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Contents Sr. No. 1 Particulars Introduction 1.1 Production 1.2 Chemical Constituent 1.3 Varieties Post-Production Operations 2.

1 Pre-harvest Operations 2.2 Harvesting 2.3 Curing 2.4 Cleaning 2.5 Sorting and grading 2.6 Packaging 2.7 Bulk Storage 2.7.1 Onion and its Physiology for Storage 2.7.2 Onion Storage Structure Requirements 2.7.3 Onion Storage Practices 2.7.4 Storage structures 2.7.4.1Pole Method 2.7.4.2Sika method 2.7.4.3Split Bamboo storage structure 2.7.4.4Nasik type storage structure 2.7.4.5Forced air ventilated storage structure 2.8 Processing 2.8.1 Dehydration of Onion 2.8.2 Fermented products 2.8.3 Oil 2.8.4 Juice 2.8.5 Other products Overall Losses Economic and Social Considerations References Page No.

2.

3. 4. 5.

1. INTRODUCTION Onion (Allium cepa L.) is a important vegetable crops in most parts of the world, particularly the varieties that are grown for bulbs. It is a naturally packaged vegetable consisting of fleshy, concentric scales enclosed in paper-like wrapping leaves, connected at the base by a flattened stem disc. Onion is an important crop in the tropics, which account for nearly 30% of total global production. Export potential of onion is developing in several tropical regions partly because if dried and packed properly, the bulbs can be transported for considerable distances without deteriorating. Production of onion in India increased during 2000-01 to 2005-06 (Fig 1). Major onion producing states are Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Maharashtra is leading onion growing state, accounting for about 1645 and 2469 million tonnes production in 2004-05 and 2005-06 respectively. Gujarat accounts for about 1223 and 2128 million tonnes production in 2004-05 and 2005-06 respectively (Fig 2).

Area 10 9 Area (Million Ha), Production (Million Tonnes) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2000-01 2001-02

Production

Yield 14000 12000 Yield (Kg/Ha) 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

Year Fig. 1 All India Area, Production and Yield of onion from 2001-02 to 2005-06

2004-05 Production
3000

2005-06 Production

Production in Million Tonnes

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0


M ah ar as ht ra tta rP ra de sh uj ar at Pr ad es h aj as th an Ha ry an a ri s sa Na du es h ka Ka rn at a ra d O th er O s

M ad hy a

An dh ra

State Fig. 2 Production of Onion during 2004-05 and 2005-06 in respect of major onion producing states

Onion plant and plantation Onion is bulbous biennial or perennial herb that give off a distinctive and pungent odour. Onions are grown on all type of soils such as sandy loam, silt loam and heavy clay soils. The onion grows in mild climate without extremes of high or low temperatures even though it can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. The transplanting of seedlings is more common practiced for cultivation of onion. It is

Ta m il

generally transplanted in the month of August to September and harvested in the month of October to December for kharif whereas rabi crop is transplanted in March to Apri and harvested in May to July. In India, the yield of winter (rabbi) onion is around 25-30 tonnes per hectare and in rainy season (kharif) it is comparatively low. The onion plant and bulb structure is shown in Fig. 3

Fig. 3 Onion plant and bulb structure Chemical Constituent Onions is consumed by all classes of people-poor and rich and hence assumes a place of essential item. They are highly valued for their flavour and for their nutritional value in supplying minor constituents such as minerals and trace elements (Table 1). The bulbs are boiled and used in soups and stews, fried or eaten raw. They are also preserved in the form of pickles. Onion leaves, especially the Spring onion, are also

used in salads and soup. There is a dearth of information on secondary and derived onion products. The proximate composition of selected Allium species is presented in Table 1. The composition of onion varies according to variety and agronomic and environmental conditions of growth. In general, varieties with high(up to 20%) dry matter are selected for processing. Onions are a rich source of amino acids and -glutamyl peptide, anthocyanins, flavonols, and phenolics. Nonstructural carbohydrates consisting of free sugars, trisachharides, and frutcans, contribute the major portion of the dry weight of onions. High-dry-matter onion cultivars have reduced glucose and fructose contents and much higher fructan levels than varieties with low dry matter contents. Onions are rich in sulphur-containing compounds. The enzyme alliinase

hydrolyzes the S-alk(en)yl cystein sulfoxides to produce pyruvate, ammonia, and many volatile sulphur compounds associated with the flavour and odour of onion. This occurs when cells are damaged or distrupted. Onions contain primarily the S-(l-propenyl), propyl, and, to a lesser degree, methyl alliins. Thus the typical flavour of onion is due to the presence of propyl- and l-propenyl- containing allicins and di- and trisulfides. More than 80 compounds have been identified in freshly cut onions. Table 1: Major nutrients and vitamins content in onion bulbs (Allium cepa var. cepa) and leaves (Allium fistulosum) per 100g edible portion. Constituent Major nutrients Water Calories Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrate (g) Fibre (g) Calcium (mg) Phosphorous (mg) Iron (mg) Quantity Bulbs 87 48 1.5 trace 11 0.5 30 0.5 Leaves 90 36 1.8 0.5 6 1.0 40 3.0 91 30 1.6 0.3 6 0.8 55 41 1.1

Vitamins -carotene equiv. (g) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Ascorbic acid (mg) Source: (Platt, 1962; FAO, 1972) trace 0.04 0.02 0.3 10 328 0.05 0.10 0.5 50 630 0.06 0.08 0.5 19

2. Post-Production Operations 2.1 Pre-harvest Operations The condition of onion leaves is a good indicator of the maturity and general state of the bulb. Bulb onions which are to be stored should be allowed to mature fully before harvest and this occurs when the leaves bend just above the top of the bulb and fall over. As a practical guide, farmers should conduct sample counts on the number of bulbs, which has fallen over in a field; and when the percentage of bulbs, which have fallen over, reaches about 70-80% then the entire crop should be harvested. Harvesting could commence earlier when 50-80% of the tops have gone over, before it is possible to see split skins exposing onion flesh. Storage losses at optimum maturity are normally lower than those harvested before the tops collapse. Bulbs generally mature within 100140 days from sowing, depending on the varieties and the weather. Spring onions mature for harvesting after 35-45 days from sowing. Harvested crop should be allowed to dry or cure and ripen in the sun for several days after lifting. Onions can yield up to 15-30 t/ha depending upon varieties under good growing and management conditions. 2.2 Harvesting Onion is harvested depending upon the purpose for which the crop is planted. Harvesting takes 45-90 days from field settling for green onions and 65-150 days for bulb depending upon the variety. Bulbs are considered to be mature when the neck tissues begin to soften and tops are about to abscise and decolourise. Development of red pigment and the characteristic pungency of the variety are also important harvest indices of onion.

Onions for use in the green stage are harvested as soon as they reach edible size. The plants are pulled by hand, the roots are trimmed and the out side skin is peeled off, leaving the leaves clean and lower portion above the bulb white. The onions are then washed, sorted and tied in bunches. The size of bunch depends on local market preference. If onions are to be transported to long distance then it is to be packed in crates with crushed ice to avoid discolouration and wilting of leaves at high temperature. Onions for sale as dried bulbs or for storage should be harvested after tops have started falling over. Best time to harvest rabi onion is one week after 50% tops have fallen over. In kharif season since tops do not fall, soon after the colour of leaves changes to slightly yellow and tops start drying, red pigmentation on bulbs develop and also true shape and size develop, bulbs are harvested and kept in windrow for drying the tops. Leaving the tops intact until complete drying increases dry matter, this might be due to greater loss of water from the bulbs with intact foliage; or to movement for materials from the tops to the bulbs. If tops are cut too close, the neck does not close well and decay organisms have easy access to the bulb. Early harvest results in sprouting of the bulbs and late harvest results in formation of secondary roots during storage. In kharif season late harvesting results in doubles and bolting. Harvested bulbs are placed in containers (basket, bins) or tied into bunches and placed directly on the floor of a trailer for transport. These trailers can be pulled by an animals or mechanical transport such as a tractor. Both packaging and transport systems must be selected to ensure minimum handling damage to produce. Hard surfaces should be cushioned with leaves, foam or other appropriate force decelerators. 2.3 Curing Curing removes excess moisture from the outer layers of the bulb prior to storage. The dried skin provides a surface barrier to water loss and microbial infection, thereby preserving the main edible tissue in a fresh state. Curing also reduces shrinkage during subsequent handling, reduces the occurrence of sprouting, and allows the crop to ripen before fresh consumption or long-term storage (Opara and Geyer,

1999). The use of the word curing for onion drying is rather inaccurate since no cell regeneration or wound healing occurs as in other root crops such as yam and cassava. Curing reduces bulb weight and since they are sold mostly on a weight basis, achieving the desired level of dehydration is critical. Weight losses of 3-5% are normal under natural curing conditions and up to 10 % with artificial curing. In traditional small-scale operations, onion curing is carried out in the field in a process commonly called windrowing. It involves harvesting the mature bulbs and laying them on their sides (in windrows) on the surface of the soil to dry for 1 or 2 weeks. In hot tropical climates, the bulbs should be windrowed in such a way to reduce the exposed Fig. 3 Curing of onion surface to minimise damage due to direct exposure to the sun. In wet weather, the bulbs can take longer time to dry and may develop higher levels of rots during storage. The side of the bulb in contact with wet soil or moisture may also develop brown strains or pixels, which reduce the appearance quality and value. Obviously, successful windrowing is weather dependent and therefore cannot be relied upon for large scale commercial onion production business. Bulbs harvested for storage require in total 1420 days of ripening or curing before being stored. Harvested onions may also be placed in trays, which are then stacked at the side of the field to dry. In some tropical regions, the bulbs are tied together in groups by plaiting the tops, which are then hung over poles in sheds to dry naturally. Harvested bulbs can also be taken straight from the field and cured artificially either in a store, shed, barns, or in a purpose-built drier. This method is commonly used when crops are stored in bulk but it can also be applied to bags, boxed or bins. Under this method, bulbs are laid on racks and heated air is rapidly passed across the surface of the bulbs night and day [OConnor, 1979; Brice et al., 1997]. Curing may take 7-10 days and is considered complete when the necks of the bulbs have dried out and are tight and the skins shriek when held in the hand. The control of humidity level in the store is critical. Under very high humidity, curing is delayed and fungal infection can increase. However, if relative humidity is too low (below 60%), excessive water loss and

splitting of the bulb outer skins can occur, resulting in storage losses and reduction of bulb value. Placing onions on wire mesh in well ventilated conditions and using air at about 30C, 60-75% Rh and 150 m /h/m3 is generally recommended for artificial curing of onions. 2.4 Cleaning Freedom from any impurity, which may materially alter the appearance or eating quality, is essential. Soil and other foreign materials must be removed and badly affected produce must be discarded. Cleaning is carried out by using air or by manually removing unwanted materials on the bulb surface. Care should be taken to avoid physical injury on the bulb during these operations. 2.5 Sorting and grading Onion after curing and cleaning are graded manually or mechanically using grader before they go to storage or for marketing. The thick neck, bolted, doubles, injured and decayed bulbs are picked out. Sorting and grading is done after storage also to fetch better price. The outer dry scales usually rub off during the grading process, giving the onions a better appearance for market. Fig. 4 Onion grader It has been experienced that if

storage is arranged after proper sorting and grading losses in storage are reduced. Consumer preference for onion size varies from place to place. Hence graded onion should be marketed according to consumer preference to fetch higher price. For marketing of onion in domestic as well as export purpose the grading is most essential. Big size bulbs are needed for Delhi market and medium size onions are required for Calcutta, Pune and Lucknow. Banglore, Bhopal, Jabalpur and Hyderabad requires medium to big size bulbs whereas, Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati and other centres in North Eastern region prefers small sized onions.

For export purpose NHRDF has given grading standards. For Saurashtra Big onion light red onion are graded as Extra big (60 mm), Big (40 mm), medium (20 mm) and small (<20 mm). 2.6 Packaging Good packaging for onions must meet the following criteria: (a) strong enough to retain the required weight of onions under the conditions of transport and storage, (b) allow sufficient ventilation for the air around the bulbs to maintain relative humidity in the required range, and (c) in many circumstances, provide a means of displaying legally required and commercially necessary information (Brice et al., 1999). There are many traditional methods for packaging onions for transportation and/or storage purpose. These include 'string of onions', shelves and loose bulk. In 'string of onions' packing, the bulbs are tied together by means of their tops to produce a bunch of bulbs is also a form of packaging. This is suitable for transporting small quantity of crop, and during storage, the bunches are hung from the roof or from special racks. Shelves for onion handling and storage are made from either wooden slats or metal mesh on a wooden or metal frame, and are usually fixed in position with the bulbs loaded and unloaded in the store. Ventilation (natural or forced) is usually achieved by passing air over the shelves. To achieve adequate aeration of the bulbs, the depth of bulbs on the shelves should be limited to 10 cm. Onions are also stored loose bulk (instead of containers) by heaping the bulbs directly on the floor or elevated platform. Because they are not restrained, the bulbs roll during store loading to completely fill the storage space. Bulk storage permits maximum utilisation of store space, and uniform aeration is easier to achieve than in stacks of bags or other rigid packaging. However, where bulk storage is to be implemented, the retaining walls must be strengthened when storing larger quantities of bulbs and arrangements need to be made for re-bagging before subsequent marketing. It is also difficult to inspect bulbs regularly under these storage conditions. Loose bulk handling of onion is most suitable for large-scale operations where forced ventilation can be provided during long-term storage.

Onions can be packaged and stored in a variety of containers such as boxes, cartons, bags, bulk bins, pre-packs, plastic film bags, and stretch-wrapped trays. Packages typically contain 25 kg and above, especially for transporting crop from field to store and/or during storage. The same 25 kg bags or smaller bags may be used from store to market place. The type of packaging to be used, depends on crop size, length of storage and marketing requirements. A problem with packaging onions in boxes, net bags and bulk bins is that if they are too large, and airflow pattern tends to be around rather than through them. Under this condition, the respiration heat of the bulb results in a warm, humid environment in the centre of the package, which can result in decay or sprouting. Onion Bags Sacks and nets used for onion packaging fall into three groups: (i) generalpurpose jute sacks, as used for many agricultural commodities, (ii) open-weave sacks of sisal-like fibre, (iii) open-mesh nets, normally of plastic materials and (iv) big bags, used alternatively to crates, containing up to 1000 kg. Jute sacks are readily available, but their disadvantages include: (i) generally too large - may contain 100 kg onions, hence difficult to handle and an increased risk of mechanical damage; (ii) bulbs are not visible through the fabric, and it is difficult to monitor condition during storage; (iii) there is some resistance to airflow if they are used in an aerated store; (iv) difficult to label effectively; and (v) recycled sacks may encourage spread of postharvest diseases. Onions are packed in jute (hessian) bags for transporting to yard or brought as loose. For safe handling 40 kg open mesh jute bags having 200-300g weight should be used in domestic market. For export bigger size onions are packed in 5-25 kg open mesh bags. In retail market onions are packed in plastic crates. Plastic netted bags; attractive and better in strength are also used for packing onions. 2.7 Bulk Storage

2.7.1 Onion and its Physiology for Storage

Every agricultural commodity is required to be stored properly to prolong the availability with minimum qualitative and quantitative losses. Onion is not an exception. The onion bulb is a natural food store for the plant, but it is a living system undergoing a process of development towards sprouting, and is subject to decay by various disease causing organisms. The objective of storage technology is to maintain the bulbs for as long as possible in an unchanged sound condition with longer shelf life, and allow them to transport and market after removal from store without much losses. It is necessary to have the knowledge of the physiology of dormancy and epidemiology of storage disease while thinking of long term storage. Systems to provide long dormant condition and suitable condition which is unfavorable for disease development can be engineered using the physical principles of temperature and humidity control. Also in this process economic and technological constraints will have to be looked into. For this, two basic strategies i.e. high temperature dormancy of onion bulbs and maintaining storage temperature at around 300 C need to be exploited. The physiological and pathological processes that proceed within a store of onion bulbs interact with the physical process of heat and water vapour exchange so as to mutually influence the environment within the store. Main factors which influence onion storage and bring change in the bulbs are summarized as under in sequence:

With time, sprouting and internal root development proceed. Sprouting and internal root development change bulb shape, tension of skins and crack the skins. This increases the conductivity of skins to water vapour and ultimately rate of water loss from the bulbs. Increase in sprouting increases respiration. Increase in respiration increases outputs of heat, CO2 and water loss from the bulb. Diseases are developed in store when there are favorable conditions and bulbs thus get deteriorated. Bulb deterioration due to diseases will also increase respiratory outputs. The onion skins has vital role in the physical and physiological processes in the

storage, as it is the main barrier to water loss and to CO 2 exchange. 65-70% relative humidity is desirable to maintain the skin fairly flexible and elastic. At lower RH, the skin become very brittle and gets easily cracked notably when skin moisture content falls below 20%.

Ventilation is needed to maintain humidity between 65-70% and lack of this often adversely affects the quality and quantity by increase in water loss and respiration.

Ventilation is also needed to dissipate heat produced by bulbs. With time, requirement of ventilation for the above will also increase. Design of store should, therefore, match the requirements. High humidity with high temperature favors spread of pathogens within the store.

It is necessary to counter the above changes by proper monitoring of internal environment. Heat and water vapour must be removed or introduced as necessary either by using heating or refrigeration or ventilation or a combination of all the mechanisms depending upon the economics. However, under Indian conditions in onion growing states designs to exploit natural ventilation is most economical. 2.7.2 Onion Storage Structure Requirements For effective long storage of onion the parameters essential to be looked after are the bulb size, choice of cultivars, cultivation practices, time of harvest, field curing, removal of tops, drying, grading, packing, storage conditions (optimum storage range of relative humidity 65% to 70% with the temperature ranging between 250 C to 300 C). Salient Features of Improved Storage Structures are: 1. Construction of structure on a raised platform to prevent moisture and dampness due to direct contact of bulbs with the soil. 2. Use of Mangalore tile type roof or other suitable materials to prevent built up of high inside temperature. 3. Increased centre height and more slope for better air circulation and preventing humid micro climate inside godown.

4. Providing bottom and side ventilations for free and faster air circulation and to avoid formation of hot and humid pockets between the onion layers. 5. Avoid direct sunlight or rain water falling on onion bulbs to reduce sun scald, fading of colour and quality deterioration. 6. Maintenance of stacking height to avoid pressure bruising. 7. Periodical disinfection of structures and premises to check rottage. 8. Cost effectiveness of structures is based on utilization of locally available material for the construction. For onion storage, technology may be either with natural ventilation or with forced ventilation. Although cold storage systems are used in certain countries for onion, this is normally not adopted in India due to poor economics and lack of cold chain facilities required to maintain the quality in the high ambient temperature prevalent in our country. Onion storage in ventilation condition is quite satisfactory when the temperature is maintained between 25oC to 30oC with a relative humidity range of 65% to 70%. This environment reduces the storage losses, which are in the form of physiological loss in weight, rotting and sprouting. The onion storage structure should be oriented in the North - South direction i.e., length facing the East-West direction. The storage of onion will be on raised perforated platform of 0.60 m height with bottom and side ventilations. The ground clearance may be 60 cm with side opening of upto 80%. Height of storage under ventilation storage should be in the range of 90 cm to 150 cm. For a 25 MT storage, the size of onion storage area will be 4.5m X 6.0m. The width of storage may be reduced depending upon the availability of local construction material and ambient condition. The length of storage structure may be increased to suit the requirements of the individual farmers. The minimum overhang of 1.5 m on the windward side and 0.5 m on all other sides should be provided to protect the produce from sunlight and rain. At leeward side, the opening below the platform should be closed to direct the air upward for better ventilation. Where storms/ cyclones are expected, leeward side should not be closed when the windward side is open. During storm there should be a provision to close the windward side. Emphasis should be laid for better area utilization efficiency. The overall dimensions of a 25 MT structure may be 6.5 m X 7.0 m. The dimensions can be adjusted depending upon the capacity and site

conditions. The roof of the structures may be either Mangalore tile type or ACC sheets for a single tire arrangement or RCC for two tier systems. In case of Mangalore tiles, proper fixation should be done at the ends to prevent damage by air. If cheaper materials are available which can prevent heat built up at the top of the structure, they can also be used. The foundations should only support the pillars to bear the load of the structure and wind. Continuous half brick thick wall may be provided on the leeward side below the storage platform to serve as a wind barrier. MS angles may be used for the truss and pillars. Half split bamboo sticks supported by MS angle frames may be used for storage of onion. Side walls can also be of chain link (GI wire) type. It has been observed that such structures can be constructed with an investment cost between Rs. 1500 to Rs. 2000 per MT. Therefore, adequate care is to be taken for economizing the structures. 2.7.3 Onion Storage Practices Onions are stored either loose or in bags. The beneficiaries are advised to sort the onions prior to storage and thereafter atleast once in thirty days to take out the rotten/ infected onions in order to avoid further spread of diseases/ losses. Generally, a loss of about 20-30 % is there during a storage season in the form of weight loss of onions which can be controlled with proper care. However, the other types of losses can be controlled to a greater extent if the structure is designed to facilitate maximum natural ventilation through the stored onion and sorting is done at regular intervals. General Requirements The objectives of onion storage are to extend the period of availability of crop, maintain optimum bulb quality and minimise losses from physical, physiological, and pathological agents. Bulbs selected for storage should be firm and the neck dry and thin. Discard thick-necked bulbs because they are most likely to have high moisture content than optimum for storage, and therefore would have short storage life. Skin colour should be typical of the cultivar. Microbial infections such as Aspergillus niger occur during production of onions but these will only develop on the bulbs during storage where the storage environment is conducive for their growth. Prior to storage,

crop must be cleaned and graded, and all damaged or diseased bulbs removed. Careful harvest and pre-storage treatments with minimal mechanical loads are important to achieve a long storage period. Both store room temperature, relative humidity, and atmospheric composition affect the length of storage that can be achieved. Several technology options are available for bulk storage of onions, including low-temperate storage, high-temperature storage, direct harvest storage and the use of controlled atmosphere (CA) stores. The recommended storage conditions under these systems are summarised below. Advantages In bulk storage, it is easier to control ventilation, temperature and humidity using automatic control devices. This is because of the uniformity within in bulk storage, which does not exist in the wooden bin system. The loading and unloading operation may also be simplified by the use of conveyors for direct loading and unloading from trucks. The bulk storage system is also simpler to clean than the cleaning of a stack of wooden bins. Disadvantages Handling onions in bulk requires much more labour and reinforced storage structure leading to high initial cost. The mixing of onions in the bulk storage structure also makes it difficult to prevent the spread of disease by isolation. When handling onions in bulk, packers for export will find it harder to identify good growers because of product mixing. This makes it more difficult to award growers according to their ability. Storing in mass means that onions are handled individually, leading to a greater chance of causing injury to the bulb. This also means that structures to reinforce the walls will be needed to support the onion load and false floors installed to enable ventilation from under the bulk. A bulk storage unit once empty of bulbs, has little value in any other way. Storage at Low Temperature For successful low temperature storage, good ventilation and a low level humidity in the range of 70-75% is essential. To maintain good quality crop, the period of storage varies but may be up to 200 days. For maximum storage period and minimum losses

bulbs should be fully mature at harvest, and dried until the neck of the bulb is tight. For large-scale commercial storage, onions can be stored under refrigeration and the most commonly recommended conditions are 0C with 70-75% rh. Regular ventilation and monitoring of both temperature and relative humidity in the store are necessary to avoid significant fluctuations in environmental conditions. During the first few days of storage the fans should provide an adequate airflow, to remove water in the outer skins and to dry bruises. High air speed is needed for a period of up to 1 week, until the skin of the upper onion layers in the bulk rustles. Excessive humidity in-store will lead to the development of roots and promote rotting while higher temperatures will result in Table 2: Recommended refrigerated storage conditions for onion bulb Temperature (C) -3-0 -3 -2 (-2) - (-0.6) -1-0 -0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1-2 1 1.1 4 8 12 Relative humidity (%) 70-75 85-90 75-85 75-80 70-80 78-81 75-85 65-75 70-75 70-75 65-70 65-70 70-75 or 90-95 80-85 80-85 87 70-75 6 months 5-7 months 300 days 6 months& 6-8 months 6-7 months 6 months 20-24 weeks* 1-2 months# 6-8 months 230 days up to 120 days 30-35 weeks 30-35 weeks 16-20 weeks 170 days 120 days about 90 days Length of storage

20

25 days

*= With 16.3% loss (red onion); #= Bermuda cultivar; = Globe cultivar; = With 14.2% loss (red onion); &= Superba cultivar; = Optimum storage conditions, 7% maximum water loss before becoming unsaleable; = Probable practical storage conditions, 7-10 days shelf-life (approx.) at 20C after storage, 7% maximum water loss before becoming unsaleable. Compiled from (Thompson, 1996; Thompson, 1982). sprouting and promote development of pathological disorders such as Botrytis rots (Thompson, 1982) Bulbs freeze below -3C and a range of storage temperatures and relative humidities have been recommended for safe storage of onions (Table 2). Ventilation must be carefully applied inside the store to achieve the required temperature and humidity levels without inducing condensation of water on the surface. Onion Storage at High-temperature Onions can be stored at high temperatures of over 25C at a range of relative humidities (75-85%) which is necessary for minimising water loss. It has been mentioned in the literature that storage at temperatures of 25-30C is shown to reduce sprouting and root growth compared to low-temperature storage (10-20C). However, weight loss, desiccation of bulbs, and rots occurred at high temperatures, making the system uneconomic for long periods of storage that is required for successful onion marketing (Thompson et al., 1972; Stow, 1975). In tropical climates, high-temperature storage of onions can be achieved under ambient storage condition. Under these conditions, ventilation must be carefully applied inside the store to achieve the required temperature and humidity levels. Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage of Onions CA is used in combination with cold storage to extend the storage life of onions. Recommended air composition and temperature regimes are summarised in Table 3. Commercial CA storage of onion bulbs is limited partly because of variable success and inconsistent effects on bulb quality. However, high carbon dioxide (0-5%) and low oxygen (1-3%) levels in combination with low temperature storage has been shown to reduce sprouting and root growth (SeaLand, 1991; Hardenburg et al., 1990). The combination of CA storage (5% CO2, 3% O2) and refrigerated storage (1C) also

resulted in 99% of the onion bulbs considered marketable after 7 months storage; however, 9% weight loss occurred (Smittle, 1989). Onion response to CA storage varies among cultivars. Therefore, experiments should therefore be conducted under local conditions to determine the appropriate level of gas composition suitable for safe storage of local cultivars. CA storage generally increases the pungency of characteristic cultivars. No commercial benefit has been identified for varieties with long storage potential. Onions are damaged by < 1% O2 and 10% CO2. Table 3: Recommended controlled atmosphere composition for storage of onion bulbs Carbon dioxide (%) Oxygen (%) 0 0 0-5 0-5 5 5 5 5 10 Source: (Thompson, 1996) 2.7.4 Storage structures Onion bulbs, throughout the country, are stored by conventional methods. There are different types of storage structures used in different parts of the country. They are fabricated from the locally available material like bamboo. These structures are made directly on the ground or are constructed on a raised platform made of bamboo or other similar material. 1-2 1-2 1-2 0-1 3 3 3 5 3 Temperature (C) 0-5 0-5 0-5 1 1 4-5 4-5

In Paniapat district of Haryana and Jalalbad in Uttar Pradesh, structures are made of bamboo/Sarkanda nets and thatched roof with sirki which is covered on top with jute cloth. The size of 3.0m x 1.2m x 1.2m has the capacity to store 40 quintals. The bottom net is fixed at about 15-20 cm height from the ground level to have aeration. In Nasik and Pune areas, the structures have side walls made of bamboo or locallyavaialable wood spaced 1-2cm apart. Roof is made of either thatch, asbestos sheet or tiles/tin sheet. There is, however, no bottom ventilation but flooring is done with the help of soil, stone particles and sand and it is raised from ground level. Before loading onion, sticks are spread on the floor. The size of the structure varies from area-to-area. Normally width is kept as 1.5m and height is about 1.5m the length may vary from 13.5 to 30m. Its capacity is 200-450 quintals. In Bihar and Gujarat, these structures have 3-4 tiers and the floor are made of bamboo pieces spaced 1-2cm apart. The depth of loading is generally 30-60cm. Ventilation in structure is provided by raised platform and windows on the side walls. Cold stores are rarely used for storage of onion in India. 2.7.4.1 Pole Method: Cured bulbs are tied into

bunches with leaves. Bunches are tied around the pole as shown in Fig. 6. Bunches are arranged in such a way that bulbs can get maximum aeration. Inspection during storage is possible hence, this method of storage helps to discard rotted bulbs so as to prevent further disease to other bulbs. 2.7.4.2 Sika method: Cured bulbs are tied
Fig. 6 Pole method

into bunches with leaves. Bunches are hanged on poles. Hanging bulbs get maximum aeration. Similar to pole method inspection during storage is possible and discarding of rotted bulbs is easy in this method also. Pole and sika storage structures are useful for farmers holding small quantity of onion. It is difficult
Fig. 7 Sika method

to handle onion during and after storage for commercial level. Tying of onion requires humid atmosphere which is available during late night. Labour requirement to tie the onion is labour intensive. Similarly, at the time of marketing trimming of leaves is labour intensive. Thats why commercially this method of onion storage is difficult. 2.7.4.3 Split Bamboo storage structure: 100 to 800 kg onion can be stored in

structure made from bamboo split. These structures (Fig. 8) are placed on raised wooden or steel platforms with provision of good aeration. Two concentric bamboo structures are made with different diameter. Central hollow space on a platform is found to provide good aeration, having minimum losses like spoilage, sprouting and peeling. Onions are stored in annular space of bamboo structures. This structure is suitable to store.

Fig. 8 Split Bamboo storage structure

2.7.4.4

Traditional single tier storage structure: In Gujarat onion storage

structures have single to double tiers. The tops are made of tiles or corrugated cement roofs. Farmers are also constructing chimney type storage structure having top with RCC ceiling. In single tier structure windward sides are made from bamboo splits as

Fig. 9 Traditional single tier storage structure

shown in Fig. 9. The loading height is 1.5 to 2 m at all the places. There is enough ventilation through windows in the walls, and also raised flooring at some height. The losses in these structures vary from 30-50%. As per direct discussion with farmers of Rajkot, Jamnagar and Junagadh district; onion stored for five months (15th May-15th Oct) in chimney type storage structure have least losses.

Fig. 10 Traditional two tier storage

structure

2.7.4.5

Turbine

Fig. 11 Chimney type storage structure air ventilated storage

structure:Where electricity is not available, wind-powered turbines can help keep storerooms cool by pulling air up through the building. Vents at the floor level are especially useful for cooling via night air ventilation.

The turbine illustrated below can be constructed of sheet metal that is twisted to catch the wind, and attached to a central pole that acts as the axis of rotation. Warm air in the storage room rises, causing the turbine to rotate, expelling the air and initiating an upward flow of warm air. The turbine should be placed on the peak of the roof of a storage structure. Turbine air ventilated storage structure has a turbine air ventilator at top of the structure as shown in Fig. 12. No energy is required to operate the ventilator to remove heat from the storage structure. The utilization of turbine air ventilator may add some ventilation to stored onion. An experiment was conducted at Junagadh Agricultural University, during the month June to October 2007, it was found that after one month of storage of onion, weight loss in turbine air ventilated storage structure found to be higher (7.56%) than traditional storage structure (4.06%) subsequently, there was more cumulative weight loss in traditional storage structure at the end of second, third and fourth month of storage. However in forced air ventilated storage structure the cumulative weight loss was less (22.87%) as compared to traditional storage structure and turbine air ventilated storage structure after four month store.

Fig. 12 Turbine air ventilated storage structure

Spoilt onion in traditional storage structure was higher than turbine air ventilated storage structure through out the experiment. Here also, the minimum spoilage loss was found in forced air ventilated storage structure.

2.7.4.5

Forced

air

ventilated

storage

structure:

Perforated

concentric

structures can be used with natural ventilated or forced air ventilated using blower at bottom. Forced air ventilated system can be utilized in traditional single tier storage structure using blower and pipe with hole. In
Fig. 13 Forced air ventilated storage structure

perforated

concentric

structures

losses can be reduced from 10% to

5-6% whereas in traditional storage structure losses can be reduced from 24% to 10% in about 3 months using forced air ventilation. 2.7.4.4 Nasik type storage structure: The Nasik type storage structure (Fig. 14)

is an improvement over the local thatched type of bamboo structure. The capacity of onion to be stored is 1 tonne. The onions can be stored for five months.

Fig. 14 Nasik type storage structure

Wt. Loss

Spoilage

Balance

100%

100%

100%

80%

80%

80%

60%

60%

60%

40%

40%

40%

20%

20%

20%

0%
Ju ne Ju ly be r t Au gu s Se pt em

0%
Ju ne Ju ly t Se pt em be r Au gu s

0%
Ju ne Ju ly t Se pt em be r Au gu s

Month

Turbine air ventilated

Month Traditional storage

Month Forced air ventilated

Fig. 25 Comparison of different losses and balance in different storage structures

2.8

Processing

Onion bulbs are generally chopped into desired sizes and shapes using a knife. Many commercial devices are also available for chopping onions. In some food preparations, the onions are blended with other ingredients to produce the desired flavour. Onions used for processing should have high pungency, since the dehydrated product is primarily used as a flavouring agent and some of the pungency is lost during the dehydration process. White bulbs are preferred to either yellow or red varieties. The pigment quercetin in yellow onion is a bitter principle with inferior flavour. For economy in field harvesting and plant preparation, large bulbs are desired for processing. The bulbs should be able to hold up in common storage for 2-3 months with a minimum of rot, shrinkage, or sprouting. 2.8.1 Dehydration of Onion An experiment conducted at Junagadh Agricultural University recommended that the dehydration of Talaja local white cultivars of onion should be carried at 76 C drying temperature and 27 m/min velocity of air, keeping 3 mm thickness of slice to get the good quality of dehydrated flakes with minimum drying time i.e., 58 min and the bacterial counts of the final product falling in the range of acceptable limit of international standard.

Fig. 26 Dehydrated onion slices

In indystry for dehydration of onion, initial operations such as cleaning, removing tail, cap and loose skins are carried out by using traditional manual method. Skin layer is removed by using abrasive centrifugal mechanical peeler. The peeled onion bulbs are then transfer to a agitating water tank where the agitations of water creates washing effect and which helps to remove other foreign material attached to the bulbs. After washing the bulbs are supplied to the slicer. The clearence in the cutting blades of the slicer is maintained such that it makes slices of required sizes; generally 3 mm in thickness. These slices are fed to conveyor in uniform bed thickness. The conveyor pass through dehydrator. The dehydrator used for dehydration is of zigzag type while the air flows cross to the material flow. The hot air enters in the dehydrator from the bottom portion and passes through the conveyor. The air is heated through steam radiators. The onion slices are dried in conveyor from 85-90% moisture content to 1518% moisture contnent in 4 to 5 hrs. The dehydrated slices obtained from dehydrator is again dehydrated in bin dryer to reduce moisture content upto 5-7%. Continuous stirring is required in the bin dryer. The material is then transfer to dry and cool section because it contain heat and if the temperature of material is not reduce quickly it starts to absorb the moisture from the atmosphere and the moisture content of the produce is increased, so to avoide these the product is quickly transfer to the cooling section. The temperature in the cooling section is maintained 15-20oC. Other operations like grading of different type of product, removal of damage product pieces, removal of metal and hair like pieces, packaging and storage are carried out in the cooling section. For grading of the products the rotating sieve machine is used, while for removing the metal piece the magnetic separator and metal separating machine are used, also to remove hair like material the cations generating machine is used. The burnt and damage pieces of product are removed manually. The final packaging is carried out in the cooling section, according the packaging size required by the buyers. The product is packed in four products such as Kibbled, Powder, Chopped and Flakes.

Raw material

Sorting Hand peeling (Manual removal of Cap, Tail and loose skin)

Mechanical peeling (Removal of single layer of sking by using centrifugal abrasive peeler)

Washing in agitating water

Slicing (3 mm thickness)

Feeding Conveyor

Drying (Continuous, counter flow type dehydrator)

Bin drying

Grading

Cleaning

Packaging

Storage

Fig. 27 Onion dehydration flow chart

Removal of top

Removal of skins

Washing

Onion slicer

Conveyor for dehydration

Dehydrated onion flakes

Bin dryer

Sieve grader

Magnetic separator

Onion kibbles / flakes

Onion skin

Onion kapcha

Onion powder

Fig. 28 Various unit operations in onion dehydration industry

2.8.2 Fermented products Fermented preparations are made from crushed or ground onion leaves and tops. These prdoucts are used to flavour food at times when onions are not available. Onions scales may be sun-dried for the same purpose. 2.8.3 Oil Onion oil is obtained by distillation of minced onions; the yield of oil ranges from 0.002 to 0.03%, depending upon the raw material and processing conditions. It has a flavour strength 500 times that of the dehydrated product. 2.8.4 Juice Onion juice contains both flavour and aromatic compounds, their precursors and sugars. They may be blended with volatile oils to resotre a rounder flavour profile. The juice, which is visous and dark brown in colour, can be mixed with a support (such as propylene glycol, lecithin, or glucose) to produce an oleoresin having a flavour intensity 10 times that of dehydrated onion powder. 2.8.5 Other products Canned and bottled onions are used in catering industris. Onion rings are common products in fast food industries. Onion pickled is popular in many countries. Onion is steeped in 10% brine for 24-96 hours, with lactic acid being added to control fermentation. They are washed, covered in vinegar, and pasteurized; bisulfite may be added to maintan the colour. hence flavonoid-free varieties shuoud be used. The undesirable yellow spots caused by flavonoids reduce the quality of bulbs for pickling,

3. OVERALL LOSSES Estimated loss of total onion crop in developing countries is high and can reach 20-95% (Anon, 1978). Post-harvest losses of 16-35% have been reported (Steppe, 1976). Exact data on the nature and extent of these losses at each step in the

postharvest chain is not readily available in the literature However, losses of over 9% has been reported for Spring onion between wholesale and retail (Amuttirantana and Passornsiri, 1992). 4. Economic and Social Considerations Although onions are important food sources in comparison with the other major root and tuber crops (cassava, yams, potatoes and edible aroids), they are part and parcel of human diet in both developed and developing countries. Due to their ability to grown in both tropical and temperate regions, the growing and handling of onions has received considerable attention in agricultural research and development. Despite the advancements in mechanical harvesting, curing and storage of onions, losses can be high for many small-holders and medium-scale farmers when lack access to improved techniques due to their limited financial resource. Improvements in hand harvesting and curing techniques can enhance the efficiency of small-scale farmers, particularly those who grow most of their crop to sale. These improvements must be targeted to improve to the welfare of rural farmers, particularly women and children who carry out most of the operations in subsistence farms.

5. References Amuttiratana, D. and W. Passornsiri. 1992. In Bhatti, M.H., Ch. Hafeez, A. Jaggar, Ch. M. Farooq. (Editors). Postharvest losses of vegetables. A report on workshop held between 17 and 22 October at the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad, Pakistan. FAO Regional Co-operation for vegetable research and development RAS/89/41. Anon. 1978. Report of the Steering Committee on Postharvest Food Losses in Developing countries. National Research Council, National Science Foundation, Washington DC. Anon. 2005. Tropical, Subtropical Fruits and Flowers Cultivation. By NIIR Board, Published by National Institute Of Industrial Re. August, K.T., Theraputic and medical values of onion and garlic. 1990. In Onions and Allied Crops. Vol. III (J.L.Brewster and H.D. Rabinowitch, eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.. p.93. Bajaj, K.L., K. Gurdeep, J.Singh, and S.P.S. Gill, 1980. Chemical evaluation of some important varieties of onion. Qual. Plant Pt. Foods Hum. Nutr. 30:117. Brahmachari, H.D. and K.T. Augusti. 1967. Effect of orally effective hypoglycemic agents from the plats on alloxan diabetes. J.Pharm. Pharmacol. 14:617. Brice, J., L. Currah, A. Malins, R. Bancroft. 1997. Onion storage in the tropics: A practical guide to methods of storage and their selection. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. D. K. Salunkhe. 1998. Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology: Production, Composition, Storage, and Processing (D. K. Salunkhe and S. S. Kadam) Published by CRC Press, FAO. 1972. Food composition table for use in East Asia. FAO, Rome. Fenwick, R.G.1993.Onions and related crops, in Encyclopedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition (R. Macrae, R.K.Robinson, and M.J. Sadler, eds.), Academic Press, London. Hanley, A.B., and R.G.Fenwick, 1985. Cultivated alliums. J. Plant Food 6:211. Hardenburg, R.E., A.E. Watada, C.Y. Wang. 1990. The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nursery stocks. USDA, ARS, Agriculture Handbook 66. KTBL. 1993. Taschenbuch Gartenbau. Daten fr die Betriebskalkulation. 4. Auflage, Mnster Hiltrup.

Lancaster, J. E., P. F. Reay, J. D. Mann, W. D. Bennet, and J. R. Sedcole. 1988. Quality in New Zealand grown onion bulbs- a survey of chemical and physical characteristics. N.Z.J.Exp. Agric. 16:279. OConnor, D. 1979. Onion storage. Grower guide No.2. Grower Books, London. Opara, L.U., M. Geyer. 1999. Onion storage. In: Bakker-Arkema et al. (eds). CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering Volume IV Agro Processing. pp. 125-156. The American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, MI. Pandey, U.C., and J. Singh. 1993. Agro-Techniques for onion and garlic, in Advance in Horticulture, Vol.5, Vegetable Crops (K.L. Chadha and G. Kalloo, eds.), Malhotra Pub. House, New Delhi. p.433. Platt, B.S. 1962. Table of representative values of food commonly used in tropical countries. Medical Research Council, Spec. Rep. Series No. 302, HMSO, London. Randle, W.M. 1992. Onion germplasm interacts with sulfur fertility for plant sulfur utilization and bulb pungency, Euplytica 59:151. Randle, W.M., E.Block, M.H. Littlejohn, D. Putnam, and M.L. Bussard. 1994. Onion(Allium cepa L.) thiosulfinates respond to increasing sulfur fertility. J. Agric. Food Chem. 42:2085 Salunkhe, D.K., and B.B. Desai. 1984.Onion and garlic, in Postharvest Technology of Vegetables, Part II, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL., p. 23. SeaLand. 1991. Shipping guide to perishables. SeaLand Service Inc., PO Box 800, Iselim, NJ 08830, USA. Smittle, D.A. 1989. Controlled atmosphere storage of Vidalia onions. International Controlled Atmosphere Conference 5th Proceedings, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, Volume 2. Other commodities and storage recommendations, 171-177. Steppe, H.M. 1976. Postharvest losses of agricultural products. Report W.P./225/76 Serial No. 240, UNDP, Tehran, Iran. Stow, J.P. 1975. Effects of humidity on losses of bulb onions (Allium cepa) stored at high temperature. Experimental Agriculture 11: 81-87. Thomas, D.J., and K.L. parkin. 1994. Quantification of alk(en)yl cysteine sulfoxides and related amino acids in Allium by high performance liquid chromatography. J.Agric.Food Chem. 42:1632. Thompson, A.K. 1982. The storage and handling of onions. Report of the Tropical Products Institute, G160.

Thompson, A.K. 1996. Postharvest technology of fruits and vegetables. London: Blackwell Science Ltd. Thompson, A.K., R.H. Booth, F.J. Proctor. 1972. Onion storage in the tropics. Tropical Science 14(1): 19-34.

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