Computers: Tools for an Information Age Chapter 1 Computers: Tools for an Information Age Forging a Computer-Based Society y y Traditional

Cornerstones of Economy: y

Many processes can be more efficiently controlled by computers

Decision Making o Helps decision makers sort out financial, geographical, and logistical factors

Cost Reduction o Helps hold down costs of labor, energy and paperwork

o o o y

Land Labor Capital

Computer System Components y Hardware o y Software o Instructions that tell the hardware what to do Equipment associated with the system

New Economic Element: o Information

What Is Computer Literacy? y y y Awareness Awareness y Knowledge

People o Computer programmer: writes software User: purchases and uses software  Often called end-user

Interaction o

Becoming aware of the importance, versatility, and pervasiveness of computers in our society

Hardware: The Basic Components of a Computer y What is a Computer? Four primary components: o o Input devices Processor Output devices Storage

Knowledge y y y Interaction o y Knowing how to use computers for some simple applications o Learning what computers are and how they work Learning some technical jargon

Fundamental Characteristics y y y y Speed Reliability Storage Capability By-products

What Is a Computer? y A machine that can be programmed to accept data, process it into useful information, and store it away o Data: raw facts representing people and events o Information: data that is organized, meaningful, and useful

Benefits of Computers y Productivity o Workers use computers to do their jobs faster and better

Input: What Goes In y Input: the data put into the computer for processing y Common input devices:  Keyboard  Mouse

Scanner

Keyboard y Most common input device o Generates electrical signals which are translated into characters Mouse Moves over a flat surface  Movement of mouse ball causes corresponding movement of pointer on screen Scanner Reads special letters, numbers, and symbols  Wand reader, bar code reader often used in stores  Flatbed and sheet-fed scanners scan pictures or printed documents The Processor and Memory: Data Manipulation Processor  Also called central processing unit (CPU) Memory (primary storage)  Closely related to, but distinct from processor  Provides temporary storage Primary Storage Used to temporarily hold data o After it is retrieved from input device and before it is processed o After it is processed and before it is released to output device Temporary (volatile) storage o Data in memory lost if power is lost or program closed

Screen (monitor): can display text, numbers, photographs, even video, in full color Printer: produces printed reports as instructed by a program

Secondary Storage Provides long-term storage o Separate from memory

Common media o o o Magnetic Disks The most common storage media o Diskette: 3.5 flexible diskette in plastic case o Hard Disk: more storage capacity and faster access than diskette Optical Disks Use a laser beam to read large volumes of data inexpensively   Magnetic Tape CD-ROMs DVD-ROMs Magnetic disks Optical disks Magnetic tape

The Processor Center of activity in the computer o Consists of electronic circuits  Interprets and executes program instructions Communicates with input, output, and storage devices

Stores large amounts of data inexpensively Often used for system backup Peripheral Devices All hardware devices attached to the computer o Includes all input, output, and storage devices Networking Network: a system that uses communications equipment to connect computers and their resources Common network tools: o Local Area Network (LAN) o Modem o Electronic mail Local Area Network Personal computers in an office are connected so users can communicate o Users can operate computers independently o Can share resources and exchange data

Actually transforms data into information Output: What Comes Out Output: the result produced by the CPU Common forms of output: text, numbers, graphics, and sounds Common output devices:

Modem A device that allows users to communicate with other computers over telephone lines  Required when you dont have a digital connection such as DSL or a cable modem Electronic Mail (e-mail) Send and receive messages electronically  Can send text, pictures, links to Web sites  Can attach files for collaboration Messages stored in computer mailbox The Internet The largest and most far-flung network  Connects users worldwide  Not actually a network, but a collection of thousands of networks Getting Connected To access the Internet, connect to a server computer  Server receives, processes, and transmits information Computers use a standard to communicate Need an Internet Service Provider (ISP) Internet Service Providers The owner of a server computer  Charges a fee for access to the Internet Fee can provide unlimited access or be based on usage Provides the user a means to connect to the server  Once connected, you can connect to the Internet and all other server computers

Browser Software that allows you to use a mouse to explore the Internet  Click on screen text and/or graphics to move to different locations Most commonly used to explore the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web A subset of the Internet  Actually, a standard for displaying and transmitting information

Web site: a location on the Web  Home page: the main page of a Web site

Classification of Computers Personal Computers Notebook Computers Handheld Computers Midrange Computers Mainframes Supercomputers Personal Computers Desktop computers o Also known as PCs, microcomputers, or home computers Broken down into three categories: o Low-end computers o Fully-powered personal computers o Workstations Network computer o Central processing unit and minimal memory o Designed to be used on a network  Sometimes called thin client PC Categories Low-end computers o Fine for home users, word processing, simple games, Internet access Fully powered computers o Good for heavy use of graphics, programming, or action-oriented games Workstations o Very high-end computers used by engineers, financial traders, and graphic designers

Computer Protocols Provides a standard way to communicate with other computers  Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) used on the Internet Allows different types of computers to share data

Getting Around the Internet Began as a means for Department of Defense and its research institutions to share information   Information was text-only Commands to navigate were obscure

Now, much more visually based   Use browser to explore the Internet World Wide Web

Notebook Computers Small, lightweight computers Capabilities approach that of desktop computers o Similar processing and memory o Most have hard disk, and diskette or CD-ROM drive Typically more expensive than comparable desktop computers Handheld Computers Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) o Keeps track of appointments, contacts, etc. o Accepts input with hand-held stylus Pocket PC  Offers capabilities of PDAs, plus the ability to run stripped-down versions of software such as word processing and spreadsheets

  

Weather forecasting Weapons research Special effects for movies Chapter 2

Applications Software: Getting the Work Done Applications Software Software used to solve a particular problem or perform a particular task Acquiring Software: Traditional Ways Custom software  Written by programmers hired by organization

Packaged (commercial) software  Purchased from a store, catalog, or Web site

Midrange Computers Multi-user computers designed to serve the needs of medium-sized organizations  Hundreds or thousands of users connected Used for inventory, order-entry, and other company-wide applications

Custom Software Specifically tailored to an organizations needs  Organization hires computer programmers to design, write, test, and implement software

Mainframes Very large and powerful computers  Capable of processing billions of instructions per second Capable of handling billions of characters of data

Can be extremely complex and take years to write Packaged Software Sold in stores, catalogs, or Web sites   Sometimes downloaded from the Internet

Often used for applications with many users    Supercomputers Reservations systems Large mail-order houses

Package contains one or more CDs or DVDs holding the software  Typically contains software documentation

Designed to be user-friendly E-mail servers User-Friendly Software Easy to use

The fastest and most powerful computers   Capable of processing trillions of instructions per second  Used for very sophisticated applications requiring mammoth data manipulation: Should be intuitive for even a beginning user Can be used with minimum of training and documentation

Acquiring Software: New Ways Freeware Public Domain Open-Source software Shareware

Electronic software distribution Application Service Provider Site License Software installed on some or all computers, depending on license terms  Customer keeps track of how many users Number of users cannot exceed number of licenses  Customer copies and distributes software and manuals to users

Freeware Author provides it free for all to use    Author retains copyright May place restrictions on its use May not be altered or redistributed without permission

Some organizations use network licenses  Software installed on server License fee based on number of concurrent users

Public Domain  Software that is not copyrighted  May be used and even altered without permission

Electronic Software Distribution Get software from the Internet

Typically developed by universities and/or research institutions using government grants Open-Source Software A variation of freeware Source code made available  Source code: readable by humans

 

Typically freeware and shareware Some commercial software

Typical scenario:   Download software for trial period Software disables itself after trial period unless you register (pay)

Other programmers can modify and redistribute the programs freely  Helps identify bugs and create improvements more easily

Application Service Provider Delivers applications to businesses via the Internet  ASP maintains software and data on its systems Customers access applications as needed over the Internet  Alternative to creating and maintaining custom software or purchasing packaged software Rent software, paying based on usage Task-Oriented Software Often called productivity software

Shareware Copyrighted software, freely distributed for a trial period If you like it, register it for a fee  Most authors add free documentation, enhancements, support, and updates to encourage people to register

Buying Commercial Software Individual copies for each computer Site license

Common categories       Word processing/Desktop publishing

Graphics software creates graphs and charts from numeric data  Spot trends and compare data more easily Visual evidence more compelling Included in spreadsheet programs Presentation graphics creates slide show presentations  Combine high-quality graphics, audio, and video

Electronic spreadsheets Database management Graphics Communications Others

Working with Words Word Processing  Most widely used personal computer software Create memos, reports, papers Incorporate graphics into documents Communications The ability to hook the computer up to phone line or cable and communicate with another computer Typically connected over the Internet  Needs a browser to access other locations on the Internet

 

Desktop Publishing  High-level publishing needs

Other Task Software Newsletters Personal Information Managers Brochures, promotional materials Electronic Spreadsheets Made up of rows and columns of numbers Office Suite Perform what if analysis  Change a cell and have spreadsheet recalculate  A group of basic applications that work together Easy to share data among applications Similar look and feel among applications  Integrated application A stripped down version of the office suite Business Software Vertical Market software Software for Workgroups Small Business software Vertical Market Software   Keep track of activities Typically include appointment calendar, address book, and task manager

Present data graphically  Show expenses as a pie chart

Database Management Handles the management of a collection of interrelated facts  Software can store, retrieve, update, and manipulate data Can report data in many ways and print

Turn large amounts of data into information Graphics

Written for a particular type of business Written by companies who have a thorough knowledge of that industry  Allows business to easily maintain information on the business, customers, vendors Encompasses all of the businesss activities

Copying software from a lab or from a friend Buying 2 or 3 copies of software and distributing it to dozens or hundreds of employees Buying 1 copy of software and installing it on several computers at home

Computers and People Most organizations have some sort of information technology department  Made up of people who are responsible for the organizations computer resources Maintain data and provide services to end users

Groupware Lets a group of people share or track information together   Also called collaborative software Often combines electronic mail, networking, scheduling, and database technology Data stored in one central location

Computer People  Data entry operators prepare data for processing Often used by organizations with remote employees Software for a Small Business Librarians catalog processed disks and tapes Small Office/Home Office (SOHO)  Moderately priced software to perform functions aimed at small business Examples:  Accounting software Writing and advertising Customer service Keeping contacts Making sales pitches Ethics and Application Software Chapter 4 Piracy: the acquisition and use of illegal copies of software Counterfeiting: copying large numbers of CDROMs or DVD-ROMs and packaging them to look like the real thing Unauthorized copying of software is stealing Executes stored program instructions Software Piracy Two parts Examples of piracy  Control unit The Central Processing Unit: What Goes On Inside the Computer Central Processing Unit Complex set of electronic circuitry Chief Information Officer (CIO) makes key technology decisions  A key member of the organizations strategic decision-making team Must have knowledge in programming, as well as knowledge of the business Programmers design, write, test, implement, and maintain computer programs Systems analysts plan and design entire systems  Computer operators monitor systems, keep peripherals running, and make backups

Network managers implement and maintain organizations network(s)

 Control Unit

Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

Items sent to ALU for processing  Control unit sends items to ALU, then sends back to memory after processing

Directs the computer system to execute stored program instructions Must communicate with memory and ALU Sends data and instructions from secondary storage to memory as needed Arithmetic Logic Unit

Data and instructions held in memory until sent to an output or storage device or program is shut down Temporary Storage Areas Registers Memory

Executes all arithmetic and logical operations Registers Arithmetic operations High-speed temporary storage areas  Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division  Storage locations located within the CPU

Logical operations Work under direction of control unit  Compare numbers, letters, or special characters Tests for one of three conditions  Equal-to condition Less-than condition Greater-than condition Data Storage and the CPU Two types of storage:   Primary storage (memory) Holds data and instructions for processing Stores data temporarily CPU refers to it for both program instructions and data  Secondary storage Four steps performed for each instruction Long-term storage  Stored on external medium, such as a disk  The CPU and Memory CPU cannot process data from disk or input device   It must first reside in memory Control unit retrieves data from disk and moves it into memory  Machine cycle: the amount of time needed to execute an instruction Personal computers execute in less than one millionth of a second Supercomputers execute in less than one trillionth of a second Stores information only as long as the program is in operation How the CPU Executes Instructions Not part of the CPU Memory Also known as primary storage and main memory  Often expressed as random-access memory (RAM) Keep track of where the next instruction to be executed or needed data is stored  Accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data

Each CPU has its own instruction set  those instructions that CPU can understand and execute

The Machine Cycle The time required to retrieve, execute, and store an operation Components   Instruction time Execution time Bit Short for binary digit  

Corresponds to two states, on and off Representing Data Bit Byte Word

System clock synchronizes operations Instruction Time Also called I-time Control unit gets instruction from memory and puts it into a register Control unit decodes instruction and determines the memory location of needed data Execution Time Control unit moves data from memory to registers in ALU  ALU executes instruction on the data

Two possible values: 0 and 1 Can never be empty

Basic unit for storing data  Byte A group of 8 bits  Each byte has 256 (2 ) possible values
8

0 means off, 1 means on

For text, stores one character Control unit stores result of operation in memory or in a register Memory Addresses Each memory location has an address Word  A unique number, much like a mailbox The number of bits the CPU processes as a unit May contain only one instruction or piece of data   When data is written back to memory, previous contents of that address are destroyed  Typically a whole number of bytes The larger the word, the more powerful the computer Personal computers typically 32 or 64 bits in length  Can be letter, digit, or special character

Memory and storage devices measured in number of bytes

Referred to by number  Programming languages use a symbolic (named) address, such as Hours or Salary

Storage Sizes Kilobyte: 1024 (2 ) bytes

10

Data Representation  Computers understand two things: on and off Data represented in binary form   Binary (base 2) number system Contains only two digits, 0 and 1 Memory capacity of older personal computers
20

Megabyte: roughly one million (2 ) bytes   Personal computer memory Portable storage devices (diskette, CDROM)

Gigabyte: roughly one billion (2 ) bytes   Storage devices (hard drives) Mainframe and network server memory
40

30

Motherboard Flat circuit board that holds the computer circuitry  Central processing unit (microprocessor) is most important component

Terabyte: roughly one trillion (2 ) bytes  Coding Schemes Provide a common way of representing a character of data  Needed so computers can exchange data Storage devices on very large systems Storage Devices

Long-term storage of memory  Data not lost when computer shut down

Examples include hard drive, diskette, DVD-ROM Microprocessor Central processing unit etched on silicon chip Contain tens of millions of tiny transistors Key components:   Stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange Transistors Most widely used standard Used on virtually all personal computers EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code  Used primarily on IBM and IBMcompatible mainframes Electronic switches that may or may not allow electric current to pass through  If current passes through, switch is on, representing a 1 bit Otherwise, switch is off, representing a 0 bit  Central processing unit Registers System clock

Common Schemes    ASCII ASCII EBCDIC Unicode

Types of Chips Intel makes a family of processors

Unicode Designed to accommodate alphabets of more than 256 characters Uses 16 bits to represent one character  65,536 possible values

Pentium III and Pentium4 processors in most PCs Celeron processor sold for low-cost PCs Xeon and Itanium for high-end workstations and network servers

 

Requires twice as much space to store data Other processors The System Unit  Houses the electronic components of the computer system    Motherboard Storage devices Cyrix and AMD make Intel-compatible microprocessors PowerPC chips used primarily in Macintosh computers

Compaqs Alpha microprocessor used in high-end servers

Faster and more expensive than DRAM Typically used for Level 2 cache

Memory Components Dynamic RAM Semiconductor Memory RAM and ROM Flash Memory Semiconductor Memory Used by most modern computers    Reliable, inexpensive, and compact Volatile: requires continuous electric current If the current is interrupted, data is lost  Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Retains information when power is shut down Used to store information needed when the computer boots RAM and ROM Random Access Memory (RAM) Read-Only Memory (ROM) Random Access Memory  Data can be accessed randomly  Memory address 10 can be accessed as quickly as memory address 10,000,000 Types: Static RAM (SRAM) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Bus width Packaged on circuit boards    Static RAM Retains its contents with intervention from CPU Single in-line memory modules (SIMMS) Dual in-line memory modules (DIMMS)  The number of electrical paths to carry data Measured in bits  Flash memory chips resemble credit cards Smaller than disk drive and require less power Flash Memory Nonvolatile RAM  Used in cellular phones, digital cameras, and some handheld computers Rambus DRAM (RDRAM): faster than SDRAM, will become more commonly used as price declines Must be continuously refreshed by CPU or it loses its contents Used for personal computer memory  Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM): faster type of DRAM used today

Read-Only Memory Contains programs and data permanently recorded into memory at the factory   Cannot be changed by user Not volatile: contents do not disappear when power is lost

Programmable ROM (PROM) chips  Some instructions on chip can be changed

  

The System Bus Parallel electrical paths that transport data between the CPU and memory

Bus speed  Measured in megahertz (MHz)

Bus Width Typically the same as CPUs word size With a larger bus size, CPU can:

Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus  Used for slow devices such as the mouse and modem

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PSI) bus  Transfer more data at a time  Makes computer faster  Reference larger memory address numbers Allows for more memory Universal Serial Bus (USB) port Support a greater number and variety of instructions Bus Speed IEEE 1394 bus The faster the bus speed, the faster data travels through the system Personal computers have bus speeds of 400 or 533 MHz Expansion Buses Add peripheral devices to system Computer Processing Speeds Expansion board Port Common expansion buses Expansion Boards Connect to expansion slots on motherboard  Ports  External connectors to plug in peripherals such as printers Two types of ports  Serial: transmit data one bit at a time Used for slow devices such as the mouse and keyboard  Parallel: transmit groups of bits together side-by-side Used for faster devices such as printers and scanners Common Expansion Buses and Ports Picosecond: one trillionth of a second Used to connect peripheral devices Instruction speeds measured in fractions of seconds    Millisecond: one thousandth of a second Microsecond: one millionth of a second Nanosecond: one billionth of a second Modern computers have reached this speed  A high-speed bus normally used to connect video equipment  Allows you to convert many devices in a series into the USB port Used for faster devices such as hard disks

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)  Provides faster video performance

PC Card bus  Used on laptops to plug in a credit-card sized device

Microprocessor Speeds Measure of system clock speed  How many electronic pulses the clock produces per second Usually expressed in gigahertz (GHz) Billions of machine cycles per second Some old PCs measured in megahertz (MHz) Comparison of clock speed only meaningful between identical microprocessors

Other Performance Measures Millions of Instructions per Second (MIPS)  High-speed personal computers can perform over 500 MIPS Typically a more accurate measure of performance than clock speed

 

Fewer instructions increases speed Drawback: complex operations have to be broken down into a series of smaller instructions

Traditional processors use Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) Parallel Processing and Pipelining

Megaflop: one million floating-point operations Pipelining  Measures ability of computer to perform complex mathematical operations  A variation of traditional serial processing

Cache Parallel Processing A temporary storage area   Speeds up data transfer within computer Pipelining Memory cache Processor cache Memory Cache A small block of high-speed memory  Stores most frequently and most recently used data and instructions Feeds a new instruction into CPU at each step of the machine cycle  Instruction 2 fetched when instruction 1 is being decoded, rather than waiting until cycle is complete Using multiple processors at once

Parallel Processing Control processor divides problem into parts

Microprocessor looks for what it needs in cache first  Transferred from cache much faster than from memory If not in cache, control unit retrieves from memory The more cache hits the faster the system performance Processor Cache Internal (Level 1) cache built into microprocessor  Fastest access, but highest cost

  

Each part sent to separate processor Each processor has its own memory Control processor assembles results

Some computers using parallel processing operate in terms of teraflops: trillions of floatingpoint instructions per second Chapter 5 Input and Output: The User Connection How Users See Input and Output Users submit data (input) to the computer to get processed information (output)  Output can be instant reaction to input Also can be separated by time, distance, or both

External (Level 2) cache on separate chip  Incorporated into processor on some current microprocessors

RISC Technology Instant Reaction Reduced Instruction Set Computing Items scanned at supermarket  Uses a small subset of instructions  Produce item name and price at counter

Forklift operator speaks to computer  Forklift obeys operators commands

Provide more natural, comfortable position of wrists, arms, and hands

Pointing Devices Sales rep enters an order on a pad Used to position a pointer on the screen  Characters displayed as typed text and stored in pad Communicate commands to operating system by clicking a button Common devices   Input and Output Separated  Data on checks input into bank computer   Computer processes entries once a month to prepare statements Mouse The most common pointing device  Movement on flat surface causes movement of pointer on screen Others Devices used in laptops Mouse Devices used for games

Factory workers punch a time clock as they go from task to task  Produce weekly paychecks and management reports

Charge-card transactions provide input  Processed monthly to produce customer bills

Water samples collected and input into computer  Used to produce reports that show patterns of water quality

Several types  Mechanical - small ball on underside rolls as mouse is moved Optical - uses a light beam to monitor mouse movement Cordless - uses either infrared or radio waves, rather than a cord, to connect to computer

Input: Getting Data from the User to the Computer Keyboard

 Pointing devices Source data automation

Trackball and Joystick Keyboard Trackball Similar to typewriter keyboard    May be part of a personal computer  May be part of a terminal connected to a computer in another location  Joystick   Ergonomic keyboards Ergonomic Keyboards Designed to reduce or minimize repetitive strain injury of wrists  Short lever with handgrip Distance and speed of movement controls pointers position Pressing trigger causes actions to take place User rolls the ball directly Often built into laptop computers Variation on mechanical mouse

Can be unique to an industry  Keys on McDonalds keyboards represent Big Mac or large fries

Touchpad and Pointing Stick Touchpad

  

Rectangular pressure-sensitive pad Sliding finger across pad moves pointer

Amount added by MICR inscriber when check is cashed

Optical Recognition Tapping with finger recognized as click Uses a light beam to scan data and convert to electrical signals Common uses Scanners are the most common form  Pushing post in any direction moves pointer Other optical recognition methods Common Uses Scanners at supermarkets Document imaging - converts paper documents to electronic versions  Touch screen    Allow user to touch items on screen Scanners Position of finger on screen determines item to be input into system Used at kiosks in public places such as malls Flatbed scanner   Pen-based computing   Use pen-like stylus to input data Often used in PDAs or pocket PCs Typically scans one page at a time Can be used to scan large bound documents Can be edited or processed by software Documents stored on disk

Pointing stick  Small pressure-sensitive post mounted in center of keyboard

Other Pointing Devices Graphics tablet   User moves stylus or puck across board Used to create or trace precise drawings

Sheetfed scanner  Motorized rollers feed sheet across scanner head

Source Data Automation Handheld scanner Use of special equipment to collect data at the source Primary areas  Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) Optical recognition devices Other sources  Smallest and least accurate

Optical character recognition (OCR) software required to convert picture into characters Other Optical Recognition Methods Optical Mark Recognition  Machine senses marks on piece of paper

  MICR

Optical character recognition Uses a machine to read characters made of magnetized particles Banking industry is predominant user Bar Codes  Characters preprinted on lower left-hand side of check  A series of vertical marks  Wand reader reads characters in special typeface

Represents a unique code Universal Product Code (UPC) used as standard in supermarkets

Printers Voice output Music output Microform Computer Screen Technology Screen is part of computers monitor   Screen output known as soft copy Intangible and temporary

Other Sources Voice input Digital cameras Video input Voice Input User speaks to computer  Speech recognition devices convert spoken words into binary digits

Common forms   Cathode ray tube (CRT) Flat-panel screens Smart displays

Most are speaker-dependent   System learns users voice CRT Screens Types of systems Display text and graphics  Discrete word systems - user must pause between words Continuous word systems - user can speak normally   Most are in color Some monochrome monitors are used in applications that have no need for color or graphics

Digital Camera User takes photo that is stored on a chip Photo can be downloaded to computer   Use photo-editing software to enhance Store permanently on CDs or DVDs Graphics card converts signals from the control unit into the image the user sees Factors affecting performance Factors Affecting Performance Scan rate  The frequency with which the image is refreshed

Photos composed of many pixels of color Photos stored on removable memory card

Resolution (clarity) of screen Video Input  Digital video consists of series of still frames   Displayed rapidly enough to give illusion of motion  Web cam used to transmit video over the Internet Dot pitch Can capture video from analog sources with video capture card Output: Information for the User Computer screens   The amount of space between dots The smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the image The more pixels, the higher the resolution Graphics standards exist Measured in pixels (picture elements)

Video memory  A high-speed form of RAM installed on graphics card

Smart Displays Based on flat-panel technology Each contains its own processor

Graphic Standards Agree on resolutions, colors, other issues related to displaying graphics Printers  Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA) is most common standard Provides 800 (horizontal) x 600 (vertical) pixels on the display   Other varieties of SVGA exist Support 16 million colors The number of colors that can be displayed depends on amount of video memory Flat-Panel Screens Liquid crystal display (LCD)  Originally used for laptops, but making their way to desktop computers Produce information on paper output  Printed output known as hard copy Wireless transmitter-receiver allows user to control desktop from anywhere in the house

Orientation settings   Portrait - vertical alignment Landscape - horizontal alignment

Two ways of printing   Impact Printers Physical contact with paper required to produce image Line printer  Prints an entire line of a program at once Typically used with mainframe computers printing lengthy reports Impact printer Nonimpact printer

Very thin (only a few inches) Produce sharper text images than CRTs Easier on eyes than CRTs

 Flat-panel technologies LCD Technologies Active-matrix   Uses many thin-film transistors (TFT)  Produces brighter image and can be viewed from wider angles

Dot-matrix printer  Has print head consisting of one or more columns of pins Pins form characters and images as pattern of dots

Nonimpact Printers Passive-matrix   Uses fewer transistors Cheaper and uses less power Places an image on a page without physically touching the page Laser printer  Uses light beam to help transfer images to paper Produces high-quality output at very fast speeds

Gas plasma    Supports very large displays

 Has brilliant color display Viewable at very wide angles

Ink-jet printer

 

Sprays dots of ink from jet nozzles Can print in both black and white and color Requires high-quality paper so ink does not smear

Needs special reader Common uses  Libraries store back issues of periodicals Businesses store large volumes of historical records

  Voice Output Voice synthesizers convert data to vocalized sounds Two approaches   Synthesis by analysis - analyzes actual human voice, records and plays back as needed Synthesis by rule - uses linguistic rules to create artificial speech Less expensive than laser printers Terminals

Combine input and output capabilities Dumb terminal Keyboard for input and monitor for output No processing capability

Intelligent terminal  Has limited memory and a processor

Used in automated telephone-based customer service applications  Useful when an inquiry would be followed by a short reply, such as a balance inquiry

Point-of-sale (POS) terminal  Captures retail sales data when transaction takes place

Computer Graphics Music Output Business graphics Multimedia clips, games, videos include sight and sound   Speakers placed on side of monitor Powered sub-woofers produce lowfrequency sounds Video graphics Computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) Business Graphics A powerful way to impart information  Colorful graphics, maps, and charts help managers compare data, spot trends, and make quicker decisions As underlying data changes, charts and graphs are instantly updated

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)  Rules for connecting musical instruments, synthesizers, and computers Allows users to set up home studios that rival capabilities of professional recording studios

Video Graphics Computer Output Microform (COM) A series of video images Output of photographically reduced images on microfilm or microfiche  Microfilm - images stored on continuous roll of film Microfiche - images stored in rows and columns on a card  Displayed rapidly to give the impression of motion

Used extensively in television Also used in computer and arcade video games Computer-Aided Design/ Computer-Aided Manufacturing

Creates two- and three-dimensional designs Performs engineering tests such as stress tests Serves as bridge between design and manufacturing Ethics and Data Once data is in computer, there are many ways it can be used Ethical issues to ponder  Is it ethical to use a computer to alter photographs? Is it ethical to erase e-mail messages that may be of interest to a party in a lawsuit? Is it ethical to use someone elses data for your purposes? Economy

Data in secondary storage is relatively safe   Secondary storage is highly reliable More difficult for untrained people to tamper with data stored on disk

Convenience Authorized users can easily and quickly locate data stored on the computer

Several factors create significant savings in storage costs  Less expensive to store data on disks than to buy and house filing cabinets Reliable and safe data is less expensive to maintain Greater speed and convenience in filing and retrieving data

 

 Chapter 6 Storage and Multimedia: The Facts and More Secondary Storage Separate from the computer itself  Software and data stored on a semipermanent basis  Unlike memory, not lost when power is lost

Magnetic Disk Storage Data represented as magnetized spots on surface of spinning disk Spots on disk converted to electrical impulses

Primary types   Diskettes Made of flexible Mylar and coated with iron oxide Has protection of rigid plastic jacket 3 diskette holds 1.44 MB of data High-capacity variations  Store a roomful of data on disks smaller than the size of a breadbox  Diskette contains equivalent of 500 printed pages Optical disk can hold equivalent of 500 books Hard Disks Rigid platter coated with magnetic oxide Reliability  Sonys HiFD holds 200 MB Imations SuperDisk available in 120 and 240 MB versions Iomegas Zip drive available in 100, 250, and 750 MB versions Diskettes Hard Disks

Benefits Benefits of Secondary Storage Space Reliability Convenience Economy Space

Several can be combined into a disk pack

Called disk mirroring Increases fault tolerance

Disk drive - a device that allows data to be read from or written to a disk  Disk drive for personal computers contained within computer housing Large computer systems may have several external disk drives

How Data Is Organized Track Sector

Cluster Cylinder Track The circular portion of the disk surface that passes under the read/write head  Floppy diskette has 80 tracks on each surface Hard disk may have 1,000 or more tracks on each surface of each platter

Reading/Writing Data Access arm moves read/write head over particular location Read/write head hovers a few millionths of an inch above platter  If head touches platter, a head crash occurs and data is destroyed

  Data can be destroyed if head touches miniscule foreign matter on surface of disk

Sector Each track is divided into sectors that hold a fixed number of bytes  Typically 512 bytes per sector

Disk Packs Each platter has its own access arm with read/write head Most disk packs combine platters, access arms, and read/write head Hard Disks for Personal Computers Sealed modules that mount in a 3 bay Capacity in gigabytes Accessing files much faster than accessing files on diskettes Some contain removable cartridges Cylinder  Iomegas Jaz drive is very popular Cluster

Zone recording assigns more sectors to tracks in outer zones than those in inner zones  Uses storage space more fully

A fixed number of adjacent sectors that are treated as a unit of storage  Typically two to eight sectors, depending on the operating system

Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) A group of disks that work together as one

The track on each surface that is beneath the read/write head at a given position of the read/write heads  When file is larger than the capacity of a single track, operating system will store it in tracks within the same cylinder

Raid level 0 spreads data from a single file over several drives Called data striping Increases performance

Disk Access Speed Access time - the time needed to access data on disk

Raid level 1 duplicates data on several drives

Three factors    Seek time Head switching Rotational delay

When disk drive reads data from disk, it reads adjacent data and stores it in memory When next read instruction is issued, drive checks first to see if desired data is in disk cache

Once data found, next step is data transfer Seek Time The time it takes the access arm to get into position over a particular track   All access arms move as a unit All simultaneously in position over a set of tracks that make up a cylinder

Similar to memory caching discussed in Chapter 4 Optical Disk Storage Provides inexpensive and compact storage with greater capacity Laser scans disk and picks up light reflections from disk surface Categorized by read/write capability  Read-only media - user can read from, but not write to disk Write-once, read-many (WORM) - user can write to disk once Magneto-optical - combines magnetic and optical capabilities

Head Switching The activation of a particular read/write head over a particular track  All access arms move together, but only one read/write head can operate at any one time

Rotational Delay The time it takes for the desired data on the track to rotate underneath the read/write head  On average, half the time for a complete revolution of the disk

Compact Disks CD-ROM - drive can only read data from CDs   CD-ROM stores up to 700 MB per disk Primary medium for software distribution

Data Transfer The process of transferring data between its location on the disk track and memory Measures of performance  Average access time

CD-R - drive can write to disk once  Disk can be read by CD-ROM or CD-R drive

CD-RW - drive can erase and record over data multiple times  Some compatibility problems trying to read CD-RW disks on CD-ROM drives

About 10 milliseconds (10 thousands of a second) Can be improved by disk caching  Data transfer rate - how fast data can be transferred once it has been found Stated in terms of megabytes per second Disk Caching  Disk cache - a special area of memory

Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) Short wavelength laser can read densely packed spots    DVD drive can read CD-ROMs Capacity up to 17GB Allows for full-length movies Sound is better than on audio CDs

Several versions of writable and rewritable DVDs exist Multimedia Presents information with text, illustrations, photos, narration, music, animation, and film clips Not practical until the advent of the optical disk

 

Disks occasionally fail Software installation can cause computer to crash Users make mistakes entering data

Tape is ideal backup medium  Requirements Applications Requirements Organizing and Accessing Stored Data CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive Character Sound card or sound chip Field Speakers Record  For high-quality sound, get good speakers and powered subwoofer File Database Character A letter, digit, or special character Field Go on virtual tours Study musical scores Study a foreign language  Other  Prepare taxes with video clips from IRS experts Record  Play games A collection of related fields Magnetic Tape Storage  Tape similar to tape used in music cassettes Categorized in terms of density  Number of bits per inch stored on tape File A collection of related records  For university, all the student records compose a file For the university, all of the fields for one student constitute one record For a university, a students first name would be stored in a field A set of related characters Describes one characteristic of a person, place, or thing  Can copy entire hard disk to single tape in minutes Backup can be scheduled when you are not going to use the system

Equipped to handle MPEG  Applications Education    Standards for compressing video

Key field - a unique identifier for a record

Used primarily for backup of data stored on disk systems Backup Systems Imperative to have copies of important data stored away from the computer Database

A collection of related files stored with minimum redundancy (duplication)

For university, student file, alumni file, faculty/staff file, courses file, financial file, etc. would make up a database

Applies mathematical formula to key to determine disk address of given record  Collision occurs when hashing algorithm produces same disk address for two different keys

Organized to make retrieving data easier File Plan Overview

Indexed File Organization Must devise a plan for placing data on a storage unit Key factors   Whether users must access data directly (immediately)    File Organization Three major methods of organizing data files in secondary storage    Sequential Direct Indexed  How data must be organized on disk Type of processing that will take place  Records stored sequentially, but file also contains an index Index stored sequentially, contains record key Data accessed by record key Combines elements of sequential and direct methods

Processing Stored Data Transactions processed to update a master file  Transactions - a business event such as a sale Master file - data that is updated when a transaction occurs, such as a sales file or inventory file

Sequential File Organization Records are stored in order according to a key field  If a particular record is desired, all prior records must be read first To update a record, a new sequential file must be created, with changed and unchanged records

Two main methods of processing data   Batch Processing Transactions collected into groups or batches  Batch processed and master file updated when the computer has few users online Batch processing Transaction processing

Tape storage uses sequential organization Direct File Organization Also called random access Go directly to desired record by using a key

Very efficient use of computer resources Master file current only immediately after processing Transaction Processing

Computer does not have to read all prior records Hashing algorithm used to determine address of given key

Processing transactions as they occur  Also called real-time processing and online processing Terminals must be connected directly to the computer

Requires disk storage Hashing Algorithm

Offers immediate updating of master file