OBJECTIVE: STUDY OF DNA

DNAis a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA viruses). The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information. Along with RNA and proteins, DNA is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.

Structure: DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with
backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These two strands run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins

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Components: The two long intertwining polymers are joined together, at the sugar
molecules of the nucleotides, by four separate types of molecules known as ' bases' in the DNA sequence. These bases, chemically known as: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T), or more specifically, the ordering of these bases is what functionally determines the nature of the genetic code specified by the DNA molecule.

The Purines Adenine Guanine

Cytosine

The Pyrimidines Thymine

Uracil

The bases themselves are classified into two groups known as purines ( adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines ( cytosine and thymine). Albeit slightly on a different note, RNA (RiboNucleic Acid) incorporates a fifth base known as uracil (U) which takes the place of thymine within the functional RNA structure. The DNA polymer chains are held together when the bases attached to the sugar groups of the nucleotides are bound together by hydrogen connections, known as base pairing. In simple terms, a guanine molecule will bind with a cytosine molecule (using three hydrogen bonds) and an adenine molecule will bind with a thymine molecule using two hydrogen bonds.

PROPERTIES:

1.DNA is macromolecule contain N,O,C,P 2.Each DNA is formed by two polynucleotide chain. 3.Two chains are spirally coiled to form double helix. 4.Each chain is formed of many units called nucleotide because they are building blocks of DNA. 5.a nucleotide id formed of nucleoside and phosphoric acid. 6.in DNA molecules purines are linked with pyramidines. 7.Adenine linked with thymine by double bond while cytosine is linked with guanine by triple bond. 8.the adjacent chains are attached by hydrogen bond like A is bond with t of other chain. 9.the amount of A is equal to amount of T and amount of G is equal to amount of C. 10.The two chains of DNA are complementary to each other. 11.one end of polynucleotide chain is 3 and the opposite is 5. 12.a single DNA molecule contains 2000 base pairs.

Functions:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic code which ensures that daughter cells inherit the same characteristics as the parent cells DNA is the code from which all protein is synthesised All prokaryotes, eukaryote and some viruses have DNA All DNA code is composed from four nucleotide bases, Adenine Cytosine, Guanine and Thymine.

DNA also contains all the genetic coding which is used to control functions, behavior and development of an organism. DNA is also used as a long term storage device to store the genetic instructions. These instructions must be correct so the DNA can make an exact copy of itself. The function of DNA in a cell is to code the way proteins turn genes on or off.

Types of DNA:

B-DNA B-DNA is the form commonly observed in chromosomes. B-DNA is a right-handed helix with 10 base pairs per turn. B-DNA is replicated and used in the transcription and translation of RNA, which is the molecule used for protein synthesis. B-DNA can be denatured, which means the hydrogen bonds are removed. This is essentially the first step in replicating DNA in the cell. A-DNA A-DNA is also a right-handed helix. However, there are more base pairs per turn. ADNA has 11 base pairs per turn. Other than the more compact structure, A-DNA is similar to B-DNA. It is biologically active in the cell. Z-DNA Z-DNA is the type of DNA that is a left-handed helix. It is also known to be biologically active in zigzag formations of repeating base pair sequences. Z-DNA has 12 base pairs per turn, so it carries the most genes between each turn. Z-DNA plays a role in RNA transcription, which is the protein synthesis process of creating mRNA from a strand of DNA. mRNA (message RNA) is the molecule that carries transcribed genes to ribosomes where proteins are synthesized. cDNA cDNA (complementary or clonal DNA) is a type of DNA used to describe libraries of genetic information. cDNA is used in testing for pharmaceuticals and research of diseases. Out of these mostly used dna is B-DNA because it is used in protein synthesis.

Primary structure of DNA: Sequence of nucleotide chains. It is in these channels where the genetic information, and because the skeleton is the same for all the difference in the information lies in the different sequence of nitrogenous bases. This sequence has a code, which determines an information or otherwise, as the order of the bases.

Secondary structure of DNA: It is a double helix structure. Can explain the storage of genetic information and the mechanism of DNA replication. It was postulated by Watson and Crick, based on X-ray diffraction that Franklin and Wilkins had been made, and the equivalence of bases Chargaff, whereby the sum of adenines more guanines is equal to the sum of thymines more cytokines. It is a double strand, right-handed or left-handed, depending on the DNA. Both chains are complementary, as adenine and guanine in a chain are joined, respectively, thymine and cytosine on the other. Both chains are antiparallel, then the 3 'end of one faces the 5' end of the counterpart.