Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Forces that tend to stretch, or pull something apart, are known as tensile forces and they produce two important effects:
1. In trying to pull the bolt apart, internal resisting forces are created and these internal forces are known as stress.
2. The length of the bolt will increase, and this change in the bolts dimensions is known as strain.
Stress is calculated by dividing the applied force by the cross-sectional area of the bolt.
Stress
where,
=normal stress, or tensile stress, pa P=force applied, N A=cross-sectional area of the bar, m2
Top
Strain
When a load is applied to a metal test bar a change of shape takes place. A tensile load will stretch the bar and a compressive load will shorten it. This change of shape is called strain. Three Types of Strains
where, =tensile or compressive strain, m/m =total elongation in a bar, m =original length of the bar, m
Top
where, E=proportionality constant called the elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus, Pa
Top
Piosson's Ratio
Top
Top
where,
=total elongation in a material which hangs vertically under its own weight W=weight of the material
Thin Rings
where, =Circumferential or hoop Stress S=Circumferential or hoop tension A=Cross-sectional area =Circumferential strain E=Youngs modulus
Top
Strain Energy
where, U=total energy stored in the bar or strain energy P=tensile load =total elongation in the bar L=original length of the bar A=cross-sectional area of the bar
Top
where, =normal or circumferential or hoop stress in cylindrical vessel, Pa =normal or circumferential or hoop stress in spherical vessel, Pa and longitudinal stress around the circumference P=internal pressure of cylinder, Pa r=internal radius, m t=thickness of wall, m
Top
Top
Pure Shear
where, =Shearing Stress, Pa =Shearing Strain or angular deformation G=Shear modulus, Pa E=Youngs modulus, Pa V=Poissons ratio
Top
where, =maximum shearing stress, Pa =Shearing stress at any point a distance x from the centre of a r=radius of the section, m d=diameter of a solid circular shaft, m =polar moment of inertia of a cross-sectional area, m4 T=resisting torque, N-m N= rpm of shaft P=power, kW =angle of twist, radian L=length of shaft, m section
G=shear modulus, Pa do=outer diameter of hollow shaft, m di=inner diameter of hollow shaft, m
and
Top
where, =Ip, polar moment of inertia for thin-walled tubes r=mean radius t=wall thickness
Top
Flexure Formula
where, =Stress on any point of cross-section at distance y from the =stress at outer fibre of the beam c=distance measured from the neutral axis to the most remote fibre of the beam I=moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the centroidal axis neutral axis
Top
where, F=Shear force Q=statistical moment about the neutral axis of the cross-section b=width I=moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the Centroidal axis.
Top
where,
=shearing stress at any point of a blue t=thickness of tube q=shear flow T=applied torque R=distance between a reference point and segment ds =angle of twist of a hollow tube
Top
Stress Concentration
Top
Curved Beam in Pure Bending
where,
=normal stress M=bending moment dA=cross-sectional area of an element r=distance of curved surface from the centre of curvature A=cross-sectional area of beam R=distance of neutral axis from the centre of curvature R1=distance of centroidal axis from the centre of curvature
Top
Bending of a Beam (a) Bending of a Beam Supported at Both Ends
where,