because the inductor ensures that the average value of the output waveform matches the DC source voltage, the peak amplitude of the voltage across the switch will be twice the voltage of the input. If a diode-and-capacitor combination are placed in parallel to the switch, the peak voltage can be stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with voltage higher than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This so-called boost converter acts like a step-up transformer for DC signals. TESTING The testing of switch mode power supply circuit is very simple:

58

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED Visual Testing: This inspection is done to check the correct lay out, soldering

quality and tracks of the PCB. If any of the above is not satisfactory the PCB return to the Assembly section for correction.
Pre-Testing and Tuning: After visual inspection PCB is checked electrically

for its output and tuning of potential meter is carried out to gets specified output. Output ranges are checked and confirmed its value are within limits.
CRO-Test: This test is done to get monitored the output of all PCB on the

oscilloscope to confirm the correct wave shapes & end datas like ripple rise & fall time and frequencies.

59

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.10 OBJECTIVE 2.10

ELECTRONIC BALLAST

60

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

2.10 Electronic ballast circuits have recently undergone a revolution in sophistication from the early bipolar designs of ten years ago. This has been brought about partly by the advent of power MOSFET switches with their inherent advantages in efficiency, but mainly by incentives and utility rebate programs sponsored by domestic and foreign governments. New IEC requirements have also spurred the design of high power factor ballasts and are starting to impose further restrictions on crest factor, ballast factor and life Until power semiconductors allowed for todays innovations in ballast design, coil and core fluorescent ballasts were manufactured in large quantities by a few key suppliers. Now there are hundreds of electronics companies that are in the ballast business and more are joining their ranks all the time. Most electronic ballasts use two power switches in a totem pole (half-bridge) topology and the tube circuits consist of L-C series resonant circuits with the lamp(s) across one of the reactances. Figure 1 shows this basic topology. In this circuit the switches are power MOSFETs driven to conduct alternately by windings on a current Trans -former. The primary of this transformer is driven by the current in the lamp circuit and operates at the resonant frequency of L-C. Unfortunately, the circuit is not self starting and must be pulsed by the DIAC connected to the gate of the lower MOSFET. After the initial turn-on of the lower switch, oscillation sustains and a high frequency square wave (30 - 80 kHz) excites the L-C resonant circuit. The sinusoidal voltage across C is magnified by the Q at resonance and develops sufficient amplitude to strike the lamp, which then provides flicker-free illumination. This basic circuit has been the standard for electronic ballasts for many years, but has the following inherent shortcomings: 1) Not self starting 2) Poor switch times 3) Labor intensive torroidal current transformer 4) Not amenable to dimming 5) Expensive to manufacture in large quantity.

61

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

EXPLANATION: Electronic Ballast convert 50 Hz frequency to more then 27 KHZ frequency. Highfrequency (HF) operation of >20KHz, fluorescent lamp efficiency is increased by 10% i.e. conversion rate of UV radiation increases. Thus advantage of high frequency operation is that the lamp requires less input power for the same light output as it operates at high frequency. This leads to an energy saving. Thus a typical fluorescent lamp of standard four feet lamp and 26mm diameter delivers lumen of 2450. This lamp at 50 Hz consumes 36W. The same lumen are available at 32W with frequency > 20KHz. Thus lamp lumen per watt efficiency at 50Hz is 68 Lumen per watt and with high frequency is 76.5 Lumen per watt. Similarly, the current requirement for same lamp at 50Hz is 430mA and with high frequency it reduces to 320mA for same lumen. This leads to reduced heat and stress of lamp. Also losses in the ballast are as low as 3-4W against 10- 15W in the case of magnetic ballast. In electronic ballast additional energy savings are possible by control features of electronic designs. Obviously, the resistive ballast incurs large power loss and significantly reduces the system efficiency. Fortunately, most discharge lamps are operated in alternating-current (AC) circuits so that inductive or capacitive impedance can be used to provide current limitation. AC operation also balances the wearing of two electrodes and maintains a longer lamp life. The inductor ballast represent the conventional ballasting approaches, and is known as magnetic ballasts. Magnetic ballasts are operated in 50/60Hz line frequency. Every half line cycle, they

62

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

re-ignite the lamp and limit the lamp current. Although magnetic ballasts have the advantages of low cost and high reliability, there exist at least three fundamental performance limitations due to the low-frequency operation. First of all, they are usually large and heavy. Second, the time constant of the discharge lamps is around one millisecond, which is shorter than the half line period (8.3ms for 60Hz line cycle), so the arc extinguishes at line voltage zero crossing, and then is re-ignited. Figure shows the measured voltage and current waveforms of an F40T12 lamp operating at 60 Hz. After every line zero crossing, the lamp voltage waveform has a re-strike voltage peak; during the rest of the cycle, the voltage does not vary much. This causes two big problems: The lamp electrode wearing is significant, and the lamps output light is highly susceptible to the line voltage, which results in an annoying visible flickering. Finally, there is no efficient and costeffective way to regulate the lamp power. These drawbacks led to studying the use of high-frequency AC current to drive the discharge lamps. High-frequency operation not only results in significant ballast volume and weight reduction, but also improves the performance of the discharge lamp. Figure shows the measured voltage and current waveforms of the lamp operating with the same current level but at high frequency. The voltage and current waveforms are almost proportional with the same v-i characteristic of a resistor, although this resistor is not linear and varies as a function of time and lamp current. The re-strike voltage peak no longer exists. The recombination of ions and electrons in the discharge is very low. No re-ignition energy is needed. The lamp electrodes also sustain the electron density during the transition from cathode to anode function, resulting in

63

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

additional energy savings. Therefore, the gas discharge itself is more efficient in highfrequency operation, contributing to an increased efficacy. Figure shows the curve of fluorescent lamp efficacy versus lamp operating frequency. It shows that the efficacy increases by about 10% when the operating frequency is above 20 kHz. Other discharge lamps have a similar characteristic. The high-frequency operation also makes the lamp start easily and reliably, and eliminates audible noise and flickering effect. In addition, due to the advances in power electronics, power regulation can be easily incorporated into the ballast, making intelligence and energy management feasible. Essentially, the high-frequency electronic ballast is an AC/AC power converter, converting frequency linepower

from the utility line to a high-frequency AC power in order to drive the discharge lamp. Figure shows the circuit diagram of typical high-frequency electronic ballasts. The AC/DC rectifier contains four diodes and one bulk capacitor. This simple rectification scheme is still widely used because of its lower cost. However, it has very poor line side Power Factor (PF) and large Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The low PF increases the reactive power and the large THD pollute the utility line. Figure 8a shows the line voltage and line current of typical electronic ballasts without any Power Factor Correction (PFC) circuitry. In order to solve this problem, rectifiers with PFC function is used such as Active PFC rectifier (eg. Boost converter) or Passive PFC circuitry (eg. LC filter). line voltage and line current of the ballast with an Active PFC rectifier. HIGH POWER FACTOR The circuit is a passive power factor improvement (no active boost circuit) and is applicable to low power ballasts such as compact fluorescent. It suffers from the

64

AKSHAT AUTOLINE PRIVATE LIMITED

disadvantage of low DC rectified output voltage and results in a crest factor of about 2. Note that a crest factor standard not exceeding 1.7 is recommended by fluorescent lamp manufacturers to realize the maximum life projections of 20,000 hours for these lamps. If the ballast delivers a pure sine wave of voltage and current to the lamp, the crest factor would be 2 . In an electronic ballast, a DC bus voltage is derived from a mains frequency rectifier and is filtered by means of an electrolytic capacitor.

The 2x line frequency ripple voltage on the DC bus gives rise to additional ripple currents in the lamp. Even if the lamp current is sinusoidal (crest factor 1.414) the mains-related ripple adds to the peak current value and causes the crest factor to increase. Referring to the waveforms, it is clear that the ripple voltage amplitude is VP/2 which results in a crest factor of approximately 2. What is needed, therefore, is a power factor correction using active control to minimize current ripple and stabilize the DC bus voltage. Boost regulator correction cir-cuits have become popular for off-line power supplies and several semiconductor manufacturers supply control ICs for this topology. For electronic ballasts, however, the sophistication of these control chips may not be necessary and it is relatively simple to provide power factors exceeding 0.95 by a simple boost topology operating at a fixed 50% duty cycle. Using the IR2151 driver it is also possible to provide dimming merely by changing the duty cycle and, hence, the boost ratio.

65