OSI Layer Model The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference

Model to define functional communications standards. This reference model is widely used by equipment manufacturers to assure their products will interoperate with products from other vendors. The OSI model describes the functions that are performed in data communications. The model architecture is seven layers those are listed below with each layer defining specific functions.

Layer 7 Application The Application layer provides the interface to the user. Any user application that requires network communication accesses the communication resources through this layer. This layer also is responsible for finding and determining the availability of communication partners. Typical applications in the TCP/IP protocols are Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Telnet, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Layer 6 Presentation The Presentation layer is responsible for encoding and decoding data that is passed from the application layer to another station on the internetwork. This layer is responsible for encoding data in a format that the receiving station can interpret and for decoding data received from other stations. Data compression and encryption are accomplished at this layer. Typical coding schemes include ASCII, EBCDIC, MPEG, GIF, and JPEG. Layer 5 Session The session layer is responsible for creating, managing and termination sessions that are used by entities at the presentation layer. The session layer is responsible for coordinating the service requests and responses generated and received by a station when it is communication with other entities on the internetwork. Layer 4 Transport The Transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that are transparent to upper-layer protocols. The services include flow control, multiplexing, and error checking and recovery. If virtual circuits are needed for the communication to be accomplished, they are built and maintained at this layer. Flow control is responsible for making sure that a sending station does not transmit data faster than the receiving station can process it. Multiplexing allows multiple applications to share a common network interface. Error checking is implemented to discover errors on transmission and to provide a recovery mechanism when errors are found. Typical error recovery includes retransmission of the data. Layer 3 Network The Network layer defines routing services that allow multiple data links to be combined into an internetwork. The Network layer defines network-addressing schemes that logically identify network

devices. The logical network addresses are different from the physical addresses defined at the MAC layer, and are used by routing protocols running at this level to transfer packets from one network to another. The most common network addressing protocols are IP, IPX, and AppleTalk. Typical routing protocols that run at this level are RIP, OSPF, IGRP, and NLSP. Layer 2 Data Link The Data Link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. The Data Link layer also defines the physical network-addressing scheme, such as the MAC Address on network interface cards in a workstation connected to a LAN. The Data Link layer also defines the topology of the network (bus, star, dual ring, and so on). Flow control at the Data Link layer is defined to ensure receiving stations are not overrun with data before they can process data already received. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has redefined the Data Link layer into two sublayers. The sublayers are the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. The LLC and MAC sublayers are defined in the IEEE 802.2 standards. The LLC manages communications between devices over a single link of a network. The MAC sublayer manages access to the physical medium from multiple upper-level protocols. The MAC layer also defines the MAC address, which uniquely identifies devices at the Data Link layer. Layer 1 Physical The Physical layer defines the parameters necessary to build, maintain, and break the physical link connections. It defines the characteristics of the connectors, data transmission rates and distances, and the interface voltages. Routing Routing is the process of forwarding packets from one network to another. All the information needed for a router to forward packets to a hop (router/relay device) can be found in the router's routing table. Static Routing Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router's routing table. Static routes are routes that are administratively configured in routers. They are typically used when dynamic protocols are either unnecessary or unwanted. Static routing has following benefits:

There is no overhead on the routers CPU There is no bandwidth usage between routers, which mean u could possibly save money on WAN links

Static routing has following disadvantages:

The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is connected in order to configure routes properly If a network is added to internetwork, the administrator has to add a route to it on all routers

Default Routing Default routing useto send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing table to the next-hop router. You can only use default routing on stub networks-those with only one exit path out of the network. Dynamic Routing Dynamic routing is the process of using protocols to find and update routing tables on routers and to maintain a loop-free, single path to each network. This is easier than using static routing but it will

cost u in terms of router CPU processes and bandwidth on the network links. There are two types of dynamic routing protocols used in internetwork.Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) and Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP). IGP routing protocol are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same autonomous system (AS). An AS is a collection of network under a common administrative domain. EGP's are used to communicate between ASes. BGP is an example of EGP. Link State versus Distance Vector Routing Protocols In determining the best route to a destination, different routing protocols use a number of different measurements. These measurements are called metrics. Each routing protocol uses one or more metric to calculate the best route to a particular destination. The most common metrics include path length (hop count), reliability, delay, bandwidth, load, and financial cost of a link. Another major difference between routing protocols is how they handle updating each other with current information. There are many methods of doing this. Given these major differences, routing protocols are broken into two main categories: Distance Vector and Link State. Distance Vector protocols include RIP and IGRP. They send their entire routing tables out in all directions at regularly scheduled intervals. Link State protocols are more advanced than distance vector protocols because, unlike distance vector, they do not send periodic routing updates. Link State protocols include OSPF, NLSP, BGP, and IS-IS. They send partial routing tables (of their own networks) to everyone and then send updates when necessary. Classful Versus Classless Routing The basic definition of classful routing is that subnet mask information is not carried within the routine, periodic routing updates. This means that every interface and host on the network must use the same subnet mask. In other words, a classful routing protocol abides strictly to the bit boundaries of the IP address classes. For example, the 10.0.0.0 network-a Class A network-cannot be advertised as anything Other than a route to 10.0.0.0, since the default network mask of a Class A network is 255.0.0.0. In other words, VLSMs are effectively useless. This is because the routing update packet has no field for subnet mask, so the default mask according to the class is assumed. Classful routing protocols include RIP v1 and IGRP. Classless routing protocols include the subnet mask information when an update is sent. This allows different length subnet masks to be used on the network called Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM). Default Administrative Distances Administrative distances are used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information received on a router from a neighbor router. If a router learns of different types of routes to the same destination (statically configured or advertised via a dynamic routing protocol), it must select which route to include in its routing table. Typically, only one route to a specific destination (same address and mask) is in a router's routing table. One method of route "selection" is accomplished by comparing the administrative distance of all the routes to the same destination. Administrative Distance is a value, which rates the reliability of the source of the route. If the source that provides a route to a router is considered to be less reliable-less trustworthy-it receives a higher administrative distance value. The lowest administrative distance becomes the preferred route entered in the routing table. Administrative distance values range from 0 to 255. If desired, the administrator can configure administrative distances so that the default administrative distance is not used. Routing Protocols

In determining the best route to a destination, different routing protocols use a number of different measurements. These measurements are called metrics. Each routing protocol uses one or more metric to calculate the best route to a particular destination. The most common metrics include path length (hop count), reliability, delay, bandwidth, load, and financial cost of a link. Another major difference between routing protocols is how they handle updating each other with current information. There are many methods of doing this. Given these major differences, routing protocols are broken into two main categories: Distance Vector and Link State. Distance Vector protocols include RIP and IGRP. They send their entire routing tables out in all directions at regularly scheduled intervals. Link State protocols are more advanced than distance vector protocols because, unlike distance vector, they do not send periodic routing updates. Link State protocols include OSPF, NLSP, BGP, and IS-IS. They send partial routing tables (of their own networks) to everyone and then send updates when necessary. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) RIP is a true distance vector routing protocol. It sends the complete routing table out to all other active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP uses Hop Count as it's only metric. The maximum number of hops in a RIP network is 15, one hop is a directly connected network, and 16 hops is an unreachable network. RIP v1 uses only classful routing. RIP v2 uses classless routing. RIP uses three different kinds of timers to regulate its performance: Route Update timer sets the interval (30 seconds) between periodic routing updates in which the routers sends a complete copy of its routing table out to all neighbors. Route Invalid timer determines the length of time that must expire (90 seconds) before a router determines that a route has become invalid. Router Flush timer sets that time between a route becoming invalid and its remove from the routing table (240 seconds). RIP Configurations RIP is very simple to configure. All you need to do is enable RIP and add each network that uses RIP. However, RIPv2 has a few more possible commands; you can use two of them: version and no auto-summary. Because the router will by default use RIPv1, you must use the version command to tell the router to use RIPv2. In addition, by default RIPv2 will summarize major networks across boundaries. Use the no auto-summary command to stop summarization. RIPv1 Configuration Example

Router A (config)#router rip Router A (config_router)#network 208.28.3.0 Router A (config_router)#network 192.38.56.0 Router Router Router Router Router B B B B B (config)#router rip (config-router)#network (config-router)#network (config-router)#network (config-router)#network

134.80.0.0 192.38.56.0 192.38.57.0 192.38.58.0

Router C (config)#router rip Router C (config-router)#network 192.38.58.0 Router C (config-router)#network 208.28.1.0 Router D (config)#router rip Router D (config-router)#network 192.38.57.0 Router D (config-router)#network 208.28.2.0 Monitoring and Verifying RIP Command Show ip protocols Show ip route Debug ip rip Ping trace Description Shows the entire routing table Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values Issues log message for each RIP update Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify connectivity Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing TTL value

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a Cisco proprietary protocol. Like RIP, IGRP is a distancevector interior routing protocol. However, unlike RIP, IGRP can be used in larger autonomous systems due to its large maximum hop-count limit of 255, compared to RIP's maximum hop count of 16. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of the line by default as metric for determining the best route to an internetwork. This is called a composite metric. Reliability, load and maximum transmission unit (MTU) can also be used, although they are not used by default. To control performance IGRP uses different kind of timers: Update Timers specifies how frequently IGRP routing messages will be sent. The default is 90 seconds. Invalid Timer specifies how long a router should wait in the absence of a routing-update message of a specific route before declaring it invalid. The default is three times the Update timer, 270 seconds. Holddown Timer specifies the holddown period. The default is three times the update timer plus 10 seconds, 280 seconds. Flush Timer indicates how much time should pass before an IGRP route is flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update period, 630 seconds. IGRP Configurations Configuring IGRP is similar to configuring RIP in that after the router command you must specify only directly connected (system routes) networks. The only difference is in the command to enable the routing protocol. You must specify an AS number when enabling IGRP. The AS number parameter specifies the autonomous system number that is supported by this IGRP process and allows multiple IGRP processes to run on a single router. The AS number can be between 1 and 65,655. For example: RTR(config)# router igrp 10 RTR(config-router)# network 200.40.0.0 RTR(config-router)# network 200.30.0.0 Monitoring and Verifying IGRP Command Show ip protocols Debug ip igrp transactions Debug ip igrp events Ping trace Show ip route Description Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values Issues log messages with details of the IGRP updates. Issues log messages for each igrp updates Sends and receive ICMP echo messages to verify connectivity Sends a series of ICMP echoes with increasing TTL value Shows routing protocol parameters and current timer values

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