EIE 332 Electromagnetics

Lecturer: Room no.: Phone no.: e-mail: Dr. W.Y.Tam DE604 27666265 enwytam@polyu.edu.hk

web: www.en.polyu.edu.hk/~em/mypage.htm Normal Office hour: 9:00am 5:30pm (Mon-Fri) Acknowledgement: Part of the handouts are developed by Mr. K.Y. Tong.
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Assessment
Examination (open book) 60% Practical Two Mini-projects 20% Reflection and Transmission of a Plane Wave Incident on a Dielectric Slab Microstrip Patch Antennas Test Week 6 and Week 11 Short Quizzes 5% During lecture and tutorial sessions Assignments 5% 10%

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Textbook
Textbook D. K. Cheng, Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics, Addison Wesley, 1993. Reference D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, Addison Wesley, 1989.

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Introduction Why study Electromagnetics? High speed circuits - Microwave and high speed digital circuits Antenna - Wireless communication Optical communication - Light propagation in fibres Electromechanical machines Electromagnetic interference and compatibility

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Electromagnetics started with the experimental observation of (i) forces between electric charges; (ii) forces between conductors carrying electric currents In free space (vacuum),
+Q -Q

.
d

F =

4 o d 2

where o is permittivity of free space

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I1

Force I2

Attraction force between two parallel wires with length L carrying currents I1, I2 in the same direction:

o I1 I 2 ( L ) 2 F = 4 R 2
where o is the permeability of free space

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 Introduce the concept of FIELD to facilitate the manipulation of the above forces Electric field - generated by charges Magnetic field - generated by currents Determine the forces acting on charges and currents placed in electric and magnetic FIELDS

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Reference Transmission line (3 Weeks) Chapter 8.1 Overview Chapter 8.2 Generalized Transmission-line Equations Chapter 8.3 Transmission-line Parameters Chapter 8.4 Wave Characteristics on an Infinite Transmission Line Chapter 8.5 Wave Characteristics on Finite Transmission Lines Chapter 8.6 The Smith Chart Chapter 8.7 Transmission-line Impedance Matching

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II. TRANSMISSION LINE 2.1 Introduction Any pair of wires and conductors carrying currents in opposite directions form transmission lines. Transmission lines are essential components in any electrical/ communication system. They include coaxial cables, two-wire lines, microstrip lines on printed-circuit-boards (PCB). (Note that at very high frequencies, any conductor on a PCB must be considered as transmission lines.) The characteristics of transmission lines can be studied by the electric and magnetic fields propagating along the line. But in most practical applications, it is easier to study the voltages and currents in the line instead.
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ground shield

Coaxial cable

Two-wire transmission line

conductor

dielectric substrate

Microstrip line
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Magnetic field Electric field

Cross-section of a coaxial cable showing the electric and magnetic fields

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2.2 Revision of Travelling Waves The equation

v = A cos( t z )

represents a wave travelling in the +z direction with constant amplitude A, where =2f, =2/. Any point of constant phase P advances towards the +z direction with a phase velocity dz = dt Similarly a wave represented by

v = A cos( t + z )
travels in the -z direction.

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Often the amplitude of a wave varies exponentially with distance. The equation for such a wave is:

v = Ae z cos ( t z )
If is positive, the wave amplitude is attenuated exponentially as it travels in the +ve z direction. If is negative, the wave amplitude increases exponentially as it travels in the +ve z direction.

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Phasor representation: The cosine function is often replaced by the complex exponential function.

Ae z cos ( t z ) Ae z e j ( t z )
The wave phasor V is written as:

V = Ae
after dropping the term

j z

j t

Ae z is the magnitude, and -z is the phase angle.

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2.3 Voltage and Current Waves in general transmission lines

Equivalent circuit of an element section (length z) of the transmission line: L, R are the distributed inductance and resistance (per unit length) of the conductor; C,G are the distributed capacitance and conductance (per unit length) of the dielectric between the conductors.
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Relation between instantaneous voltage v and current i at any point along the line:

v i = Gv C t z i v = Ri L z t
For periodic signals, Fourier analysis can be applied and it is more convenient to use phasors of voltage V and current I.

V = ( R + j L )I z I = ( G + j C )V z
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Decoupling the above equations, we get

2V 2z 2I 2z = 2V = 2I

where is called the propagation constant, and is in general complex.

( R + j L )( G + j C )

= + j
is the attenuation constant, is the phase constant.

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The general solutions of the second-order, linear differential equation for V, I are : + z + z

V = V I = I

+V

e z + I e +z

V+, V-, I+, I- are constants (complex phasors). The terms containing e-z represent waves travelling in +z direction; terms containing e+z represent waves travelling in -z direction. Since

= e

j z

determines the attenuation along the line, and determines

the phase shift along the line.
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It can be shown that the ratio of voltage to current is given by:

V+ I
+

= Zo

V I

= Zo

where Zo is the characteristic impedance of the line, given by

Zo = R + j L G + j C

The current I can now be written as:

V + z V + z I = e e Zo Zo
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2.4 Lossless transmission lines In lossless transmission lines, the distributed conductor resistance R and dielectric conductance G are both zero.In this case the characteristic impedance is real and is equal to:

Zo =

L C

The propagation constant is also imaginary with:

=0 = j = j LC

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Expressing the waves in time-domain,

v (t , z ) = V i (t , z ) = V
+ +

cos ( t z ) + V cos ( t z ) V

cos ( t + z ) cos ( t + z )

Zo

Zo

The velocity with which a front of constant phase travels is called the phase velocity up. In any transmission line, In lossless transmission line, Therefore

up =

= LC
1 LC
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= up =

In a coaxial cable,

2 o r C= b ln a

o b L= = ln I 2 a
So

up =

o r o

o permittivity of vacuum r relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of dielectric o permeability of vacuum

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Example: Calculate the characteristic resistance Ro of a RG-58U coaxial cable which has a inner conductor of radius a=0.406 mm and a braided outer conductor with radius b=1.553 mm. Assume the dielectric is polyethylene with dielectric constant of 2.26.

Solution: The distributed capacitance and inductance of the cable can be calculated to be: L = 0.268 H/m C = 93.73 pF/m

Ro =

L / C = 53 .47
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2.5 Reflections of time-harmonic waves: Consider a transmission line of length l terminated by an arbitrary impedance ZL:
I Z in
+ V _

Zo

ZL

z=-l

z=0

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At the load z=0, the voltage and current phasors can be written as: V (0) = V + + V 1 I (0) = V + V Zo

Load impedance ZL=V(0)/I(0), so we can express the ratio of the backward to forward voltages as:

V V+

Z L Zo = Z L + Zo

L is called the load reflection coefficient if we consider V+ as the incident wave and V- as the reflected wave.

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One important effect of a transmission line is to transform the load impedance. Lets find the input impedance looking into the transmission line of length l.

V (l) Z in ( l ) I (l) V + e l + LV + e l Z in ( l ) = Z o + l V e LV + e l
Replacing L in terms of Zo and ZL,

Z L + Z o tanh( l ) Z in ( l ) = Z o Z o + Z L tanh( l )
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In lossless transmission line, = j giving:

Z L + jZ o tan( l ) Z in ( l ) = Z o Z o + jZ L tan( l )
There are interesting applications when the length l is multiple of /4. Example: Calculate the input impedance of a 1 m length of cable that is terminated in a load impedance of ZL=20. Assume that the characteristic impedance of the line is 50, its dielectric constant is 1.5 and the frequency of operation is 50MHz.

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Solution:

up

= 2 f

o r o = 1 . 28

tan l = tan 1 . 28 = 3 . 37 20 + j 50 3 . 37 Z in ( l ) = 50 50 + j 20 3 . 37
= (87 .7 + j 50 .2 )

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2.6 Standing wave ratio In a lossless line, the amplitude of the forward (or backward) voltage remains constant as the wave propagates along z, only with a shift in the phase angle. The superimposition of the forward wave and backward wave results in a standing wave pattern. In a standing wave, there are positions at the line where the amplitude of the resultant voltage has maximum and minimum.
|V|max |V|min

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 The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is the ratio of the maximum and minimum voltage magnitudes. The distance between two successive maximums is equal to /2.

VSWR =

V V

max min

1 + L 1 L

VSWR is useful to find the maximum voltage magnitude on the line due to reflection from the load. If Vinc is the incident voltage on the load,

max

= 2 Vinc

VSWR VSWR + 1
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2.7 Smith Chart: a convenient graphical means of determining voltages along transmission lines. It is essentially a plot of the complex reflection coefficient (-l) at a point with input impedance Zin(-l) looking into the end of the transmission line.

Z in ( l ) Z o (l ) = Z in ( l ) + Z o
Let the real and imaginary parts of (-l) be r , i respectively, and z be the input impedance normalized by Zo.
Z in (l ) z= = r + jx Zo z 1 = z +1
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After some manipulations, it can be shown that:

r 1 2 r + i = r +1 1+ r 1 1 2 (r 1) + i = x x
2 2 2 2

These equations define family of circles on the ( r , i ) plane corresponding to constant resistance r, and constant reactance x. The reflection coefficient at a point on the line with normalized input impedance z = r+jx is then the vector ending at the intersection point between the constant r and x circles.

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 In a lossless transmission line, there is no attenuation and a wave travelling along the line will only have a phase shift. So the reflection coefficient (-l) at a point of distance l from the load at the end of the line is related to the load reflection coefficient L by:

( l ) = L e j 2 l
It means the reflection coefficient has same magnitude but only a phase shift of 2 l if we move a length l along the line ( rotates clockwise on the Smith Chart when moving away from the load and anti-clockwise when moving towards the load).
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Im (-l) L 2l Re constant VSWR

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Example: (a) If the reflection coefficient at a location on a transmission line of 100 characteristic impedance is = 0.4+j0.2, use Smith chart to determine the input impedance Z at that location. (b) A load of ZL = 50-j25 is attached to the above line. Use Smith chart to find the input impedance at a distance l = 0.4 from the load. Solution: (a) = 0.4+j0.2 = 0.45exp(j26.56o) Find the above point Q in the Smith chart. It corresponds to the intersection of r=2.0 and x=1.0 circles.
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.Q .P1

.P2
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Therefore the input impedance Zin=100 (2+j1.0) = 200 + j100

(b) The normalized load impedance zL= 0.5-j0.25 is represented by the point P1. To find Z at a distance l= 0.4 rotate the point P1 to point P2 clockwise through a wavelength of 0.4. We find z=0.952-j0.77 Therefore the input impedance is 95.2-j77.0 after multiplying by the characteristic impedance of 100.

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END

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A transmission line always has two conductors and a dielectric between the two conductors. The conductors have a resistance and inductance in series. The dielectric has a capacitance and resistance in parallel. But all the resistance, inductance and capacitance are distributed in nature. It means we have to first represent a small elemental section of the line by the above equivalent circuit, and then assume the complete line is represented by an infinite number of such small elemental section connected together.

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You should be able to derive these equations from the equivalent circuit if you remember the following formulae for voltage/current in inductors and capacitors: In time domain, In an inductor, In a capacitor, Using phasors, In an inductor, In a capacitor,

di (t ) v (t ) = L dt dv (t ) i (t ) = C dt
V = j LI I = j CV
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The general expression for a travelling wave with a timevarying amplitude is:

v = Ae z cos( t z )
so that

In complex representation, the cos function is replaced by

j ( t z )

v = Ae

j ( t z )

= Ae

( + j ) z

j t

In phasors, the term

t e jis understood, so

V = Ae

( + j ) z

= Ae

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V = V + e z + V e z V = ( R + j L ) I z
Therefore we can write I as:

1 + z z I = V e + V e R + j L
= I + e z + I e z
On simplification, we can find I+, I- and hence the ratio of V+/I+, V-/I-.

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Let Vinc be the forward voltage incident on the load (at z=0), and the load reflection coefficient

L = L e j

The voltage at any point on the transmission line is:

V = Vinc e jz + Vinc L e jz

= Vinc e

j z

+ L e

j ( z + )

At maximum voltage points,

max

z = z + + 2 n = Vinc (1 + L )
z = z + + + 2 n

At minimum voltage points,

min

= Vinc (1 L

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EHF (30-300GHz) Radar, radio astronomy, remote sensing SHF (3-30GHz) Radar, satellite, aircraft navigation UHF (300MHz-3GHz) TV, radar, microwave oven, mobile phone VHF (30-300MHz) TV, FM, mobile radio, air traffic control HF (3-30MHz) Short wave broadcasting MF (300kHz-3MHz) LF (30-300kHz) VLF (3-30kHz) ULF (300Hz-3kHz) AM Weather broadcast for air navigation Navigation and position location Audio signals on telephone

SLF (30-300Hz) Ionospheric sensing, submarine communication ELF (3-30Hz) Detection of metal objects
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