International Information System

IT applications depend on a variety of global business drivers, caused by the nature of the industry and its competitive or environmental forces Global customers Global products Global operations Global resources Global collaboration

GIS Geographic Information Systems

GIS is a system of hardware and software used for storage, retrieval, mapping, and analysis of geographic data. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as including the operating personnel and the data that go into the system. Spatial features are stored in a coordinate system (latitude/longitude, state plane, UTM, etc.), which references a particular place on the earth. Descriptive attributes in tabular form are associated with spatial features. Spatial data and associated attributes in the same coordinate system can then be layered together for mapping and analysis. planning. GIS can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, and development

About the Technology

In its simplest form, the term "Geographic Information System," or GIS, is an acronym for a technology that offers a radically different way in which we produce and use the maps required to manage our communities and industries. Using computer programs, the technology links items displayed on a map with records in a database with the answers displayed on a map. The resulting combination, and the ability to manipulate the data in response to any number of "what if" scenarios, provides government agencies, utilities and a long list of private industries with a powerful and dynamic new tool that has opened doors in management effectiveness and

organizational efficiency. A GIS creates intelligent super maps through which sophisticated planning and analysis can be performed at the touch of a button. The federal government uses this resulting geospatial information to manage forests, develop defense strategies, establish tax valuations and manipulate census data to determine voting districts. Utilities use geospatial info to automate vast transmission and distribution networks, and to build and service pipelines and communication networks. Cities are using geospatial technologies for applications as diverse as routing sanitation and emergency vehicles, replacing water mains and doing a better job of matching the right equipment to each job. Thousands of private companies use geospatial information to make more informed decisions in areas ranging from site selection, to marketing demographics, to analyzing competition. Once considered an end to itself (e.g., a physical map), GIS today has rapidly evolved as an integral part of the management process in a broad range of applications and sectors. For example, geospatial systems are a key element in nearly every infrastructure development project of the multi-lateral lending agencies. "Automated Mapping and Facilities Management," or AM/FM, means exactly that: to automate the mapping process and to manage facilities represented by items on the map. In the past, when a map was needed, a crew of surveyors, draftspersons, and geographers would combine their resources and develop a map on paper. This map was created by hand, updated by hand, and reproduced by a professional printer. Today, it can be drawn on a computer screen using a Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD) software program. The map program is then connected to a database containing a variety of detailed information related to items on the map. When the map is needed to answer a question, it is displayed on the screen automatically. Updates are made quickly using a digitizing table, a mouse and a keyboard. The entire map, or just portions of it, may be selected to be printed on a plotter. The process is similar to word processing for maps. The key advantage to AM/FM is the ability to share maps. State and federal agencies, along with utility companies, which create their own respective maps can, for example, share maps with each other. This not only saves money, but provides the ability to create hundreds of new maps, many of which never existed before, for minimal cost. "Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition", or SCADA, is the process by which real-time information is gathered from remote locations for processing and analysis; and the process by

which equipment is controlled. SCADA is used in the electric, telecommunications, transportation, pipeline, water/wastewater, oil and gas, and infrastructure/government fields. GIS and SCADA relate by allowing for "live" maps and real-time databases that are used to manage large systems and networks. Through the integration, SCADA becomes spatially related, and AM/FM/GIS systems become real-time. For example, gas pipeline companies use SCADA, represented as a large wall model of its pipeline network in the region containing real-time information on gas flow, pipeline pressures, sections under repair, alternative pipeline routings, the location and dispatch of service crews, etc. "Global Positioning System," or GPS, is a network of 24 satellites equipped with atomic clocks and equally accurate position measuring telemetry gear. The network was originally designed as a navigational aid for the military, but the civilian sector has leveraged the Pentagon's $10 billion investment in technology infrastructure into a market for hardware, software and services that are expected to grow to $20 billion annually by the year 2000. Armed with inexpensive GPS receivers, for example, utility service crews can be quickly dispatched to the location of underground utilities in need of repair. And the interface of GIS and GPS has resulted in a steady stream of new applications on an ongoing basis. Today there are tens of thousands of geospatial applications in use. Organizations throughout the world are using the technology to transform manually produced maps and associated descriptive records into powerful digital databases whose content can be used in applications as far flung as managing utility distribution networks, to monitoring pollution, to planning alternative traffic patterns, to redrawing voter districts, or tracking agricultural drought conditions. Once a tool that was affordable only to the largest organizations, geospatial systems have become a cost-effective option for even the smallest organizations. Gas and electric utilities use it to model distribution networks, issue work orders, dispatch service crews, market to prospective customers and plan service expansions. Telecommunications companies find it invaluable as they seek a competitive edge in the management of outside plant facilities and in the marketing of long distance services. Government agencies rely on this technology to plan new land developments, determine tax valuations, manage public works networks, route emergency vehicles, analyze crime and accident patterns, manage transportation systems and study environmental issues. Private businesses use it to make strategic decisions about locating new outlets and facilities,targeting customers more effectively and determining the impact of new or potential competitors.

Approximately 70 to 80 percent of the information managed by business is somehow connected to a specific locationan address, street, intersection, or "xy" coordinate. Therefore, geospatial technology is finding its way into every corner of the business world. And, because the technology's uses are so widespread and diverse, the geospatial market is growing at an annual rate of almost 35 percent. The commercial subsection of this market is expanding at a phenomenal rate of 100 percent each year. GITA can help you keep up with the vast changes taking place in this discipline and access the educational channels you need to learn about the impact that geospatial information can have on you and your organization.

GIS Process

Where is GIS Used?

GIS is everwhere! There are many businesses, government agencies and others who are using GIS Government Agencies Emergency Services Real estate agents and bankers property values, and tax information. Health care professionals Weather forcasting

Satellite Mobile communications Infrastructure planning Oil explorations Defence

Remote Sensing Technology in GIS

Remote sensing is the technique of deriving information about objects on the surface of the earth without physically coming into contact with them. This process involves making observations using sensors (cameras, scanners, radiometer, radar etc.) mounted on platforms (aircraft and satellites), which are at a considerable height from the earth surface and recording the observations on a suitable medium (images on photographic films and videotapes or digital data on magnetic tapes). When electromagnetic radiation falls upon a surface, some of its energy is absorbed, some is transmitted through the surface, and the rest is reflected. Surfaces also naturally emit radiation, mostly in the form of heat. It is that reflected and emitted radiation which is recorded either on the photographic film or digital sensor. Since the intensity and wavelengths of this radiation are a function of the surface in question, each surface is described as processing a characteristic Spectral Signature. If an instrument can identify and distinguish between different spectral signatures, then it will be possible to map the extent of surfaces using remote sensing. Satellite remote sensing is widely used as a tool in many parts of the world for the management of the resources and activities within the continental shelf containing reefs, islands, mangroves, shoals and nutrient rich waters associated with major estuaries.

Satellites & Sensors

The mode can be geostationary, permitting continuous sensing of a portion of the earth or sun synchronous with polar orbit covering the entire earth at the same equator crossing time. The Landsat series of satellites have a repeat period ranging from 16 18 days, whereas in the case of IRS, it is 22 days. Satellites cover the same area and provide continuous coverage of a fixed area. The sunsynchronous satellites have a synoptic coverage. The ground area covered by the satellites passes can be obtained by referring to its path and row. Sensors are devices used for making observations. They consist of mechanisms usually sophisticated lenses with filter

coatings to focus the area observed onto a plane in which detectors are placed. These detectors are sensitive to a particular region in which the sensor is designed to operate and produce outputs, which are either representative of the observed area as in the case of the camera or produce electrical signals proportionate to radiation intensity. Spatial resolution: It is a measure of the smallest angular or linear separation between two objects that can be resolved by the sensor. The greater the sensors resolution, the greater the data volume and smaller the area covered. In fact, the area coverage and resolution are interdependant and these factors determine the scale of the imagery.

Spectral resolution:
It refers to the dimension and number of specific wavelength intervals in the electromagnetic spectrum to which a sensor is sensitive. Narrow bandwidths in certain regions of the electromagnetic spectrum allow the discrimination of various features more easily.

Temporal resolution:
It refers to how often a given sensor obtains imagery of a particular area. Ideally, the sensor obtains data repetitively to capture unique discriminating characteristics of the phenomena of interest.

Radiometric sensitivity:
It is the capability to differentiate the spectral reflectance/ emittance from various targets. This depends on the number of quantisation levels within the spectral band. In other words, the number of bits of digital data in the spectral band will decide the sensitivity of the sensor.

Application of Remote Sensing and GIS

Uses Of Coastal GIS Packages

1.Retrieval of information of any specific site. 2. Provision of summary data for planning purpose. 3. Graphical display for educational and public relation exercise. 4. Classification of coasts and management zone. 5. Predicting modelling to determine. A. Projections of coastal changes. B. Impacts of individual schemes. C. Impacts from changes of use. D. Impacts from natural calamities.

Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Coastal Ecosystem

Management
Based on remote sensing a variety of data pertaining to the coastal zone like, identification of plant community, biomass estimation, shoreline changes, delineation of coastal landforms and tidal boundary, qualitative estimation of suspended sediment concentration, chlorophyll mapping, bathymetry of shallow waters, etc. can be collected and all these data will help in effective coastal ecosystem management. The latest Indian satellites IRS 1C, 1D, P4 and P6 with their improved spatial resolution (PAN 5.8 m, LISS III 23.6 m, LISS IV 5.8 m, WiFS 188 m and AWiFS 56 m), extended spectral range (inclusion of middle infrared band in LISS III) and increased repetivity (5 days for WiFS data) have opened up new applications in coastal zone. Preliminary analysis of IRS 1C, 1D data indicates that coral reef zonation, identification of tree and shrub mangroves, mudflats, beach, dune vegetation, saline areas, etc as well as better understanding of suspended sediment patterns are now possible. The PAN data combined with the LISS III and LISS IV data are extremely useful in providing detailed spatial information about reclamation, construction activity and ecologically sensitive areas, which are vital for the coastal zone regulatory activities. The information available from merged PAN and LISS III, IV data about coral reef zonation, especially for atolls, patch reef and coral pinnacles, is valuable for coral reef conservation plans. The distinction between tree and shrub mangroves in FCC (middle infrared, infrared and red bands) of LISS III provides vital information on biodiversity studies (Ramachandran et. al., 2000a). The high temporal resolution provided by the WiFS data is found to be a major improvement in studying the behavior of suspended sediments in the coastal waters, which would help in understanding the movement of sediments and pollutants (Nayak et.al., 1996). Mangroves Satellite remote sensing has been found to be a very valuable application tool in forest management including mangroves, not only in monitoring, but also carrying out relevant observations, which can bring out the impact of deforestation on global climate. Remote sensing of change detection is a process of determining and evaluating differences in a variety of surface phenomena over time. For detection of land cover change, multi temporal data of Landsat TM were found to be more suitable for identification of deforestation areas, mapping the regeneration/ regrowth of forest area and tracing major changes in land cover.

GIS applications
Map Creation Report Preparation

Facilities Management Analysis of Employer/Employee Demographics Transportation Issues Strategic Planning Decision Making Improved Decision Making Reduced Errors Reduced Risks Improved Management and Control Improved Service to Clients

Knowledge management systems :

In 1972, a team at Carnegie-Mellon University began development on ZOG (the name does not appear to be an acronym). In 1983, this system was installed on board the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson, using twenty-eight networked PERQ workstations. It provided the crew with a task management system and on-line procedure manuals. Two of the principal ZOG researchers, Donald McCracken and Robert Akscyn, formed Knowledge Systems in 1981, and began work on a commercial product, Knowledge Management System (KMS). This was implemented as a distributed database using Sun and Apollo workstations, computers possessing high-resolution graphic displays. The software has been documented most thoroughly in "KMS: A Distributed Hypermedia System for Managing Knowledge in Organizations" by Akscyn, McCracken, and Yoder. KMS is based on an extremely simple paradigm. Each screen may display either one frame (node) or two frames side by side (as in the Memex). Nodes may contain text and graphics. Reference and command links are available--these are indicated by a hollow or solid bullet. Two link types are available. Tree links indicate hierarchical or structural relationships; annotation links indicate associative relationships. The latter are denoted by having "@" as their first character. The user interface is most notable for what it does not have: pull-down menus, buttons, windows, and so on. KMS today is the result of rethinking many user interface design issues. Mostly, this has meant learning to do without things that previously seemed so necessary to us. We are trying to provide the KMS user with an environment in which there are few concepts to learn. (829) The following list illustrates this concept:

only one command context is available; no distinction is made between editing, viewing, and navigating

anchors are not highlighted; they may be separated from other text by whitespace to indicate the special status of this text. scrolling is not provided, since quick navigation between frames is seen as a more efficient substitute nodes are not typed no clipboard is necessary, since items may be moved directly destination anchors are not provided because frames themselves are small enough logical units link properties are not required since one can just as easily follow the link as view its descriptors no maps are provided, as they are not judged to be worth the extra complexity

Actions are initiated through the use of a three-button mouse. The on-screen pointer changes depending on its location to indicate available actions. In this way selection, block editing, and navigation functions are all provided without need for a menuing system. Additional global commands are available from a single line at the bottom of the screen. On-line help, importing, clusters, and versioning are all provided. Simple searches can be made on particular hierarchies of nodes. The results are displayed as a frame. A general-purpose scripting language, similar in scope to HyperTalk, is available. KMS has accomplished its developers' goal of providing full hypertext functionality with a minimum of overhead. Along with Intermedia, it is the most highly developed hypertext system. The two stand poles apart, however, in their interface model.

KM System Technologies application areas

Portals

 Business Intelligence Data Warehousing, Data Mining Document Management Intelligent agents Search Engines Knowledge Resource Directories Customer Relationship Management Messaging / e-mail Groupware and Collaboration Technologies Web Calendars / Reminders Decision Support Systems Workflow and Tracking Web Casting Content Management Web / multimedia based training / e-learning

KM System as a Human Process

Knowledge management system, however, does not have to be a computer system. It can be a process of finding, selecting, organizing, distilling and presenting information in a way that improves comprehension in a specific area of interest, and acquiring, storing and utilizing knowledge for such things as problem solving, strategic planning,

decision making and dynamic learning.