Beaker = A container used for measuring the liquid. Barrette = Used for measuring the volume of the solution.

Wire gauze = used for spreading the heat of a burner(flame). Test tube brush = It is used to clean the test tube. Droper = It is used for adding the solution drop by drop. Magnifying glass = It is used for viewing the minute objects. Filter paper = It is used for separating the liquid and the precipitate. Stirring rod = It is used for mixing the liquids or distribution of heat in a liquid by stirring. Spring balance = used for measuring the mass of the materials. Forceps = It is used for holding or picking up small objects. Watch glass = It is used for holding small samples of the substances on which the experiment is performed. Wash bottle = It is used for dispensing small quantities of distilled water. Test-tube holders = It is used for holding the test tubes. Test tubes = it is used for holding small samples or performing small-scale reactions Pipette - It is used for transferring one substance into another by measuring. Centrifuge - It is used for separating the materials of varying densities from a colloid. Thermometer - It is used for measuring the temperature. PH Scale - It is used for measuring the acidity or basicity of the solution. Crucible - it is used for heating a small amount of a solid substance at a very high temperature. Tripod = It is a three-legged stand that supports the wire gauze while heating. Microscope = It is used for viewing the ultra minute objects by the process of magnification. Multimeter = It is used for measuring the current, voltage and resistance. clay triangle - a wire frame with porcelain used to support a crucible graduated cylinder - measures approximate volume of liquids graduated pipette - measures solution volumes condenser - used in distillation crucible - used to heat a small amount of a solid substance at a very high temperature funnel - used to transfer solids and liquids without spilling balance - measures mass of material pH meter - measures acidity of solutions centrifuge - separates materials of varying density pipette - used to transfer measured substances into another vessel droppers - for addition of liquids, drop by drop glass funnels - for funneling liquids from one container to another, or for filtering when equipped with filter paper. Ring stand (with rings or clamps) - for holding pieces of glassware in place. tongs - similar function to forceps, but are useful for larger items volumetric flasks - to measure precise volumes of liquid or to make precise dilutions. Greek era 1704 1803 1832 1859 1869 1873 1879 1886 1894 1895

Democritus Isaac Newton John Dalton Michael Faraday J. Plucker Dmitri Mendeleev James Clerk Maxwell Sir William Crookes E. Goldstein G.J. Stoney Wilhelm Roentgen

"by convention bitter, by convention sweet, but in reality atoms and void" Proposed a mechanical universe with small solid masses in motion. Proposed an "atomic theory" with spherical solid atoms based upon measurable properties of mass. Studied the effect of electricity on solutions, coined term "electrolysis" as a splitting of molecules with electricity, developed laws of electrolysis. Faraday himself was not a proponent of atomism. Built one of the first gas discharge tubes ("cathode ray tube").

Arranged elements into 7 groups with similar properties. He discovered that the properties of elements "were periodic functions of the th atomic weights". This became known as the Periodic Law. Proposed electric and magnetic fields filled the void.

Discovered cathode rays had the following properties: travel in straight lines from the cathode; cause glass to fluoresce; impart a negative charge to objects they strike; are deflected by electric fields and magnets to suggest a negative charge; cause pinwheels in their path to spin indicating they have mass. Used a CRT to study "canal rays" which had electrical and magnetic properties opposite of an electron. Proposed that electricity was made of discrete negative particles he called electrons ". (Link to info on electrons)

Using a CRT he observed that nearby chemicals glowed. Further experiments found very penetrating rays coming from the CRT that were deflected by a magnetic field. He named them "X-rays".

1896 1897 1897 1898 1898 1900 1900 1903 1904 1905 1906 1909 1911 1914 1919 1922 1923 1927 1929 1930 1930 1932 1938 1941 51 1942

Henri Becquerel J.J. Thomson J.J. Thomson Rutherford Marie Sklodowska Curie Soddy Max Planck Nagaoka Abegg Albert Einstein Hans Geiger R.A. Millikan Ernest Rutherford H.G.J. Moseley Aston Niels Bohr de Broglie Heisenberg

While studying the effect of x-rays on photographic film, he discovered some chemicals spontaneously decompose and give off very pentrating rays. Used a CRT to experimentally determine the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an electron =1.759 x 10 8 coulombs/gram. Studied "canal rays" and found they were associated with the proton H + . Studied radiations emitted from uranium and thorium and named them alpha and beta.

Studied uranium and thorium and called their spontaneous decay process "radioactivity". She and her husband Pierre also discovered th radioactive elements polonium and radium.

Observed spontaneous disintegration of radioactive elements into variants he called "isotopes" or totally new elements, discovered "half-li made initial calculations on energy released during decay. used the idea of quanta (discrete units of energy) to explain hot glowing matter. Postulated a "Saturnian" model of the atom with flat rings of electrons revolving around a positively charged particle. Discovered that inert gases had a stable electron configuration which lead to their chemical inactivity. Published the famous equation E=mc 2 Developed an electrical device to "click" when hit with alpha particles. Oil drop experiment determined the charge (e=1.602 x 10 -19 coulomb) and the mass (m = 9.11 x 10 -28 gram) of an electron.

Using alpha particles as atomic bullets, probed the atoms in a piece of thin (0.00006 cm)gold foil . He established that the nucleus was: ve dense,very small and positively charged. He also assumed that the electrons were located outside the nucleus.

Using x-ray tubes, determined the charges on the nuclei of most atoms. He wrote"The atomic number of an element is equal to the number protons in the nucleus". This work was used to reorganize the periodic table based upon atomic number instead of atomic mass. Discovered the existence of isotopes through the use of a mass spectrograph.

Developed an explanation of atomic structure that underlies regularities of the periodic table of elements. His atomic model had atoms bu up of sucessive orbital shells of electrons. Discovered that electrons had a dual nature-similar to both particles and waves. Particle/wave duality. Supported Einstein.

Described atoms by means of formula connected to the frequencies of spectral lines. Proposed Principle of Indeterminancy - you can not know both the position and velocity of a particle. Viewed electrons as continuous clouds and introduced "wave mechanics" as a mathematical model of the atom. Using alpha particles discovered a neutral atomic particle with a mass close to a proton. Thus was discovered the neutron.

Cockcroft / Walton Built an early linear accelerator and bombarded lithium with protons to produce alpha particles Schrodinger Paul Dirac James Chadwick Lise Meitner, Hahn , Strassman Glenn Seaborg Enrico Fermi

Proposed anti-particles . Anderson discovered the anti-electron (positron) in 1932 and Segre/Chamberlain detected the anti-proton in 1955

Conducted experiments verifying that heavy elements capture neutrons and form unstable products which undergo fission. This process e more neutrons continuing the fission chain reaction. Synthesized 6 transuranium elements and suggested a change in the layout of the periodic table. Conducted the first controlled chain reaction releasing energy from the atoms nucleus. Follow this link to current theories about atomic stucture.

New 1950's findings/particles

400 B.C. Democritus atomic theory posited that all matter is made up small indestructible units he called atoms. 1704 Isaac Newton theorized a mechanical universe with small, solid masses in motion.

1803 John Dalton proposed that elements consisted of atoms that were identical and had the same mass and that compounds were atoms from different elements combined together. 1832 1859 1869 Michael Faraday developed the two laws of electrochemistry. J. Plucker built one of the first cathode-ray tubes. Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table.

1873 James Clerk Maxwell proposed the theory of electromagnetism and made the connection between light and electromagnetic waves. 1874 G.J. Stoney theorized that electricity was comprised of negative particles he called electrons. Sir William Crookes experiments with cathode-ray tubes led him to confirm the work of earlier scientists by definitively 1879 demonstrating that cathode-rays have a negative charge.

1886 1895 1896 1897 1898

E. Goldstein discovered canal rays, which have a positive charge equal to an electron. Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays. Henri Becquerel discovered radiation by studying the effects of x-rays on photographic film. J.J. Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio of electrons. Rutherford discovered alpha, beta, and gamma rays in radiation.

1898 Marie Sklodowska Curie discovered radium and polonium and coined the term radioactivity after studying the decay process of uranium and thorium. 1900 Max Planck proposed the idea of quantization to explain how a hot, glowing object emitted light.

1900 Frederick Soddy came up with the term "isotope" to explain the unintentional breakdown of radioactive elements. 1903 1904 1906 1914 1919 Hantaro Nagaoka proposed an atomic model called the Saturnian Model to describe the structure of an atom. Richard Abegg found that inert gases have a stable electron configuration. Hans Geiger invented a device that could detect alpha particles. H.G.J. Moseley discovered that the number of protons in an element determines its atomic number. Francis William Aston used a mass spectrograph to identify 212 isotopes.

1922 Niels Bohr proposed an atomic structure theory that stated the outer orbit of an atom could hold more electrons than the inner orbit. 1923 Louis de Broglie proposed that electrons have a wave/particle duality.

1929 Cockcroft / Walton created the first nuclear reaction, producing alpha particles 1930 1932 1938 Paul Dirac proposed the existence of anti-particles. James Chadwick discovered neutrons, particles whose mass was close to that of a proton. Lise Meitner, Hahn, Strassman discovered nuclear fission.

1941-51 Glenn Seaborg discovered eight transuranium elements. 1942 Enrico Fermi created the first man-made nuclear reactor.

In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms, as opposed to the obsolete notion that matter could be divided into any arbitrarily small quantity. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece (Democritus) and India and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of particles. The word "atom" (from the ancient Greek adjective atomos, 'indivisible'[1]) was applied to the basic particle that constituted a chemical element, because the chemists of the era believed that these were the fundamental particles of matter. However, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments withelectromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called "indivisible atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles (chiefly,electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all. Since atoms were found to be actually divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to describe indivisible particles. The field of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.