FME 322:

THERMODYNAMICS
3rd Year, 2nd Sem


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GAS POWER CYCLES
The Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle: this is a cycle consisting of two isothermal processes and two reversible adiabatic
processes

A-B: isothermal heat addition

ln

ln

B-C: isentropic expansion

C-D: constant temperature heat rejection

ln

ln

D-A: isentropic compression

From the 1
st
law,

Let:

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ln

ln

ln

ln ln

ln

ln

ln

ln
ln

Thermal efficiency:

ln

ln

Work ratio is the ratio of net work output to the gross
(expansion) work output, given as







Practical Piston-Cylinder construction for Carnot Cycle
A-B B-C C-D D-A

Practical Problems
1. Supplying heat and maintaining constant temperature

2. Insulating the cylinder and removing the insulation as fast as the piston moves
3. Ensuring processes and are isentropic

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Air-Standard Cycles for Internal Combustion Engines
Air standard cycles are ideal heat engine cycles that represent the internal combustion engine. In air
standard cycles, the working fluid is assumed to be air and the processes are assumed to be reversible
and the heat source and sink are assumed to be external to the air
Otto Cycle
This is the ideal air standard cycle for a petrol engine, using spark ignition

a-1: Working fluid (air) is induced into the cylinder slowly such that the pressure in the cylinder remains
constant.
1-2: Air is compressed isentropically to state 2.
2-3: Heat is supplied to the air from an external source at constant volume
3-4: Hot air expands to state 4isentropically.
4-1: Heat is rejected from the air at constant volume until state 1 is achieved

Heat input into the system

Net work input

Thermal efficiency:

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is the compression ratio

Therfore, efficieny is a function of

and
Work ratio is given as:

Therefore,

depends on the cycle temperatures

The Atkinson Cycle
Thermal efficienyis given by:

Where:

Net work is higher than the Otto cycle. Therefore, for the same heat input, the efficiency is higher. Heat
rejection occurs at constant temperature.
Volume displacement is more in the Otto cycle

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The Diesel Cycle
The diesel cycle is the air standard cycle for 4-stroke compression ignition (CI) engine. It differs from the
Otto cycle in that the last heat addition takes place at constant pressure rather that constant volume.

1-2: isentropic compression
2-3: heat supplied at constant
pressure
3-4: isentropic expansion
4-1: heat rejected at constant volume

Efficiency is less than the Otto cycle. Efficiency of diesel cycle approaches efficiency of Otto cycle as

Dual (Mixed) Combustion Cycle
This is the air standard cycle for modern diesel engines. Heat addition takes place both at constant
volume and at constant pressure

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Questions:
1. A hot reservoir at and a cold reservoir at are available. Calculate the thermal
efficiency and work ratio of a Carnot cycle using air as the working fluid if the maximum and
minimum pressures are bai and bai respectively.
2. In an air-standard Otto cycle, maximum and minimum temperatures are and . The
heat supplied per kg of air is 800kJ. Calculate the compression ratio and the thermal efficiency.
Also determine the ratio of maximum to minimum pressures in the cycle
3. An oil engine takes air at 1.01bar and 20 and the maximum cycle pressure is 69bar. The
compression ratio is 18:1. Calculate the air-standard thermal efficiency based on the dual
combustion cycle. Assume that heat added at constant volume is equal to hear added at
constant pressure
Further Examples:
An engine uses air as the working fluid and operates on ideal constant volume cycle. The compression
ratio is . The initial pressure and temperature are bai and respectively and the heat
transfer to the air is kIkg. Calculate:
1. The net cycle work
2. The pressure and temperature at the principle points of the cycle
Solution:
Represent the cycle on an and diagram. Constant volume cycle, therefore the Otto cycle

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bai

bai
Heat transfer at constant volume kIkg

bai

bai

kI

Stirling Cycle
This consists of two constant volume processes and two isothermal processes


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ln

ln

ln

ln

ln

ln

ln

ln

ln

ln

The heat transfer during process

is used to heat the gas during the process 2-3:

This is assumed to take place ideally and reversibly in a regenerator. A regenerator is a device which
alternatively stores and rejects heat in a manner which theoretically is thermodynamically reversible:

Mean Effective Pressure:
The mean effective pressure is definedas that constant pressure which if acted over the full stroke of the
piston will produce the same work

For a given value of

output and various

values the volume

also varies engine

capacity



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Exercises:
1. A diesel engine has a compression ratio of and operates at a cut-off ratio of . The lowest
temperature and pressure are Kand NPa. If air is the working fluid, determine:
a. The temperature and pressure at every principle point on the cycle
b. Heat added per kg of air
c. Heat rejected per kg of air
d. Thermal efficiency
e. If the displacement of the engine is cm

, and the engine is operating at ipm,

obtain the power developed
2. Consider an ideal Stirling cycle on which pressure and temperature at the beginning of
isothermal compression process are kPaand . The compression ratio is and the
maximum temperature of the cycle is . Calculate:
a. Maximum pressure of the cycle
b. Thermal efficiency of the cycle with and without a regenerator
3. A 4-stroke petrol engine has a swept volume of cm

and clearance of volume of each

cylinder is cm

. Calculate the air-standard thermal efficiency if the inlet conditions are bai,
and the maximum cycle temperature is . Calculate the mean effective pressure
head based on the air standard cycle.
4. An air standard cycle mixed combustion cycle has a mean effective pressure of bai. The
minimum pressure and temperature are bai and respectively. The compression ratio is
. Calculate the maximum cycle temperature when the

is and the maximum cycle

pressure is bai.

1.

NPa bai

bai

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x K

bai

bai

bai

kIkg

kIkg

Introduction to Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines
The term internal combustion engine is applied to all engines in which the combustion of fuel occurs
inside a cylinder. There are two main types:
(i) Petrol engines which work on the Otto cycle and ignition of fuel-air mixture is by an electric
spark (sometimes called SI engines)
(ii) Oil engines (sometimes referred to as diesel engines) which work on either diesel or dual
combustion cycles. Modern oil engines work on the dual cycle. Pure air is compressed in a
cylinder and fuel is admitted at or near the end of compression. Ignition occurs due to high
temperature of the air. Sometimes called compression ignition (CI) engines. NB. In CI
engines, the compression ratio is very high (in order to increase the temperature) while in
petrol engines, a spark is introduced to combust the mixture
4-Stroke SI Engines



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The piston A is connected by means of rod C and crank-pin E and crank-arm D. The connecting rod C
converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crank shaft.
1
st
Stroke (a-1) (Suction Stroke)
The outlet valve is closed and the inlet valve is opened. The air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder by
the suction effect of the piston. Suction occurs till the piston reaches the end of the cylinder.
2
nd
Stroke (1-2) (Compression Stroke)
At the end of the suction stroke, the inlet valve
closes and the cylinder contains a charge of
volume

and pressure

. The piston begins

the compression stroke and the mixture is
compressed as the pressure increases to

(a
polytrophic process as the compression is
accompanied by heat loss as opposed to
isentropic compression in the air standard cycles). The volume has decreased from

to

(approximately

). Compression ratio

. When the piston is momentarily at rest as top dead

centre (TDC), both valves remain closed and a spark is introduced by passing across terminals of the plug
and ignites the mixture.
3
rd
Stroke (3-4) (Expansion Stroke)
The post-combustion mixture at high pressure

and
temperature

forces the piston forward. Expansion

proceeds with both valves closed and volume increases
from

to

.

4
th
Stroke (4-1) (Exhaust Stroke)
At the end of expansion stoke at 4, the outlet valve is opened and the gases flow out the cylinder during
the momentary rest of the piston. During the return stroke, the piston sweeps out the exhaust gases.
The crank moves back to the beginning of the cycle.
NB. For every stroke, the pin E moves 180. 1 complete revolution is 2 stokes in the cylinder


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CI Engines
The events in the CI engines are similar to those of SI engines, save for the following:
1. The suction stroke. Air is induced into the cylinder

2. Compression stroke. The air is compressed to high pressures and temperatures and fuel is
ignited into the cylinder towards the end of the stroke. At the end of the stroke, the air
temperature is sufficiently high enough for the fuel to vaporise and ignite as they enter the
cylinder. Combustion takes place at approximately constant pressure
3. Expansion stroke. There is some rise in pressure during the end stages of combustion but again
the combustion is assumed to be at constant pressure
4. Exhaust stroke. Similar to the SI engine

Internal Combustion Engine Performance
Thermal efficiency:

x
Indicated thermal efficiency:

Mechanical efficiency:

x
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC):





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Comparisons with the Air-Standard Cycles
1. PV diagrams are different from actual indicator diagrams in that the indicator diagrams are
rounded up owing to time taken for valves to open and close. Combustion dies no precisely
occur at constant volume or constant pressure
2. Temperature changes in actual cycles are large and a variable of specific heat
3. The properties of the air-fuel mixture and of exhaust gases are markedly different from those of
air
4. Due to cooling of the cylinder, the compression and expansion are not adiabatic and therefore
not isentropic
Exercises:
1. A 4-stroke diesel engine has cylinders, each of diametermm by mm stroke. At
ipm, the average brake mean effective pressure is bai and the fuel consumption is
kghoui. The energy released during combustion of kg of fuel is kIkg. Determine:
a. The brake power
b. Brake torque
c. Brake thermal efficiency
d. Fuel consumption in kIkWh

Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors are equipment or machines used to produce high pressure gas. Use of high
pressure air includes process industry, pneumatic valves, air blast for workshops, water pumping,
compressed air engines, etc.
A reciprocating compressor consists of a basic piston, a cylinder, a connecting rod and a crank. The
cylinder is fitted with two valves that permit the gas to flow in and out of the cylinder

a-b: inlet valve is opened and a mass of gas

at state enters the cylinder without change of state. It

mixes with mass

already present in the clearance volume.

b-c: both valves are closed and total mass (

) change state during compression to

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c-d: the exhaust (outlet) valve is opened and mass

is ejected from the cylinder without further

change of state
d-a: both valves are closed and mass

expands to the original state

This is a machine cycle. However, the mass

goes through a thermodynamic cycle.

Work Transfer
The net work done to the gas for the machine cycle is the algebraic sum of the heat transfers in the 4
processes:

Rate of work done for

rate of mass flow:

Air is cooled before compression since when cooled, inlet temperature (

) is lower than when not

cooled, hence work is less. Also, if not cooled, the value of is high. Hence, work done to the
compressor depends on

(inlet temperature). To maximize work, inlet temperature should be as low

as possible.
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer occurs along 2 paths, only during and . and are mere mass transfer
with no change of state. The heat transfer of mass

during process is equal to that during the

opposite process

mass in clearance from

mass added in the new cycle

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Heat transfer:

Effect of Compression

isothermal compression

adiabatic compression

polytrophic compression

We need to compress such that the value of is as close to unit
as possible. Typically, is between and

Isothermal Efficiency
Minimum compression work occurs when the process is isothermal. Hence:

Overall isothermal efficiency:

Isothermal work between

and

ln

ln

Mechanical efficiency:

Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of actual volume induced per cycle to the swept volume:

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clearance ratio (a function of design and manufacture)

Clearance ratio should be as low as possible for a high volumetric efficiency. Increasing compression
ratio decreases efficiency
Exercises
1. A single stage reciprocating compressor takes in m

min of air at bai and and

delivers it at bai. Assuming that the law of compression is

, and clearance is
negligible, calculate the i.p.
2. A single stage air compressor is required to deliver m

of air per minute at baiand

. Delivered pressure is bai and speed is ipm. Take

of

with a compression
index of . calculate the swept volume if the cylinder, the delivered temperature and the
indicated power
3. A low pressure cylinder for an air compressor for an air compressor has a stroke of m

and a clearance volume of m

. The pressure at the end of suction is bai and the

temperature is . The delivered pressure is bai. The index of compression, .
Determine:
a. The temperature and volume of air at the end of compression
b. Mass of air left in the clearing space at the end of delivery
Solution:

bai

K
End of compression is at :

bai

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Mass

Multi-Stage Compression
Minimum compression work occurs when the process is isothermal. The delivery temperature increases
with pressure ratio

. For near isothermal compression, the pressure ratio should be as low as

possible. If the delivery pressure is high, then the required work would be reduced if compression is
done in stages of small ratios. The volumetric efficiency decreases with increase in pressure ratio. For
high pressure ratio, the volumetric efficiency can be increased by carrying out the compression in two or
more stages. For pressure greater than bai, use two stages
Two-Stage Compressors

if the gas is not cooled at stage .

if cooled
Air is compressed to an intermediate pressure,

in the low pressure

cylinder and then transferred to a high pressure cylinder and
compressed to

. The air would be delivered at the end of this stage

but can be delivered to a third stage.
Compression work between

and intermediate pressure

in stage
1:

For stage 2:

Total work

. If intercooling between the stages is complete,

For minimum work,

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The pressure ratio,

is the same for each stage, known as geometric progression

Getting maximum work for 3 stage processes:
The pressure ratio should be the same between the stages

Work done for each stage is the same:
For 2 stages:

For 3 stages:

For stages:

Questions:
In a 2 stage single acting sir compressor, the suction pressure is bai and final delivery is bai.
The temperature at the end of suction is . in compression and expansion. Clearance
volume of the low pressure cylinder is if its stroke volume and that of the high pressure cylinder is
of the stroke volume. The compressor is required to deliver kg of air per minute when running
at ipm. Determine:

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(i) Stroke volume of each cylinder
(ii) Power of the compressor
(iii) Heat transfer in the intercooler
Assume the stage pressures to be in geometric progression

A 2 stage single acting compressor is required to compress m

of fluid air per hour from baito

bai. Prove that with complete cooling, the stage pressure ratio should be equal to

for the required power to be minimum. If , calculate the power

required. If the mean piston speed is mmin, calculate the piston areas, neglecting clearance

Constant Pressure Brayton Cycle
This is the air standard cycle for jet engines. It consists of two constant pressure process and two
isentropic processes

Heat is added at constant pressure, and rejected at constant pressure :


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Processes:
compression

heat addition

expansion

heat rejection

Thermal efficiency:

is a function of and pressure ratio
Work Ratio:

is a function of

as well as lowest and highest temperatures

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Example:
A Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid operates between temperatures of K and K and
has lower pressure of NPa and a pressure ratio of .
(i) Determine the temperature and pressure at each principle point in the cycle
(ii) What is the net work done per cycle per unit mass
(iii) What is the thermal efficiency
(iv) What is the maximum efficiency of a cycle operating between the same temperatures and
low pressure
Solution

NPa

NPa

NPa

NPa

K
Net work:

kIkg
Thermal efficiency:

Maximum efficiency:

Optimum Pressure Ratio


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1
st
Law for a Thermodynamic Cycle:

Consider cycle
Net work output is given by the area enclosed by the cycle. If the pressure ratio is increased to

the
cycle becomes

. Thermal efficiency increases but the net work decreases. The

efficiency approaches carnot efficiency since

and

. No work is done. Similarly, when

pressure ratio is decreased the net work decreases and approaches zero.

and

and

are fixed.

for maximum net work

In the above example, optimum pressure ratio:

Gas Turbine Unit
The basic turbine unit operates on the open Brayton cycle. In the open cycle, the compressor (rotary) is
mounted on the shaft as is the turbine. Air is drawn into the compressor then passes to combustion
chamber where fuel is continually injected and the resulting hot gases expand through the turbine and
exhaust to the atmosphere






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Ideal cycle is . Practical cycle is

For net work output, the turbine must develop more work than required to turn the compressor.
Compressor isentropic efficiency:

Compressor work:

Heat supplied:

Turbine isentropic efficiency:

Turbine work:

Net work:

Cycle efficiency:

Modifications to the Open Cycle to Improve Efficiency and Work Cycle
1. Multi-stage compression and intercooling.Net work input into the compressor can be reduced if
the compression is done in stages (geometric progression) and complete intercooling between
stages
2. Reheating between turbine expansions. Due to divergence of isobars on diagram, the
turbine work is high at high values of entropy. Hence, expansion in stages together with
reheating between the stages increases the overall turbine work and therefore efficiency and
work ratio
3. Incorporating a heat exchanger (regenerator) between gases leaving at (exhaust gases) and
air into the combustion chamber. This reduces the

between and . Heat input is then

. Heat balance on the heat exchanger:

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diagram of modifications and

Modifications and




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Examples:
An a gas turbine plant, compression and expansion are isentropic, heat transfer takes place at constant
pressure. Pressure of air at inlet to compressor is bai and compressor delivery is bai. The temp
of inlet to turbine is and turbine expands to bai pressure. Determine, per kg of air:
(i) Compressor work
(ii) Turbine work
(iii) Hear transfer to air
(iv) Heat transfer from air
(v) Thermal efficiency of air

In a marine gas turbine unit, a HP stage turbine drives the compressor, and a LP stage turbine drives the
propeller through suitable gearings. The overall pressure ratio is 4/ 1. The mass flow rate is kgs. The
maximum temperature is and the air intake conditions arebaiand. The isentropic
efficiencies of thecompressor, HP turbine, and LP turbine, are, , and respectively, and the
mechanical efficiency of both shafts is 98%. Neglecting kinetic energy changes, and the pressure loss in
combustion,calculate:
(i) The pressure between turbine stages [bai]
(ii) The cycle efficiency []
(iii) The shaft power [kW]
Heat Balance

Effectiveness of the heat exchanger (regenerator) is defined as ratio of heat received by air to the
maximum possible transferrable heat from the gases. This is also called thermal ratio

Thermal efficiency with regenerator:

Example:
An industrial gas turbine plant combines low pressure and high pressure compressors, intercooler, high
pressure, intermediate pressure and low pressure turbines. It has 3 combustion chambers and an
exhaust heat exchanger. The high pressure turbine drives both the LP and HP compressors, and the
intermediate and low pressure turbines supply the power output. From the data below, determine:

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(i) Power output
(ii) Fuel consumption
(iii) Thermal efficiency
- Pressure at inlet to LP compressor and exhaust low pressure turbine = 1.035bar
- Temperature at inlet to each compressor = 15C
- Temperature to each turbine = 650C
- Pressure ratio to each compressor = 3:1
- Isentropic efficiency to each compressor = 0.85
- Thermal ratio of heat exchanger = 0.7
- Thermal ratio of turbine = 0.8
- CV of fuel = 44200kJ/kg
- Mass flow rate of gas/air = 45.4kg/s
- Assume properties of gas and air are the same

Compressor work

Turbine work

Heat transfer to air

Heat transfer from air