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2002ReportClient SubmissionAustralian Building Codes Board NORMAN DISNEY & YOUNG Level 10 1 Chandos Street ST LEONARDS AUSTRALIA 2065+61 2 9928 6800 +61 2 9439 6580 sydney@ndy.com http://www.ndy.comNDY MANAGEMENT PTY LIMITED ACN 003 234 571 ABN 76 117 642 471 QUALITY ENDORSED COMPANY ISO 9001 LIC 1608/01 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA`W:\s26793-001e-\24\rp00201s.doc
REPORT
Power Factor Correction Evaluation
`
Revision: Issued: C 04 Sept 2002
NORMAN DISNEY & YOUNG 1 Chandos Street, ST LEONARDS Telephone :+61 2 9928 6800 Facsimile : +61 2 9439 6580 Email : sydney@ndy.com WEB : http://www.ndy.com
COPYRIGHT
Copyright 2002 by Norman Disney & Young All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, by parties other than those employed or engaged by the Australian Building Codes Board, and only in direct connection with the purpose for which this document has been provided by Norman Disney & Young, without the written permission of Norman Disney & Young.
Table of Contents
1
2
Executive Summary..........................................................................................1
Introduction .......................................................................................................2
4 5
Applications ......................................................................................................8
Energy retailer tariff structures & requirements ............................................9
Table of Contents
Table 7 MEPS Minimum Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test Method A.25
Table 8 MEPS Minimum Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test Method B..26
Table 9 MEPS Minimum High Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test
Method A ......................................................................................................................................27
Table 10 MEPS Minimum High Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test
Method B ......................................................................................................................................28
7.2 Power factor and motor efficiency ....................................................................................29
10
Conclusion ......................................................................................................34
ii
1 Executive Summary
Electrical energy efficiency is of prime importance to industrial and commercial companies operating in today's competitive markets. Optimum use of plant and equipment is one of the main concerns that industry tries to balance with energy efficiency, for both economical and environmental reasons. As society becomes increasingly conscious of its impact on the environment, reduced energy consumption becomes more desirable, which, is an achievable goal for everyone. Through the use of measures such as power factor correction, electricity consumption is optimised, which ultimately leads to reduced energy consumption and reduced CO2 greenhouse gas emissions. This report introduces the concept of power factor correction and its use in reducing power consumption. This is followed by indicative electricity costs around Australia along with the minimum power factors required by Network Service Providers (NSPs). The expected typical power factor and maximum demands for various building forms and classes have been presented along with recommended power factors for these buildings. Motors are an integral part of many commercial and industrial buildings, and are commonly used for a number of applications including air conditioning and pumping. Efficiency requirements of electric motors have been listed for different sizes, and the benefits to both industry and society of using higher efficiency motors outlined. Finally a brief summary of power factor correction methods is presented and indicative costs of installation for the most common type of commercial developments. Within a cost conscious market, payback considerations are also important. This report identifies the most appropriate application for power factor correction based on energy consumption, tariff metering, cost payback and emission reduction. Power factor correction is an appropriate means by which to improve the power quality of an installation. Its application is dependent though on the size of the installation and the extent that power factor correction needs to be applied. The opportunity however exists to make a significant environmental contribution whilst simultaneously providing economic benefit. This report identifies such issues and concludes with the recommendation that provisions be made in the Building Code of Australia for power factor correction.
2 Introduction
2.1 Objectives of Study
The objective of this report is to provide an evaluation of the application of power factor correction based on building size, type and use and whether provisions should be made for its inclusion in subsequent revisions of the Building Code of Australia.
2.2 Authority
Authority to undertake this report was provided by Dr Ernest Donnelly of the Australian Building Codes Board. Report commission date: Draft Report submission date: Final Report Submission date: 25 June 2002 19 July 2002 04 Sept 2002
2.4 Outline
This report provides:
Recommendations where power factor correction should be applied. electricity prices both domestic and commercial for capital cities and the regional centres of Cairns, Coffs Harbour, Mt Isa, Geraldton, Alice Springs, Kalgoorlie, Charleville, Albury and Wagga Wagga. minimum power factor that supply authorities specify for the aforementioned locations of various building forms designated A to E as noted in this report. range of power factors and maximum loads (in kVA) that could be expected in the various building forms A to E. efficiencies of electric motors used in the building industry and the impact of higher efficiency motors on power factor. of what minimum power factor should be set and for what building demand.
Average
The The
Typical
Estimates Indicative A
costs to install power factor correction to achieve the recommended minimum based on the building demand. recommendation on whether power factor correction should be included in the provisions.
Lagging PF
Leading PF
Power Angle
Induction motor
Transmission Network The section of the network from where the electricity is produced (i.e. power station) to the distribution network. The voltages are stepped up to minimise transmission losses for subsequent downstream transmission to end-users. Distribution Network The end point of a transmission system where the voltages are stepped back down and distributed at useable voltages to customers.
Figure 1 Power triangle showing relationship between real power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor
VARs
Power factor
= cos () = kW kVA
Apparent Power
(Volt-Amps)
A load typically has a resistive component and a reactive component as depicted in the figure below. Real power, measured in kW is dissipated in the resistive component performing the work of the system and provides the motion or heat. Reactive power is measured in kVARs and doesnt contribute to work as such but rather sustains the electromagnetic field required for the device to operate. It is this level of reactive power compared to real power that determines the power factor. For a heater (which is a pure resistive load) the reactive power is zero; the voltage and current waveforms are in phase, the power angle is zero and hence the power factor, pf = cos(0) = 1. For a motor that requires an electromagnetic field to operate the power factor may be around 0.8.
Although the current through the reactive component (Ireactive) dissipates no power (and is hence not measured by a kWh meter), this current still needs to be transmitted along the distribution lines and hence will dissipate energy through other resistive components in the system (cabling, switchgear, distribution boards, etc). By generating/providing this reactive current locally through the use of power factor correction equipment, less power needs to be provided by the distribution network resulting in lower losses, improved line voltage and a lower electricity bill under a kVA tariff structure. Reactive power can be supplied via a method of power factor correction involving the installation of capacitor banks. Typically these consist of switched capacitor banks providing bulk correction to a whole building with control equipment switching the level of capacitance to optimise the power factor. Another method is static correction in which the capacitors are attached to individual pieces of equipment and are switched in and out as the device is switched on and off. The capacitors by supplying reactive power have the effect of reducing the magnitude of the line current as shown on the diagram below.
It is clear from the diagram above the effectiveness of power factor correction in reducing the line current and associated losses. The capacitance supplied by the power factor correction equipment provides reactive power locally reducing the power angle from to resulting in a reduction in the line current between the power factor equipment and the electricity network. The net effect is a reduced electrical load as seen by the electricity network and for those on kVA electricity tariffs electricity bill savings. It should be noted that while the line current between the distribution network and power factor correction equipment is reduced, the current between the power factor correction equipment and the equipment remains unaltered. Hence the power supply and associated cabling to the equipment from the power factor correction equipment needs to be sized for the original equipment requirements. This is illustrated on the following diagram.
Power triangle
11kV
415V
Distribution
Network
Load
3.2 Resonance
An important but often overlooked issue associated with power factor correction is that of resonance. A series or parallel combination of inductance and capacitance has associated with it a natural frequency at which resonance will occur. Some devices such as antennas use this property to its advantage however in a power system resonance can be very damaging. By adding capacitors in an attempt to improve the power factor, resonance with inherently inductive power lines can occur when excited by harmonics generated by electrical equipment such as switch mode power supplies commonly used in personal computers and UPS systems. The impact of resonance on a power factor correction system is that it could significantly reduce the life of the capacitors or destroy them. A solution to this is to include detuned reactors in the design of power factor correction equipment. By introducing a known reactance, the resonant frequency of the system can be chosen to filter out harmonics and improve power quality. Systems are commonly tuned to approximately 190 Hz acting as a low pass filter to limit the 5th harmonic (250Hz for 50Hz supply) and higher. Low temperature rise reactors in the detuning circuitry are recommended, to reduce heat load.
BLOCKER, REJECTER or STOPPER circuits to a value which will prevent interference to the electricity distributors ripple control system.1
When choosing a location for the installation of PFC equipment, consideration to present cooling systems available in the area needs to be made.
1 Section 6 New South Wales Service and Installation Rules March 1999
4 Applications
The major application of power factor correction is in reducing the maximum demand of apparent power (kVA) consumed by the customer as measured by the supply authority. In reducing the maximum demand the customer is able to markedly reduce their electricity bill as a result of the way energy retailers charge their customers. There is also an environmental benefit as a result of more efficient electricity use. Larger customers are billed according to not only the real power they consume but also the level of apparent power the network needs to provide to them. This structure apart from normal kWh metering also includes a maximum demand charge, which is based on kVA demand metered on a half hourly basis, which reflects the customers power factor. The customer is charged for the kilowatt-hours used but a surcharge is then applied according to the maximum kVA drawn at any one point during the billing period. As such, cost savings may be realized by reducing the maximum kVA drawn through the installation of power factor correction equipment. In residential installations, standard residential tariffs only measure the kilowatt-hours used which is unaffected by power factor and hence the use of power factor correction equipment would have no benefit to the customer in terms of reducing their bill. There would however be an environmental benefit through the reduction in power consumption due to reduced distribution losses. Typical reactive loads, such as transformers, lighting ballasts, and AC motors have a sinusoidal current flow, however the phase of the current waveform is shifted from that of the supply voltage waveform. Hence a poor power factor as a result of these loads can be improved via the addition of power factor correction. However, there are some loads that draw distinctly non-sinusoidal currents. Widespread offenders are the switch-mode power supplies in computers and phase controlled light dimmers. This commutation results in a discontinuous current waveform and subsequently increased losses on the supply. Not only is the current waveform highly non-sinusoidal, but it is also out of phase with the voltage supply. Inverters are also quite poor performers however some manufacturers claim a power factor of greater than 0.95 when in reality, the true power factor may be below 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based on the angle between the voltage and current waveforms but neglects that the current waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to increased losses on the supply. A poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform as a result of non-linear loads introducing harmonics requires harmonic filters for an appreciable improvement. Thus, detuned reactors and harmonic filters need to be included in the power factor correction equipment to reduce the possibility of resonance with the supply and to reduce the aforementioned harmonics. It is clear that any business on a kVA metering tariff will benefit from power factor correction through lower electricity costs. However this may or may not be seen as an advantage depending on the payback period. For a large installation, power factor correction may cost $30,000 however may save $3000 per month in electricity costs, resulting in a pay back period of less than a year, whereas for a smaller installation the payback period may be several years and hence the capital expenditure may not be attractive to the customer.
Table 1 - Central Business Districts and their associated franchises (as at July 2002) Central Business District
Sydney Brisbane Canberra Adelaide Perth Darwin Melbourne Hobart
Franchise
Energy Australia, Integral Energy Energex Actew-AGL ETSA Utilities Western Power Northern Territory Power and Water Authority (PAWA) TXU, United Energy, AGL, CitiPower, Powercor Aurora Energy
Table 2 - Regional centres and their associated franchises (as at July 2002) Regional Centre
Albury, New South Wales Coffs Harbour, New South Wales Wagga Wagga, New South Wales Charleville, Queensland Cairns, Queensland Mt Isa, Queensland Kalgoorlie, Western Australia Geraldton, Western Australia Alice Springs, Northern Territory
Franchise
Country Energy Country Energy Country Energy Ergon Energy Ergon Energy Ergon Energy Western Power Western Power Northern Territory Power and Water Authority (PAWA)
The following graphs depict average energy prices around Australia by region.
16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 /kWh 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
Total Average Residential Non-residential NT 14.1 15.4 13.6 SA 12.8 15.1 11.0 VIC 12.0 14.2 10.5 WA 11.2 14.3 9.6 ACT 10.8 10.1 11.4 QLD 9.4 11.2 8.2 NSW 9.1 10.8 8.2 TAS 5.5 11.3 4.3
10
15.62
18 16
15.93
13.95
13.91
13.58
13.25 Canberra
13.5
14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Melbourne City Melbourne-SE suburbs Central NSW Northern NSW Melbourne-Nth suburbs Northern Territory Eastern Victoria South Australia Western Australia Western Victoria
Southern NSW
Tasmania
Queensland
West Sydney-Illawarra
Far-west NSW
Sydney-Newcastle
12.51
11
Business Electricity Prices by distribution area - high voltage demand (with annual peak demand of 2,500 kW at 60% load factor)
9.97 8.89
8.62
9.61
8.29
8.08
8.06
8.03
7.89
7.87
7.69
7.47
7.33
7.4
7.13
6.51
6.41 Tasmania
Northern Territory
Western Victoria
Melbourne-City
West Sydney-Illawarra
Southern NSW
Eastern Victoria
South Australia
Northern NSW
Central NSW
Melbourne-SE suburbs
Melbourne-Nth suburbs
Regional Queensland
Brisbane-Gold Coast
Sydney-Newcastle
Western Australia
Canberra
6.25
12
Table 3 National Electricity Code Permissible Power Factor Ranges (Table S5.3.1)5 Nominal Supply Voltage
Greater than 400 kV 250 kV 400 kV 50 kV 250 kV Less than 50 kV
A Network Service Provider may permit a lower lagging or leading power factor where this will not detrimentally affect system security, or require a higher lagging or leading power factor to achieve required power transfers. If the power factor falls outside the relevant range in table S5.3.1 over any critical loading period nominated by the Network Service Provider, the Customer must, where required by the Network Service Provider in order to economically achieve required power transfer levels, take action to ensure that the power factor falls within range as soon as reasonably practicable. Installing additional reactive plant or reaching a commercial agreement with the Network Service Provider to install, operate and maintain equivalent reactive plant as part of the connection assets may achieve this. A Code Participant who installs shunt capacitors to comply with power factor requirements must comply with the Network Service Provider's reasonable requirements to ensure that the design does not severely attenuate audio frequency signals used for load control or operations. 5 (see Ripple Control section) The following is a listing of distribution Network Service Providers (NSPs) (transmission not included) and their required minimum power factors as specified in their respective service and installation rules.
5 National Electricity Code Version 1.0 Amendment 7.0 1998-2002 National Electricity Code Administrator Limited, ACN 073 942 775
13
Table 4 Distribution Network Service Providers and their Power Factor Requirements Distribution Network Service Provider
AGL Gas Company (ACT) Limited and ACTEW Distribution Limited trading as ActewAGL Distribution EnergyAustralia Integral Energy Australia Australian Inland Energy and Water Country Energy Power and Water Authority (PAWA)
State
Australian Capital Territory
Installation
All installations
New South Wales New South Wales New South Wales New South Wales Northern Territory
All installations All installations All installations All installations All installations
Min 0.9 lagging7 Min 0.9 lagging7 Min 0.9 lagging7 Min 0.9 lagging7 Min 0.85 lagging8 Min 0.8 lagging Min 0.8 lagging
ENERGEX Limited Ergon Energy Corporation Limited Utilities Management Pty Ltd (ETSA Utilities) Aurora Energy Pty Ltd
See Table 6 South Australian Power Factor Requirements (ETSA) pg 15 All installations Min 0.75 lagging to 0.75 leading9
Tasmania
AGL Electricity Limited CitiPower Pty Powercor Australia Ltd TXU Electricity Limited United Energy Limited Western Power Corporation
See Table 5 Victorian Power Factor Requirements (all Network Service Providers) pg 15
All installations
6 Clause 4.6.1 ActewAGL Service & Installation Rules 7 Clause 1.9.10 New South Wales Service and Installation Rules 8 Power and Water Authority Service and Installation Rules 9 Section 5 Your basic responsibilities Aurora Energy Tariff Agreement 10 Clause 2.4.1 Power Factor Requirements Western Power Access to Electricity Distribution Networks, Distribution Technical Code and Planning Criteria July 1997
14
Table 5 Victorian Power Factor Requirements (all Network Service Providers)11 Supply Voltage (kV) Power Factor Range for Customer Max Demand and Voltage Up to 100 kVA
Min. Lagging Less than 6.6 6.6, 11, 22 66 0.75 0.8 0.85 Min. Leading 0.8 0.8 0.85
Over 2 MVA
Min. Lagging 0.85 0.9 0.95 Min. Leading 0.85 0.9 0.98
Table 6 South Australian Power Factor Requirements (ETSA)12 Supply Voltage (kV) Power Factor Range for Customer Max Demand and Voltage Up to 100 kVA
Min. Lagging Less than 6.6 6.6 to < 66 Greater than 66 0.80 0.80 Min. Leading 0.80 0.80
Over 2 MVA
Min. Lagging 0.90 0.90 Min. Leading 0.85 0.90
11 Table 2 Power Factor Limits Electricity Distribution Code Jan 2002 (Victoria) 12 p.14 Schedule ETSA Utilities Distribution Code 14 September 2000
15
16
switchroom for the cabinets housing the equipmentregardless of whether it is to be installed initially, to allow for future installation. By connecting PFC equipment to the main switchboard, all services are generally covered and corrected. This is the easiest way to ensure maximum correction, however, depending on the size of the installation it may be more beneficial and cost-effective to apply PFC to a single piece of plant. The following provides estimates as to the expected power factors and maximum loads (VA/sqm) for the various building forms as provided in the document All Building Forms (3.09.01). Whilst these estimates may provide an indication, the expected power factors and maximum loads depend on many factors, unique to every building including: The outside environment and its effects on the building structure Presence/absence of air-conditioning and type of system used Effects of equipment loads within the premises Lighting scheme In the ensuing tables the following headings are used: Class Building Description Expected PF VA/sqm NLA Maximum total load Savings ($) per Month the class of building as defined in the Building Code of Australia. building use any specifics relevant to the building demand rating and power factor the expected power factor for a non-corrected installation a range of the expected VA per sqm that can be expected Net Lettable Area the maximum total load that can be expected for such a building = Max VA/sqm x Floor Area (NLA) The savings that can be expected per month based on achieving a power factor of 0.95 improved from the expected power factor. The savings per month are based on a typical demand charge tariff value of $6.60/kVA/month.
17
Form A: Classes 2 3 5
Building Quantities
R5
total FECA total NLA floors 10,000 m2 8,500 m2 10 1:1 850 31.6 31.6 3.6
C2 F4 F2 W6 G1
m2 m m m
Construction ID Fabric elem. Type rc R5 roof slab w. metal deck C2 ceilings demountable tiles W6 walls precast concrete glazing al frame, single glass, venetians G1 (50% all faces) F4 upper floors rc slab w ceiling suspended rc slab F2 lowest floor (over basement carpark)
Mid-high rise towers, covering buildings of 5-100 storeys with 500-3,000 m2 per storey (total area 2,500300,000 m2). Typically freestanding and seen most commonly as Class 5 in business districts (CBD or outlying centres). Classes 2 and 3 may occur in isolation in residential areas or in resorts. Parking is likely to be under the building in basements.
Class 2
Building Apartments
Description Aircon, electric hot water Aircon, gas hot water No aircon, gas hot water Air conditioned No air conditioning Air conditioning cooling only Reverse cycle Electrical reheat
3 5
Maximum Total Load (kVA) 510 340 255 850 510 850 765 1105
Savings ($) per month $471 $555 $236 $1,388 $471 $1,891 $1,702 $2,458
Form B: Classes 2 3 5 6 9
Building Quantities Construction ID Fabric elem. Type metal deck R2 roof C2 ceilings demountable tiles W6 walls precast concrete glazing al frame, single glass, venetians G1 (50% N&S faces) (20% E&W faces) F4 upper floors rc slab w ceiling suspended rc slab F2 lowest floor (over carpark)
R2
total FECA total NLA floors aspect ratio NLA/floor length depth floor-floor
C2 W6 F4 F2 G1
m2 m m m
Freestanding or abutting low rise blocks (2-4 storeys) with 500-20,000 m2 per storey (total area 1,000100,000m2). In built-up areas, the buildings will mostly be aligned to the street layout and may have blank faces adjoining neighbouring buildings. May occur as freestanding buildings in regional towns, outlying centres of major cities, office park precincts or campus developments. Parking may be under the building or in adjacent surface carparks.
Class 2
Building Apartments
Description Aircon, electric hot water Aircon, gas hot water No aircon, gas hot water Air conditioned No air conditioning Air conditioning - cooling only Reverse cycle Electrical reheat Not air conditioned public areas Air conditioned public areas Air conditioned
3 5
Expected PF 0.90 0.85 0.90 0.85 0.90 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.85 0.80 0.80
VA (sqm) 50-60 30-40 20-30 60-100 40-60 70-100 60-90 80-130 60-140 80-160 110-150
Maximum Total Load (kVA) 102 68 51 170 102 170 153 221 238 272 255
Savings ($) per month $94 $111 $47 $278 $94 $378 $340 $492 $389 $605 $567
Form C: Classes 6 7 8 9
Building Quantities Construction ID Fabric elem. Type R2 roofmetal deck demountable tiles C2 ceiling W6 walls precast concrete G1 m2 m m m
R2
total FECA total NLA floors aspect ratio NLA/floor length depth floor-floor
F1
al glazing frame, single glass, venetians (80% N, E&W faces) (0% S face) rc floor slab on ground
F1
W6
G1
Freestanding, low rise blocks (1-2 storeys, totalling 500-50,000m2) with expanded storey heights for special purposes (including retail, storage, institutional and recreational uses). Likely to occur on greenfield sites or as part of campus developments (schools, universities, hospitals, industrial precincts and technology parks) but may be found in city, town and suburban centres. Retail examples may range from freestanding single sales showrooms to fully enclosed multi-outlet developments. Parking is likely to be surface or structured facilities adjoining the buildings.
Class 6 7 8 9
Building Retail sales outlets Controlled environment Storage Factories, workshops, auditoria, gymnasia
Description Not air conditioned Air conditioned Air conditioned Unventilated Ventilated Ventilated Air conditioned
Form D: Classes 3 5 6 8 9
Building Quantities Construction ID Fabric elem. Type metal deck R2 roof C2 ceiling..demountable tiles W1 walls single leaf conc block glazing al frame, single glass, G1 venetians (60% N&S faces) (0% E&W faces) F1 rc floor slab on ground
R2
total FECA total NLA floors aspect ratio NLA/floor length depth floor-floor
F1
W1
G1
m2 m m m
Freestanding or abutting, low rise buildings (1-2 storeys), of commercial construction (total floor areas up to 1,000 m2). Occur in most cities and towns as drive-up offices and shops with parking immediately adjoining the buildings. May also occur in campus developments and industrial precincts.
Class 3 5
Description
6 8 9
No air conditioning Air conditioning cooling only Reverse cycle Electrical reheat Not air conditioned Air conditioned Levels 2, 3 Levels 5, 6 Diagnostic
Expected PF 0.85 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.85 0.80 0.90 0.85 0.85 0.85
VA (sqm) 40-100 40-60 70-100 60-90 80-130 40-100 60-140 40 - 60 110 150 200
Savings ($) per month $78 $47 $106 $95 $137 $78 $148 $26 $85 $116 $155
Form E: Classes 2 3 5
Building Quantities total FECA total NLA floors aspect ratio NLA/floor length depth floor-floor 200 m2 190 m2 1 2 190.0 20.0 10.0 3.3 Construction ID Fabric elem. Type concrete tiles R1 roof C1 ceiling..sheet ceiling W4 walls brick veneer glazing al frame, single glass, G1 venetians (50% N&S faces) (10% E&W faces) F1 rc floor slab on ground
R1
W4 F1
G1
m2 m m m
Freestanding or abutting, low rise (1-2 storeys), residential or commercial buildings of domestic construction, with in-built HVAC provisions. Individual blocks may be as small as 50 m2 but, in clusters or adjoining blocks, form facilities totalling several thousand square metres. Seen in most cities and towns as motels and residential duplexes. Parking will typically immediately adjoin the buildings.
Class 2 3 5
Description
Air conditioned No air conditioning Air conditioning cooling only Reverse cycle Electrical reheat
Savings ($) per month $14 $31 $19 $42 $38 $55
13 http://www.isr.gov.au/motors/ 14 http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/procurement/motor_tips.html
23
Since 1 October 2001, three phase electric motors from 0.73kW to <185kW manufactured in or imported into Australia must comply with Minimum Energy Performance (MEPS) requirements, which are set out in AS/NZS 1359.5-2000. MEPS does not apply to submersible motors, integral motor-gear systems, variable or multi-speed speed motors or those rated only for short duty cycles (IEC60034-2 duty rating S2). The Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) requirements are set out as minimum efficiency levels. The following outlines the relevant sections of the Standard AS1359: Rotating electrical machines - General Requirements Part 101: Rating and Performance AS1359: Rotating electrical machines - General Requirements Part 102.1: Methods for determining losses and efficiency General AS/NZS1359: Rotating electrical machines - General Requirements Part 102.3: Methods for determining losses and efficiency Three phase cage induction motors AS/NZS1359: Rotating electrical machines - General Requirements Part 5: Three phase cage induction motors - High efficiency and minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) requirements Part 101 of AS/NZS1359 sets out methods for determining the rated output of the electric motor, thermal performance and other related performance tests (pull up torque, various short circuit tests etc.). This standard is based on and is equivalent to IEC60034.1. Part 102.1 (also known as Test Method B) of the standard sets out methods for determining the efficiency of an electric motor, primarily using the summation of losses for AC cage induction motors (it also covers other motor types and methods of determining efficiency). This standard is based on and is equivalent to IEC60034.2 including up to amendment 2 (1996). Note that this standard assumes that additional losses (also called stray losses) are fixed at 0.5% for all motor types and sizes. Part 102.3 (also known as Test Method A) of the standard sets out methods for determining the efficiency of a three phase electric motor using the summation of losses method, and includes the direct measurement of additional load losses (also called stray losses) by use of accurate torque measurements over a wide range of outputs. This standard is based on and is equivalent to US test procedures ANSI/IEEE 112-1984 (Method B) and NEMA MG1-1987. It is also equivalent to the forthcoming edition of the revised IEC motor test procedure, which should be published by 2002/2003. Part 5 of the standard sets out the requirements for MEPS for three phase electric motors in Australia. Three phase products from 0.73kW to <185kW have to be registered for MEPS.15 As part of AS1359.102 minimum efficiency levels are set for 2, 4, 6 and 8 pole machines, according to 2 different testing methods, Test Method A (AS1359.102.1) and Test Method B (AS/NZS1359.102.3). These tables for Test Method A (AS1359.102.1) and Test Method B (AS/NZS1359.102.3) provide a very good indication to the efficiency levels of typical motors and also the efficiency improvements as motor size increases.
15 http://www.energyrating.gov.au/manufacturers/motor1.html
24
Table 7 MEPS Minimum Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test Method A Rated output kW
0.73 0.75 1.1 1.5 2.2 3 4 5.5 7.5 11 15 18.5 22 30 37 45 55 75 90 110 132 150 <185
4 pole
72.7 72.7 74.6 76.9 79.5 81.2 82.8 84.4 85.8 87.2 88.3 89.0 89.5 90.5 91.1 91.7 92.2 92.9 93.2 93.8 94.1 94.5 94.5
6 pole
70.7 70.7 73.6 75.7 78.1 79.9 81.6 83.3 84.7 86.4 87.7 88.6 89.1 90.2 90.8 91.5 92.0 92.8 93.2 93.7 94.1 94.4 94.4
8 pole
66.7 66.7 69.9 73.0 76.1 78.2 80.1 82.0 83.7 85.6 87.1 88.0 88.7 89.9 90.6 91.2 91.8 92.7 93.0 93.5 93.8 94.1 94.1
NOTES: 1. For intermediate values of rated output, the efficiency shall be determined by linear interpolation. 2. Tolerances specified in Table 1.1 are applicable to the above values only in the case of a verification test.
25
Table 8 MEPS Minimum Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test Method B Rated output kW
0.73 0.75 1.1 1.5 2.2 3 4 5.5 7.5 11 15 18.5 22 30 37 45 55 75 90 110 132 150 <185
4 pole
74.4 74.4 76.2 78.5 81.0 82.6 84.2 85.7 87.0 88.4 89.4 90.0 90.5 91.4 92.0 92.5 93.0 93.6 93.9 94.4 94.7 95.0 95.0
6 pole
72.4 72.4 75.2 77.3 79.6 81.4 83.0 84.6 86.0 87.6 88.8 89.6 90.1 91.1 91.7 92.3 92.8 93.5 93.9 94.3 94.7 94.9 94.9
8 pole
68.4 68.4 71.5 74.6 77.6 79.7 81.5 83.3 85.0 86.8 88.2 89.0 89.7 90.8 91.5 92.0 92.6 93.4 93.7 94.1 94.4 94.7 94.7
NOTES: 1. For intermediate values of rated output, the efficiency shall be determined by linear interpolation. 2. Tolerances specified in Table 1.1 are applicable to the above values only in the case of a verification test.
The Part 5 standard also sets out minimum efficiency levels for claims of "high efficiency" for three phase electric motors. These are set out in the tables below for Test Method A (AS1359.102.1) and Test Method B (AS/NZS1359.102.3):
26
Table 9 MEPS Minimum High Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test Method A Rated output kW
0.73 0.75 1.1 1.5 2.2 3 4 5.5 7.5 11 15 18.5 22 30 37 45 55 75 90 110 132 150 <185
4 pole
80.5 80.5 82.2 83.5 84.9 86.0 87.0 87.9 88.9 89.9 90.8 91.2 91.6 92.3 92.8 93.1 93.5 94.0 94.4 94.7 94.9 95.2 95.2
6 pole
76.0 76.0 78.3 79.9 81.9 83.5 84.7 86.1 87.3 88.7 89.6 90.3 90.8 91.6 92.2 92.7 93.1 93.7 94.2 94.5 94.8 95.1 95.1
8 pole
71.8 71.8 74.7 76.8 79.4 81.3 82.8 84.5 86.0 87.7 88.9 89.7 90.2 91.2 91.8 92.4 92.9 93.7 94.1 94.5 94.8 95.2 95.2
NOTES: 1. For intermediate values of rated output, the efficiency shall be determined by linear interpolation. 2. Tolerances specified in Table 1.1 are applicable to the above values only in the case of a verification test.
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Table 10 MEPS Minimum High Efficiency Levels for Three Phase Electric Motors - Test Method B Rated output kW
0.73 0.75 1.1 1.5 2.2 3 4 5.5 7.5 11 15 18.5 22 30 37 45 55 75 90 110 132 150 <185
4 pole
82.2 82.2 83.8 85.0 86.4 87.4 88.3 89.2 90.1 90.1 91.8 92.2 92.6 93.2 93.6 93.9 94.2 94.7 95.0 95.3 95.5 95.7 95.7
6 pole
77.7 77.7 79.9 81.5 83.4 84.9 86.1 87.4 88.5 89.8 90.7 91.3 91.8 92.5 93.0 93.5 93.9 94.4 94.8 95.1 95.4 95.6 95.6
8 pole
73.5 73.5 76.3 78.4 80.9 82.7 84.2 85.8 87.2 88.8 90.0 90.7 91.2 92.1 92.7 93.2 93.7 94.4 94.7 95.1 95.4 95.7 95.7
NOTES: 1. For intermediate values of rated output, the efficiency shall be determined by linear interpolation. 2. Tolerances specified in Table 1.1 are applicable to the above values only in the case of a verification test.
28
29
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Table 11 Indicative Installation Costs for 525 Volt Capacitors Installation Size (kVAR)
200 250 450 550 600
The cost of a small installation is around $2500/50 kVAR, reducing towards $2000/50 kVAR as the installation size increases. This cost only reflects the cost of installing the equipment and does not include possible modifications to the main switchboard. An additional allowance for the circuit breaker required to attach the equipment to the main switchboard also needs to be made. For a 600 kVAR unit, a 1250A circuit breaker is required which will cost in the order of $6000. As discussed previously PFC equipment generates heat load that needs to be extracted to ensure the correct operation of the equipment within the recommended temperature limits. Depending on the location of installation, the additional heat load may require the installation of additional cooling capacity.
31
The value of $6.60/kVA/Month is a typical figure and will change depending on the electricity tariff the customer is on. This will have an effect on the payback period, which will have to be determined on an installation-by-installation basis. Whilst a target power factor as close as possible to unity may be set when calculating the size of the required correction banks, the exact size required may not be a standard bank configuration resulting in less correction kVARs being installed than optimum. Consideration also needs to be made regarding the payback period. Correction to pf = 0.95 may be economically viable with a reasonable payback period, whereas additional correction to pf = 0.98 may only serve to significantly increase the payback period of the installation. The size of the correction unit may also be limited by the space available in the switchboard. The switchboard may not physically have the space available to install a large enough circuit breaker to connect the power factor correction. For example if the board is rated at 1250A then the maximum size of the connected power factor correction equipment is in the order of 650 kVAR which may limit the achievable corrected power factor. PFC equipment generates a certain heat load that requires extraction to ensure operation within the manufacturers temperature limits. To cater for the additional heat load cooling capacity may need to be increased incurring additional costs. A 3 kW cassette type wall mounted packaged unit costs in the order of $7000 is capable of handling the additional heat load of 2 x 650 KVAR PFC units.
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10 Conclusion
This report has introduced the concept of power factor correction and its use in reducing reactive power consumption. This was followed by indicative electricity costs around Australia. The expected power factor and maximum demands for various building forms and classes were addressed along with recommended power factors for these buildings and where the power factor correction equipment should be installed. Typical efficiencies of electric motors were listed for different sizes and the benefits to both industry and society of using higher efficiency motors. Finally a brief summary of power factor correction methods was presented and indicative costs of installation and associated payback periods for the most common type of commercial developments. The installation of power factor correction is a widely recognised way to reduce energy consumption, thereby reducing electricity costs and benefiting the environment. For commercial installations the incentive to install power factor correction is the savings that will be realised on the customers electricity bill. However it is the length of the payback period that for the vast majority will determine a customers willingness to install such equipment and as such will need to be assessed on a case by case basis. For all installations it was identified that a power factor correction system needs to include detuned reactors and harmonic filters to maximise power quality, minimise the possibility of resonance and reap the maximum benefit of power factor correction. For residential customers the incentive is purely altruistic since kVA demand is not taken into account in billing energy to date. This is not overly detrimental since gains for residential installations are somewhat reduced compared to commercial development as power factor is already very close to unity. The power factor should be corrected as close to unity as possible but needs to be evaluated on an installation-by-installation basis. The level to which an individual installation should be corrected depends on a variety of factors such as the size of the required correction and the electricity tariff structure the customer has selected or negotiated. As a minimum however the power factor should be corrected to exceed the minimum requirement as specified by the relevant Network Service Providers which in general is greater than pf = 0.9. Society must appreciate that production of the built environment contributes to the depletion of finite natural resources and therefore must accept the responsibility to assist in optimising the consumption of resources in both the construction and operation of buildings. By making provisions in the Building Code of Australia for power factor correction coupled with the use of efficient motors there is an opportunity to make a significant contribution to the quality and sustainability of the natural and built environment whilst simultaneously realising economic gains.
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35
Powerlink Queensland RMB Australia Ltd Snowy Hydro Trading Pty Ltd Stanwell Corporation Ltd Tarong Energy Corporation Ltd TransEnergie Australia Pty Ltd TransGrid TXU TXU Torrens Island Power Station (formally Optima Energy) United Energy Ltd Yallourn Energy Pty Ltd Yamasa Seafoods Australia Pty Ltd
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Appendix B - References
In preparing this report various sources were consulted: Project brief with building forms document All Building Forms (3.09.01) Energy retailers and authorities Energy Australia www.energy.com.au Integral Energy www.integral.com.au Country Energy www.countryenergy.com.au Northern Territory Power & Water Authority www.pawa.com.au Electricity Supply Association (ESAA) www.esaa.com.au National Electricity Code Administrator www.neca.com.au TXU Australia www.txu.com.au ETSA Utilities www.etsa.com.au Aurora Energy www.auroraenergy.com.au Western Power www.westernpower.com.au Energex www.energex.com.au Ergon Energy www.ergon.com.au National Electricity Market Management Company (NEMMCO) www.nemmco.com.au
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Appendix C
This appendix presents the tariff boundaries for New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia. ACT, Northern Territory, South Australia and Tasmania have only single distribution network service providers.
38
39
Queensland has two NSPs, Energex and Ergon Energy. The boundaries for Energex are shown below. The remainder of Queensland is supplied by Ergon Energy.
40
Western Power is the main supplier in Western Australia apart from mining operations. The map below shows the main regions of supply.
41
Swan Hill
km
60
All features displayed on this map are indicative only, supply areas illustrated are approximate - current at September 2001
Echuca Shepparton
Bendigo Horsham Seymour Ararat Ballarat Hamilton Sunbury Broadmeadows Sunshine Werribee Geelong Portland Warrnambool Greensborough Lilydale Ringwood Ferntree Gully Warragul Moe Sale Traralgon
N
TXU
Bairnsdale
UNITED ENERGY