CHAPTER 23: THE ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE & GLOBAL WARMING The Atmosphere - The Atmosphere: Thin layers of gases

that envelops Earth - The gas molecules are held near to Earths surface by gravity & pushed upward by thermal energy (heating) of molecules - ~ 90% of weight of atmosphere in the first 12 km above Earths surface - Major gases: N (78%), O2 (21%), Ar (0.9%), CO2 (0.03%) & water vapor. - Trace amount: O3, HS, CO, NO2-NO3, SO2-SO3, hydrocarbons, CFCs Structure of the Atmosphere: - Atmosphere made up of several layers: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere - Troposphere: Ground up to 20-30 km (where weather occurs) Temp decreases with elevation from about 17C at surface to -60C at 12km elevation At top of troposphere is boundary layer called tropopause (constant temp of -60C) - Stratospheric ozone layer: Tropopause to 40km elevation Protect life in lower atmosphere from receiving harmful doses of ultraviolet radiation Atmospheric Processes: Temperature, Pressure, and Global Zones of High & Low Pressure: - Pressure: Atmospheric pressure: Caused by the weight of overlying atmospheric gases on those below Decrease with altitude. Low & High Pressure System: When air pressure low air tends to rise & cools as it rises condensing its water vapor clouds & precipitation. When air pressure high moving downward & warm the air changing condensed water drops in clouds to vapor clear & sunny. - Temperature: Measure of thermal energy Kinetic energy of the motions of atoms & molecules in a substance. - The atmosphere moves because of the Earths rotation & differential heating of Earths surface and atmosphere. These produce global patterns that include prevailing winds & latitudinal belts of low and high air pressure from the equator to the poles. Processes that remove Materials from the Atmosphere: - Sedimentation: Particles heavier than air settle out as a result of gravitational attraction to Earth. - Rain-out: Precipitation (rain, ice, snow) can physically & chemically flush material from the atmosphere. (Eg: Rainwater removes CO2 inform of weak H2CO3 acid). - Oxidation: Oxygen is chemically combined with another substance. (SO2 + O2 SO3).

- Photodissociation: Solar radiation can break down chemical bonds. (O3 O2). What makes the Earth warm? - Almost all the energy that Earth receives is from the sun. - Most of the suns radiation that reaches the Earth is in infrared & visible wavelengths. Earth, much cooler, radiates energy mostly in the infrared. - Earths atmosphere reflects 30% of electromagnetic energy from the Sun, absorb 25%. The remaining 45% gets to surface. Weather & Climate: - Weather: Whats happening now or over some short time period (this hour, today, this week) in the atmosphere near the ground {temp, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, winds}. - Climate: Average weather conditions over long time periods (years, decades, seasons). The Climate is always Changing Causes of Climate Change: - Our spinning Earth is like a wobbling top following an elliptical orbit around the Sun. Wobble means that the Earth is unable to keep its poles at constant angle in relation to the Sun. The wobble makes a complete cycle in 26000 years. The tilt of the wobble also varies over a period of 41000 years. The elliptical orbit around the Sun also changes. Sometimes, it is a more extreme orbit; other times it is closer to a circle. This occurs over 100000 years. Periodic changes in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth. Sometimes, the wobble puts the Northern Hemisphere tilted towards the Sun, while at other times the opposite occurs. Milankovitch showed that these variations correlated with the major glacial & interglacial periods. - Global ocean circulation, plate tectonics, the reflectiveness of the land surface. Solar Cycle: - The Sun goes through cycle, sometimes hotter, sometimes colder. - Today, this is observed directly with telescopes & other instruments. - Variations of suns intensity in the past can be determined as hotter & cooler suns emit different amounts of radionuclides (eg: beryllium-10 & carbon-14), which are trapped in glacial ice and can then be measured. - During the medieval period (1100-1300), the amount of solar energy reaching Earth was relatively high. Minimum solar activity (14th century) coincident with the beginning of the Little Ice Age. The variability of solar input to Earth explains some of climatic variability. Atmospheric Transparency Affects Climate & Weather: - How transparent the atmosphere is to radiation, both from the Sun & from Earths surface, affects the temp of Earth.

Volcanoes & large forest fires put dust into the atmosphere, as do human activities, such as plowing over large areas. Dust absorb light, cooling Earths surface. Each gas compound has its own absorption spectrum Chemical & physical composition of the atmosphere can make things warmer or cooler.

The Greenhouse Effect: - Major greenhouse gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, some oxides of nitrogen, chlorofluorocarbons. - Water vapor & small particles of water: 85% & 12% of total greenhouse warming. - Infrared wavelengths are heat radiation, wavelengths that for most processes on Earth transfer heat energy from one material to another. - Certain gases in Earths atmosphere are strong absorbers in infrared absorb radiation emitted by warm surface of Earth warmed by this, they re-emit this radiation some of radiation reaches back to surface, making Earth warmer than it otherwise would be. [GREENHOUSE EFFECT] How the Greenhouse Effect work: (Figure 23.16) - The greenhouse effect keeps the lower atmosphere of Earth ~ 33C warmer than it would otherwise be, - The strong downward emission if IR from the atmosphere that results from greenhouse effect Keep variations in surface temp from day to night relatively small. {Without this effect, land surface would cool more rapidly at night & warm more quickly during day} Roles of Major greenhouse Gases in Affecting Climate: - Experiment: The greater the CO2 concentration, the dimmer the IR light reaching the end of the tube. - Argument of Global Warming happening because of human activities: Understanding of infrared light absorption by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse effects found on Mars & Venus. Looking at graphs of Temp change & CO2 change. Climate Change & Feedback Loops: - Negative-Feedback Loops for Climate Change - Positive-Feedback Loops for Climate Change Oceans Effects on Climate Change: - Two-third of Earths surface is covered by water. - Water has the highest heat-storage capacity of any compound Very large amount of heat energy can be stored in worlds oceans. - Complex, dynamic and ongoing relationship between oceans & atmosphere: CO2 increases in atmosphere CO2 also increases in ocean Overtime, the ocean can absorb large quantity of CO2 Seawater becoming more acidic as HCO3 acid increases.

Part of what may drive the climate system & its changes is the ocean conveyor belt- a global circulation of ocean waters characterized by strong northward movement of upper warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean. El Nino & Climate: - El Nino: A certain kind of periodic variation of currents in the Pacific Ocean (~ every 7 years). - Under non-El Nino conditions: Trade winds blow west across the tropical Pacific Warm surface water in western Pacific tends to pile up Sea surface can be 0.5m higher at Indonesian than Peru. - During El Nino: Trade wind weakens and may even reverse Eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean becomes unusually warm & westward-moving equatorial ocean current weakens/reverses. Rise in temp of sea surface waters off South American coast inhibits upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water from deeper levels (which supports diverse marine ecosystem & major fisheries). Because rainfall follows warm eater eastward during El Nino years High rate of precipitation & flooding in Peru; Drought & fires commonly observed in Australia & Indonesia. Because warm ocean water provides an atmospheric heat source El Nino changes global atmospheric circulation Changes in weather in regions that are far removed from tropical Pacific. - El Nino reduces upwelling of deep oceanic waters in eastern Pacific Reduce amount of oceanic CO2 released to atmosphere. Predicting Future of Climate: - Uniformitarianism: Processes that occurred in the past occur today & will occur in the future. - Empirical problem: Temp records have only been kept, at best, for a few centuries, and those in only a few places Scientists have to extrapolate, interpolate & estimate. - Advents: Satellite remote sensing// Establishment of ocean platforms with automatic weather-monitoring equipment. Computer Simulation: - General Circulation Models (GCMs) What a Global Warming World might be like: - Global surface temp has increased about 0.2C/decade in past 30 years. - Since 1997, 8 warm years have occurred. - Additional warming of about 0.2C/decade for the next 2 decades is projected. - Even if concentrations of all greenhouse gases & aerosols had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, warming of 0.1C/decade would be expected.

Assuming concentrations of greenhouse gases increase at 1%/year in central N. America, warming is expected to vary ~ 2-4C, with small increase in precipitation Soil moisture may decrease in summer ~ 20% Significant effect on graingrowing areas of US. Positive Feedback in Polar Regions: Snow & ice melt Ground with vegetation & water reflects much less solar energy than would ice/snow Enhanced warming. [POLAR AMPLIFICATION]

Potential Environmental, Ecological & Human Effects of Global Warming: Change in River Flow: - Melting of glacial ice + Reductions in snow cover Reduce water availability & hydropower potential // Change seasonality of flows in regions supplied by meltwater from major mountain ranges. - Eg: California (depend on snowmelt from Sierra Nevada for water to irrigation) Rainfall will likely increase, but less snowpack with warming Runoff more rapid Reservoirs fill sooner & more water escape to Pacific Ocean. Rise in Sea Level: - Reasons: An expansion of liquid water as water warms. Melting of ice sheets on land whose waters then flow into the ocean. - Consequences: Coastal flooding due to storm surges. Threaten island nations Increase coastal erosion on open beaches structures more vulnerable to damage from waves. Landward migration of estuaries & salt marshes Loss of coastal wetlands & put additional pressure on human structures in coastal zone. Groundwater supplies for coastal communities threatened by saltwater intrusion. - People would have to alter coastal environment significantly to protect investments Make heavy expenditures to control coastal erosion + Construction of seawalls, dikes & other erosion-controlling structures. Glaciers & Sea Ice: - Melting of glacial ice raises mean sea level - Mountain glaciers are often significant sources of water for lower-elevation ecosystems. Changes in Biodiversity: - Rapid warming Potential threat to those species that are unable to migrate or quickly adapt. - Agriculture production is likely to increase in some regions & decline in others. Human Health Effects: - Increase malnutrition

Increase deaths, diseases & injury due to extreme weather events Increase burden of diarrhea diseases Increase frequency of cardio respiratory diseases (due to higher concentrations of ground-level ozone in urban areas)

Adjusting o Potential Global Warming: 1. Adapt: Learn to live with future global climatic change. 2. Mitigate: Work to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. - Energy conservation & efficiency, along with use of alternative energy sources. - Use of mass transit & decrease in use of automobiles. - Providing greater economic incentives to energy-efficient technology. - Require higher fuel-economy standards for cars, trucks & buses, - Require higher standards of energy efficiency. - Minimizing burning & protecting worlds forest. - Planting more trees // Enhance & manage better sinks for carbon dioxide (Soils, forests, grasslands). - Geologic sequestration of carbon [Capture carbon dioxide from power plants & industrial smokestacks inject into deep subsurface geologic reservoirs]. International Agreements: - International treaties & Carbon Trading.