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htm IJPDLM 40,1/2 Received March 2009 Revised August 2009 Accepted October 2009 International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management Vol. 40 No. 1/2, 2010 pp. 14-41 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited DOI 10.1108/09600031011018028 Green, lean, and global supply chains Diane Mollenkopf, Hannah Stolze, Wendy L. Tate and Monique Ueltschy Department of Marketing and Logistics, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship among green, lean, and global supply chain strategies as found in the literature, with emphasis on the concurr ent implementation of these three strategic initiatives, in order to develop a research agenda to guid e theoretically based future research that informs managerial decision making. Design/methodology/approach An extensive literature review is conducted to examine research

and practice with respect to the concurrent implementation of green, lean, and g lobal supply chain strategies. Findings An in-depth examination of the literature revealed drivers, barriers, converging , and contradictory points across the three supply chain strategies. Future research o pportunities fall into four major themes: the need for theoretically grounded research, the need for a multi-functional approach, the need for a systems approach that adds strategic insight, and the n eed for integrated measurement application. Managerial aspects are highlighted in the discussion of the metrics across the three strategic interfaces and integrated life cycle management is suggested as a framework for measurement application across the three supply chain strategies. Originality/value Separate literature streams have arisen to address issues in green, lean, and global supply chain management, but research has largely neglected the intersect ion of these three strategies practiced by multinational organizations. The current research synthe sizes the literature addressing the intersections of green, lean, and global supply chain management, and suggests a research agenda to redress gaps in the literature. Keywords Globalization, Sustainable development, Supply chain management, Environmental management, Lean production Paper type Conceptual paper 1. Introduction Firms in the twenty-first century are grappling with a constantly changing world . Three supply chain trends in particular are converging to create an increasingly complex business environment: a move towards green initiatives, the utilization of lean processes, and globalization. The globalization of supply chains involves dimens ions such as offshoring of production, inventories, suppliers and customers, and diff erences in economies, infrastructures, cultures, and politics in the competitive environ ment (Manuj and Mentzer, 2008; Schmidt and Wilhelm, 2000; Christopher, 2005). Globalization may enable increased revenue generation through entry to new markets and may provide access to suppliers that can provide materials and input s more efficiently than domestic sources. There has also been an increasing trend for All authors contributed equally to the preparation and submission of this paper and are listed in

alphabetical order.

firms to shift operations from the host country to lower cost geographies to red uce manufacturing costs. Lean supply chain strategies focus on waste reduction, helping firms eliminate non-value adding activities related to excess time, labor, equipment, space, and inventories across the supply chain (Corbett and Klassen, 2006). Such strategies enable firms to improve quality, reduce costs, and improve service to customers as trad itional batch and queue mass production and supply chain approaches are transformed (Larson and Greenwood, 2004). Lean practices are becoming increasingly difficult to implement and sustain as supply chains increase in complexity and length. Green supply chain strategies refer to efforts to minimize the negative impact o f firms and their supply chains on the natural environment. In the wake of concerns rega rding climate change, pollution, and non-renewable resource constraints, firms are hee ding stakeholder demands regarding corporate citizenship behavior and performance (Sa rkis, 2001; de Burgos Jimenez and Cespedes Lorente, 2001). A green supply chain focus re quires working with suppliers and customers, analysis of internal operations and proces ses, environmental considerations in the product development process, and extended stewardship across products life-cycles (Corbett and Klassen, 2006; Mollenkopf, 2 006). While there are separate streams of established research on green, lean, and glo bal issues, few authors have addressed the intersection of these strategic initiativ es. This is a critical oversight because firms may be missing synergies available through improved concurrent implementation; they may also be failing to address importan t trade-offs that may arise when there are incompatibilities between strategic ini tiatives. For example, lean and green strategies are often seen as compatible initiatives because of their joint focus on waste reduction. When lean initiatives enable only deman ded volumes to flow through the supply chain (and not the safety stock and extra inv entory assocated with non-lean supply chains), a reduced amount of inventory needs to b e sourced, produced, transported, packaged and handled, which also minimizes the negative environmental impact of the supply chain. However, lean strategies that employ just-in-time (JIT) delivery of small lot sizes can require increased transportation, packaging, and handling that may contradict a green approach. By recognizing this conflict, firms may be able to identify trade-offs or develop s olutions that mitigate undesirable consequences. In the example just presented, firms tha

t recognize the negative environmental impact of the pure JIT approach may conside r reusable packaging and containers or adapt the lot-size to optimize cube utiliza tion during transportation as a means to achieve both lean and green objectives. This example, while simplistic, is meant to illustrate the potential for synergies an d conflicts that may arise when implementing any combination of green, lean, or global strat egy. Indeed, introducing a global aspect to the lean-green initiatives, adds to the c omplexity of managing the supply chain, often due to regulatory differences across the glo be. Thus, the purpose of this research is twofold: first, to examine the green, lean , and global supply chain literature, with particular emphasis on the concurrent implementation of these three strategic initiatives. This examination focuses specifically on the highlighted areas in Figure 1, which shows the emerging doma in of green, lean, and global supply chain literature. This integrative literature review examines the relationship between these supply chain strategies, including their convergence and divergence. This provides a foundation for future researchers to build upon and illuminate the strategies complementary aspects. Therefore, the second Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM Market environment 40,1/2 Figure 1. Green, lean, and global supply chains: research domain Lean supply chain processesCompetitive environmentCultural environment Global supply chain Environmentally sustainable supply chains Regulatory environment purpose is to provide a research agenda that addresses gaps found in the literat ure to guide theoretically based future research that informs managerial decision makin g. 2. Methodology An extensive review of the literature in each of the three interfaces of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies was conducted using Google Scholar. Google Schola r allows researchers to search many sources, including peer-reviewed papers, these s, books, abstracts and articles, from both academic and professional organizations and publishers. Google Scholar (2009) works to discover the most relevant research a cross multiple disciplines and sources. Although Google Scholar does not provide all f ull-text articles, it encompasses information pooled from many different databases. When used in conjunction with a university research library, it directly links researchers to multiple databases through one search engine, including EBSCO Business Source Premier, Elsevier Science Direct, JSTOR, Springer Link, and Wiley Interscience. The development of the keywords used to search Google Scholar was an iterative process. The researchers first employed a brainstorming technique and then used a snowballing process to add keywords to the search as they were discovered in the literature. These additional keywords were added until a point of saturation was reached, where no new keywords or articles were identified. The final list of keyword com binations used to search Google Scholar is shown in Table I. All combinations of paired wo rds across

the key categories were searched along with the term supply chain . The keyword searches yielded an extensive list of articles (e.g. a search for green and global nd supply chain yields 22,200 articles). Google Scholar prioritizes the display of ar ticles in Lean Green Global Push-pull Postponement Six Sigma JIT Environmental Environment Sustainability Ecological International Multinational Transnational Table I. Keywords searched

order of relevance; therefore, the first 100 were reviewed for appropriateness. The title, abstract, and text of each of these 100 articles were scanned to determine relev ance to green/lean, lean/global, or green/global supply chains. Non-relevant articles we re eliminated; however, the authors erred on the side of inclusion until a more indepth assessment on the content of the articles could be performed. To supplement the keyword search, a list of scholarly journals that routinely pu blish supply chain-related articles was generated through discussions with experts in the field. Literature reviews published in these journals that focused on the broad scope o f the supply chain were assessed. For example, Hult and Chabowski (2008) recently conducted a n analysis of purchasing research. Keller et al. (2002) performed an extensive review of logistics research, and Craighead and Meredith (2008) recently looked at operati ons research. Additionally, the list of top-ranked journals from the Financial Times was utilized to incorporate general management journals (Financial Times, 2008). A comprehensive list of the journals used for this phase is shown in Table II along with the number o f articles scanned for inclusion in this research. The authors determined that only the fir st 1,000 articles published between 1990 and 2009 would be scanned for inclusion. A database of all relevant articles from both phases of the literature search wa s created in Excel. The database articles were classified and coded according to where the y best fit in the three interfaces considered relevant to this research (refer to Figure 1) . These articles were categorized by theory, methodology, scales, findings, and key topics of dis cussion. During this review, a number of themes emerged including the forces that drive f irms to concurrently implement green, lean, and global strategies, the hurdles that impe de effective implementation, and the complementary and contradictory aspects of eac h of the three strategies. These themes are discussed in the sections below. 3. Green, lean, and global strategies in a

supply chain context A growing number of firms have adopted lean processes to promote continuous supp ly chain performance improvement. Lean processes create value through the eliminati on of waste in the supply chain (Disney et al., 1997), including the production of goods not yet ordered, waiting time, rectification of mistakes, and excess processing, movement, transport, and stock (Jones and Hines, 1997). Lean supply chain litera ture highlights the managerial application of lean practices (Manrodt et al., 2008), integrates lean and agile operations (Mason-Jones et al., 2000; Goldsby et al., 2006), takes a JIT approach to supply chain management (Das and Handfield, 1997), and focuses on specific functional areas of the supply chain including lean logistics (Disney e t al., 1997). Because of the widespread acceptance of lean supply chain practices and t he growing pressure for environmental management, firms have started to incorporate environmentally friendly practices into their waste reduction schema. Firms are pressured by stakeholders to be more environmentally conscious and to integrate environmental management into their processes and corporate strategies (Azzone and Bertele`, 1994; Kovacs, 2008). The green supply chain management (GSCM) literature has examined the importance of working across the supply chain with both customers and suppliers on environmental initiatives, which has been s hown to lead to improved firm performance (Vachon and Klassen, 2006b). This type of environmental collaboration develops knowledge-sharing capabilities (Vachon and Klassen, 2008) that serve as a resource for a sustainable competitive advantage through environmental efforts (Hart, 1995). Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 Table II. Journals searched in Phase 2 of literature search Number of articles Journals scanned Business and the Environment 59 Business Strategy and the Environment 853 California Management Review 1,000 Decision Sciences 1,000 European Journal of Operational Research 1,000 European Management Journal 1,000 Greener Management International 369 Harvard Business Review 1,000 Industrial Marketing Management 1,000 International Journal of Logistics Management 393

International Journal of Operations & Production Management 1,000 International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management 972 International Journal of Production Economics 1,000 International Journal of Production Research 1,000 International Journal of Purchasing & Materials Management 120 Journal of Business Logistics 513 Journal of Cleaner Production 1,000 Journal of Industrial Ecology 1,000 Journal of International Business Studies 1,000 Journal of

Operations Management 1,000 Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management (previously European Journal of Purchasing & Supply Management) 450 Journal of Quality Management 152 Journal of Supply Chain Management 476 Management Science 1,000 Multinational Business Review 318 OMEGA International Journal of Management Science 55 Operations Research 1,000 Production and Operations Management 1,000 Sloan Management Review 1,000 Supply Chain Management: An International Journal

586 Transnational Corporations 616 Transportation Journal 582 Transportation Research: Part E 432 Total 23,946 Firms have restructured their supply chains to operate on a global basis to take advantage of the international product, factor, and capital markets (Manuj and Me ntzer, 2008, p. 133). However, global supply chain management can present several chall enges, including differences in economic, cultural, and regulatory environments. Global supply chain literature emphasizes the importance of risk management (Manuj and Mentzer , 2008), the complexity and coordination involved in management (Mentzer, 2001), a nd specific functional areas of the supply chain such as global sourcing (Fagan, 19 91; Kotabe and Murray, 2004) and global logistics (Rodrigues et al., 2005). 3.1 The interface of green and global supply chain strategies While the literature base in GSCM is growing rapidly, research focusing on global implementation is negligible, with minimal theoretically grounded researc h.

Two exceptions include the new development paradigm (NDP) and the sustainability framework. The NDP (Dunning and Fortanier, 2007) focuses on the social, environm ental and economic impacts of multinational firms and is similar to the recent introdu ction of the sustainability framework (Carter and Rogers, 2008). Although the design of globa l supply chains has a significant impact on the environment, little research highlights t he impact of global supply chains on the natural environment. One exception is the input-outp ut model developed by Albino et al. (2002) that serves as a useful tool for global firms to assess the environmental impact of production processes in the supply chain. Performance measurement in GSCM is discussed by researchers (Hervani et al., 2005; Clift, 2003); however there is little mention of the metrics that firms ca n use to measure their environmental footprint in a global context. One of the most commo n global metrics for environmental initiatives is the International Organization f or Standardization (ISO) 14000 certification, which requires procedures for identif ying all environmental aspects of the site s operations, safe handling and disposal procedure s for hazardous materials and waste, and compliance with relevant environmental legislation (Corbett and Kirsch, 2001). ISO-14000 certification is more commonly used among multinationals and these firms also encourage their suppliers to apply for certification. The ISO-14000 standards are also being incorporated into the supp lier selection process (Chen, 2005; Miles et al., 1999). Other literature examines the impact of trade on the environment (Frankel and Ro se, 2005; Zeng and Eastin, 2007) and the link between green and global supply chain practices and firm performance (Zhu and Sarkis, 2004; Rao, 2002). However, international research tends to address localized environmental issues, neglecti ng a global supply chain perspective. Several factors lead firms to pursue green supply chain practices in a global co ntext, including common global environmental standards such as ISO-14000 (Rappaport and Flaherty, 1992; Rondinelli and Berry, 2000; UNCTAD, 1993; Epstein and Roy, 1998; Miles and Russell, 1997), policies from corporate headquarters (Hadlock, 1994; Hansen et al., 2004), effects of environmental performance on firms global reputations (Christma nn, 1998), cost reduction (Zhu et

al., 2005; de Brito et al., 2008; Dowell et al., 2000; Christmann and Taylor, 2001), and pressures from stakeholders (Zhu et al., 2008; Christmann and Taylor, 2001; Maxwell et al., 1997), and competitors (Zhu et al., 2008; Walker et al., 2008). The reviewed literature base consisted of anecdotal evidence (Rappaport and Flah erty, 1992; UNCTAD, 1993; Rondinelli and Berry, 2000) and case studies or interviews ( Maxwell et al., 1997; Walker et al., 2008; de Brito et al., 2008), with minimal theory testing. Other factors were discovered that hinder the implementation of a green and glob al supply chain strategy. Successful implementation of environmental initiatives ac ross the supply chain requires cooperation between customers and suppliers (Vachon an d Klassen, 2006a; Bowen et al., 2001). Barriers include resistant suppliers (Wycherley, 1999; Walker et al., 2008), the newness of the concept of GSCM (Wycherley, 1999; Zhu and Sarkis, 2004), the lack of metrics and available data for measuring green pr actices across a global supply chain (Veleva et al., 2003), and the risk and opportunity cost of losing key partners in a green supply chain (Zhu and Cote, 2004). Barriers were identified from case studies and interviews (Wycherley, 1999; Walker et al., 2008; Zhu and Cote, 2004), anecdotal evidence (Veleva et al., 2003), and one broad-based survey of managers in Chinese manufacturing facilities (Zhu and Sarkis, 2004). See Table I II for a summary of drivers and barriers across the green/global interface. Green, lean, and global supply chains

Table III. Summary of the green and global supply chain interface IJPDLM 40,1/2 Concept Definition Citation Drivers Common global environmentalstandards Corporate headquarters environmentalpoliciesGlobal environmental reputations Cost reduction Customers Non-governmental organizations(NGOs) Competitors Barriers Resistant suppliers Newness of the concept Data and metrics not available Risk of losing suppliers Firms create common

global standards because of varyingenvironmental regulations, causing increased selfregulation of global environmental performance Environmental policies and practices from the country ofcorporate headquarters often trigger global implementation Effect of multinationals environmental performance ontheir global environmental reputations Cost reduction through standardized global environmentalstrategies; ISO 14000 may havefinancial benefits throughavoiding modification of manufacturing equipment bystandardizing global environmental strategies Customers using environmental criteria in

supplierselection drive globalfirms to pursue environmental supplychain strategies in order to be qualified suppliers for foreigncustomers Pressures from NGOs pushing large global corporations tobe environmentally conscious Global competitors driving use of environmentalmanagement systems Resistant suppliers because of costs of environmentalimprovements, confl icting strategic objectives andskepticism of performance of environmental products Newness of the concept of GSCM; lack of information, expertise

and management capabilities for globalimplementation Data for measuring environmental sustainability across aglobal supply chain are often not available anddevelopment of indicators require collaboration withsupply chain partners outside of the organization Losing key suppliers or partners can be detrimental to theenvironmental impact of the global supply chain and havesignificant opportunity costs Rappaport and Flaherty (1992), Rondinelli and Berry (2000) and

UNCTAD (1993) Hadlock (1994) and Hansen et al. (2004) Christmann (1998) Zhu et al. (2005), de Brito et al. (2008), Dowell et al. (2000) and Christmann and Taylor (2001) Zhu et al. (2008) and Christmann and Taylor (2001) Maxwell et al. (1997) Zhu et al. (2007) and Walker et al. (2008) Wycherley (1999) and

Walker et al. (2008) Wycherley (1999) and Zhu and Sarkis (2004) Veleva et al. (2003) Zhu and Cote (2004)

3.1.1 Implementing green and global supply chain strategies. Three points of convergence between green and global supply chain strategies were identified. Fi rst, multinational firms have knowledge-transfer capabilities to extend pollution-red uction strategies across global activities, due to their size, high research and develo pment investment and international coordination of manufacturing (Levy, 1995). Second, global firms with strong public reputations are more likely to experience greater exter nal pressure to be environmentally responsible (Williams et al., 1993). Third, while global perceptions of environmental issues in logistics are similar across US, Canadian , and Western European managers (Murphy and Poist, 2003), government regulations in th ese countries differ. Increased trade in these areas can lead to strict abidance of environmental standards and improved compliance through self-regulation (Zeng and Eastin, 2007 ). While some factors favor the implementation of green and global supply chain strategies, others hinder implementation. Differing legislation can be either a driver or a barrier, depending on how a firm optimizes regulatory trade-offs. Operations spa nning multiple countries face varying environmental regulations; therefore, firms are forced to decide between a standardized or differentiated environmental supply chain strat egy (Levy, 1995). These varied regulations and levels of implementation make environ mental sourcing more difficult globally (Dobilas and Macpherson, 1997). Also, globaliza tion of the supply chain leads to more pollution production because of extended transportati on distances and heightened manufacturing batches (Levy, 1995). Research investigat ing these conflicting points between green and global supply chain strategies includ es a United Nations survey of environmental practices (Levy, 1995) and empirical evid ence from multinationals in the telecommunications sector (Dobilas and Macpherson, 19 97). The literature includes case studies that examine possible outcomes of green and global supply chain strategies (Maxwell et al., 1997; Rock et al., 2006; Wycherley, 1999; Zhu and Cote, 2004). For example, Volvo pushes to make the environment a cornerstone of it

s product, integrates environmental practices throughout its global supply chain, and has developed a very rigorous environmental training program for employees and suppl iers (Maxwell et al., 1997). Similarly, Proctor and Gamble (P&G) has integrated global environmental concerns into their business strategy since the 1980s when super-concentrated Lenor detergent was introduced to meet environmental pressure s in Germany. In addition to material reduction and recycling programs, P&G also work s with suppliers to generate markets for recycled materials (Maxwell etal., 1997). This integration of strategies and information sharing both upstream and downstream is important for the successful implementation of a green and global supply chain. Undertaking environmental initiatives across a large supply base can be overwhelming. Implementing programs with key suppliers first allows firms to leverage their support in implementing environmental practices further down the supply chain (Mamic, 2005). Motorola s success in implementing their environmental strategy throughout their supply chain has been dependent on cooperation from ke y suppliers (Rock et al., 2008, 2006). Researchers have shown that the purchasing function is an important link for implementing green supply chain strategies in a global context (Ofori, 2000; Walton et al., 1998; Lamming and Hampson, 1996). 3.2 The interface of green and lean supply chain strategies Lean supply chain management literature is fairly well developed. However, the r ising concern about environmental issues has increased interest in the synergy between Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 green and lean business practices. The lean process focus on waste elimination potentially includes a decline of environmental waste. However, the causal relat ionship between lean processes and environmental sustainability has been much debated in literature (King and Lenox, 2001). Innovative firms with continuously improving manufacturing processes seem to be more likely to take on environmental innovati ons (Florida, 1996), but auto industry research by Rothenberg et al. (2001) indicates that not all lean processes and waste reduction are positively related to environmental performance or pollution reduction. Their findings, based on surveys on environm ental performance and manufacturing performance in addition to qualitative interviews at 17 manufacturing plants, suggest that plants with lean practices have higher vol atile organic compound (VOC) emissions than plants where such lean practices have not been implemented (these differences relate to the paint application process). Wh ile utilizing spray paints was more cost effective and yielded better quality, the i mpact of such paint was more environmentally damaging. This research suggests that lean a nd green practices may not always be compatible. The integration of lean supply chain processes and environmental practices is driven by both internal and external factors. Internal pressures include cost re duction and profitability, commodity risk management, and the preservation of a corporat e culture (Friedman, 2008; Kleindorfer and Saad, 2005; Kleindorfer et al., 2005). External drivers include governmental (Hansen et al., 2004; Cole, 2008; Kleindorfer et al., 2005), customer and environmental pressures (Cole, 2008; Hall, 2000; Vachon and Klassen , 2006a), a similar focus on continuous innovation and process improvement (Florid a, 1996), and the potential for further profitability through added customer value (Kleindorfer et al., 2005). The drivers were compiled from anecdotal evidence and benchmarking (Friedman, 2008; Cole, 2008), conceptual (Corbett and Kleindorfer, 2001; Kleindorfer et al., 2005), and empirical research (Florida, 1996; Hall, 2000; Hansen et al., 2004; Vachon and Klassen, 2006a). There are several barriers to implementing green and lean supply chain strategie s, including a lack of environmental awareness (Rothenberg et al., 2001), the common belief that environmental practices do not pay (Porter and van der Linde, 1995),

and the perception that green initiatives are time consuming and expensive. The barriers and contradictions between green and lean practices were found in research conducted in the auto and trucking industries through empirical and benchmarking studies (Rothenberg et al., 2001; Cole, 2008). See Table IV for a summary of the drivers and barriers across the green/lean interface. 3.2.1 Implementing green and lean supply chain strategies. Lean operations add to competitive advantage through implementing complementary elements of environmental performance (Hart, 1997). One major area of synthesis between gree n and lean is evident in improvement through the reduction of waste (King and Leno x, 2001; Green et al., 1998; Florida, 1996; Larson and Greenwood, 2004; Linton et al., 2007). Another complementary advantage is that both green and lean strategies require s imilar methodologies of external auditing and ongoing reviews (Parker, 2008). Also, the lean emphasis on rework elimination requires efficient systems to reduce generation o f undesired by-products, thus creating an environmental benefit (Womack et al., 1990; Friedman, 2008). While lean practices can lead to environmental benefits, invers ely environmental practices often lead to improved lean practices (Kleindorfer et al., 2005; Hansen et al., 2004). In practice, the implementation of both green and lean supply chain

Concept Definition Citation Drivers Cost reductions Commodity risk management Corporate culture Government regulations and standards Customer and stakeholder pressure Profitability Focus on innovation Barriers Unawareness Lack of expected profits Cost In the grocery industry, lean and green applicationsare driven by cost Lean and green applications both add to a product sviability in the

marketplace Lean and green initiatives are both driven from thetop down withinfirms Regulations and ISO standards (9000 and 14000) arebecoming integral in afirm s reputation andcorporate image Firms reported that their visibility to customers wasa driving force Environmental practices in industry can enhanceprofitability by improving customer satisfaction andloyaltyInnovation and process improvement created by leanprocesses expands to environmental improvements Firms with lean

practices in place do notstrategically seek environmental benefits and oftendo not recognize environmental risks Common belief that green practices do not pay and erode competitiveness Lean processes are often pursued for cost reductions, but green initiatives are seen as time consuming andexpensive to set up Friedman (2008) Friedman (2008) Friedman (2008) Hansen et al. (2004), Cole (2008) and

Kleindorfer et al. (2005) Cole (2008), Hall (2000) andVachon and Klassen (2006a) Kleindorfer et al. (2005) Florida (1996) Rothenberg et al. (2001) Porter and van der Linde (1995, p. 120) Rothenberg et al. (2001) Table IV. Summary of the lean and green supply chain interface Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 strategies impacts functional processes throughout the supply chain (Lamming and Hampson, 1996). Finally, organizations that pursue ISO-9000 quality standards ar e likely to adopt ISO-14000 environmental standards (King and Lenox, 2001). Some literature has portrayed green and lean supply chain practices as contradictory by nature. There is consensus in the operations management literat ure that environmental regulations are an impediment on manufacturing processes and efficiency (Rothenberg et al., 2001). While lean practices may be compatible with environmentally responsible practices, firms fail to strategically capitalize on the environmental benefits that are a by-product of lean processes (Larson and Green wood, 2004). Rather, the benefits are identified solely for their cost efficiencies. F irms may be resistant to implementing environmental initiatives because they can be time consuming and expensive (Larson and Greenwood, 2004). Lean manufacturing and mass customization require more setups, which generates more waste and uses more energy (King and Lenox, 2001). Altering manufacturing technologies to make processes and products more environmentally responsible requires a large upfront investment, for which the return may not be realized in the short-term, as it is with lean cost-reduction strategies (Rothenberg et al., 2001). Wal-Mart has recognized that aligning green and lean practices across the supply chain drives the financial performance of the firm and earns respect from custom ers (Friedman, 2008). Firms benchmarked by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have seen increased savings by balancing strict lean principles and environmenta l efficiency. Firms such as General Motors, Andersen Corporation, Intel, 3M, and C om Ed have saved significantly by integrating green and lean initiatives (United St ates EPA, 2000). Similar examples of compatible green and lean supply chain strategie s can be seen in the furniture industry. Firms have identified ways to reuse sawdust a nd wood scraps, employ alternative technologies to reduce VOC emissions, eliminate rework through increased efficiency and utilize recyclable pallets for deliverie s (Handfield et al., 1997). Lean supply arrangements demand high levels of information sharing, rapid performance improvements with suppliers and minimal transaction costs (Dyer, 199 7; Lamming, 1993). This type of relationship may provide the incentive firms need t

o bridge the lean and environmental supply chain practices of their suppliers (Sim pson and Power, 2005). Improvements in manufacturing systems can lead to direct and indirect benefits for environmental management, usually in the form of waste reduction (Simpson and Power, 2005). 3.3 The interface of lean and global supply chain strategies While lean and global supply chains have been studied across multiple industries (Nellore et al., 2001; Levy, 1997; Das and Handfield, 1997; McIvor, 2001; Barker, 1994; Srai and Gregory, 2008) few researchers have considered the integration of globa l supply chain and lean processes to ascertain where they are complementary and wh ere they are contradictory. Research conducted by Levy (1997) supported the hypothes is that lean production could potentially facilitate globalization. For example, in one international computer supply chain, a manufacturer was able to continue its globalization efforts while implementing design-for-manufacturing and quality improvements two key aspects of lean production. However, other research has suggested conflicts between lean and global strategies, such as the fact that of fshore

sourcing contributes to longer lead times and more inventories, which is contrar y to lean principles (Christopher and Lee, 2004). A number of factors drive global firms to pursue lean supply chain strategies. D rivers include customer demands (van Hoek et al., 1999; Jin, 2004), increased transparency and defragmentation of the global market, volatile demand, the development of inform ation technology (van Hoek etal., 1999), Six Sigma implementation (Christopher and Lee , 2004; Kleindorfer and Saad, 2005; Choi et al., 2001; Bozarth et al., 1998), cost-reduction capabilities (Nellore et al., 2001), and global competition (Christensena et al., 2005). Lean and global research is largely based on atheoretical descriptive case studies, w ith little attention to empirical studies or quantitative methods. Anecdotal evidence and case study research points to barriers such as the incompatibility in the nature of lead times (Christopher and Lee, 2004), the ris k of disruptions inherent in global supply chains (Das and Handfield, 1997), the redu ction in economies of scale due to small lot sizes in a lean supply chain (Levy, 1997), a nd differences in corporate governance structures (Christopherson, 2007). These barriers are of ten overcome through trade-offs and compromise among lean, agile, and postponement processes in order for global firms to capitalize on the benefits of lean supply chains without risking their ability to respond quickly to customer demands (van Hoek, 1997). See Table V for a summary of the drivers and barriers across the lean/global int erface. 3.3.1 Implementing lean and global supply chain strategies. Successful implementation of lean and global supply chain strategies is predicated on the b enefits of close buyer-supplier relationships (Christopher and Lee, 2004; Minner, 2003; Hertz, 2001; Fynes and Ainamo, 1998; MacDuffie and Helper, 1997). Reduction of defects and engineering change orders through design for manufacturing stabilizes a supply c hain and enables the acceleration of new product production internationally. This hig her initial investment allows for improved quality and efficiency with global sourcing (Levy , 1997).

Additionally, global firms may turn to lean processes within each region of oper ation in order to minimize costs and increase efficiency. Postponement allows for cost minimization through global economies of scale, while utilizing lean production upstream of the decoupling point and agile customer responsiveness further downs tream in the supply chain (van Hoek, 1997; Naylor et al., 1999; Christopher, 2000). There are several areas of conflict between lean and global supply chain strateg ies. In fact, Womack and Jones (1996) have suggested that lean production is not compatible with global supply chains. Lean supply chains demand low inventory an d frequent deliveries, whereas global supply chains require higher inventory becau se of longer transit times; this reduces the flexibility gained through lean supply ch ain strategies (Levy, 1997; Minner, 2003; Christopher and Lee, 2004; Das and Handfie ld, 1997). Lean supply chains also prescribe collaboration and constant communicatio n, which can be difficult to attain in a global supply chain for lack of geographic proximity and language differences (Levy, 1997). Additionally, price pressures common in global purchasing are not dominant in lean sourcing, often creating trade-offs among price, quality, and efficiency (Bruce and Daly, 2004; Nellore e t al., 2001). Finally, global supply chains traditionally use push methods, while lean is more compatible with pull methods of inventory control. These conflicting inventory c ontrol methods often create trade-offs (Pyke and Cohen, 1990). Differences between lean and global sourcing approaches must be strategically managed (Das and Handfield, 199 7). Green, lean, and global supply chains

Table V. Summary of the lean and global supply chain interface IJPDLM 40,1/2 Concept Definition Citation Drivers Customer demand Increased transparency anddefragmentation of global market Demand volatility Development of information technology Six Sigma implementation Cost reduction Global competition Barriers Lead time incompatibility Risk of disruptions Reduced economies of scale Differing corporate governance

structures To minimize the risk of holding inventory, many customers arerequesting frequent, small replenishment shipments based onreal time sales, forcing even globalfirms to comply withdemandsIncreased transparency and defragmentation allow forimproved communication betweenfirms, which is essential in alean supply chain Volatility in terms of volume, mix, timing, and place make itnecessary for global supply chains to implement postponementand lean strategies

to avoid obsolete inventory Technology enablesfirms to have a degree of control in globalsupply chains that is essential for the implementation of a leanstrategyUsed as a lean control tool to reduce variability and risk intransnational processes and increase supply chain securitywith greater control over global supply base Both lean supply and global sourcing are driven by costreduction capabilities Drivingfirms to

use lean practices upstream in global supplychains to create build-to-order processes downstream in aglobal supply chain Offshore sourcing contributes to longer lead times, which iscontrary to lean principles Global supply chains are prone to more disruptions, while leanrequires level supply tofill demands with little buffer inventory Flexible manufacturing through small lot sizes reduces theeconomies of scale, which minimizes the

enticement for globalproductionLean approaches that work in one country often do not succeedwhen transferred in the global supply chain van Hoek et al. (1999) and Jin (2004) van Hoek et al. (1999) van Hoek et al. (1999) van Hoek et al. (1999) Christopher and Lee (2004) , Kleindorfer and Saad (2005) , Choi et al.

(2001) and Bozarth et al. (1998) Nellore et al. (2001) Christensena et al. (2005) Christopher and Lee (2004) Das and Handfield (1997) Levy (1997) Christopherson (2007)

However, there is evidence that lean and global supply chain strategies can be complimentary. When lean is utilized as a supply chain strategy, lean production , and lean initiatives such as continuous improvement can be optimized along the globa l supply chain, whether through localized operations, postponement, or leagile str ategies (Goldsby et al., 2006; Christopher, 2005). Firms use leagility and postponement to implement lean supply chain strategies within a global context (Bruce and Daly, 2004; Christopher, 2000; Yang and Burns, 2003; Aitken et al., 2002). For example, a firm in the precision mechanical products industry uses an integrated demand planning system to synchronize requirements for global manufacturing locations on a weekly basis, t hus enabling physical distribution in the global supply chain to be aligned with act ual demand (Mason-Jones et al., 2000). Hewlett Packard (HP) shifted production processes to fit the lean model by customizing the printers in each local market, thus pro viding a 25 percent reduction in total manufacturing, transportation, and inventory costs (van Hoek et al., 1999). Wal-Mart however, had difficulty applying its lean supply chain model in a global context. The logistics applications associated with Wal-Mart s success in the USA did not produce the same savings in Germany. Customers in the German market wanted neighborhood stores, which did not work with the lean model used with the large retail format common in the USA (Christopherson, 2007). Although some lean and global supply practices are incompatible, firms have used principles from lean process management to improve their global supply chain eff iciency (Das and Handfield, 1997). Bose, Kawasaki, and Ford have been successful at comb ining lean and global sourcing strategies through careful logistics planning, shipment consolidation, and single sourcing with multilingual personnel in key interface positions. They also create separate warehouses for inventory holding to create a JIT scena rio, although they have found it almost impossible to have a pure JIT system in their global supply chains (Das and Handfield, 1997). Similarly, Apple uses vendor hubs managed by its shipping firms and foreign suppliers to warehouse parts from all over the world to serve its European operations. This allows Apple to utilize a JIT approach local ly while still sourcing globally, saving millions in inventory expense (Fynes and Ainamo, 1998). Other firms in the computer industry use a similar push-pull inventory strategy (Berry and Naim, 1996). While the barriers discussed make it difficult to implement a lean

and global supply chain, the quality control and communication principles of lean managemen t prove beneficial to the global supply chain if strategically implemented. 4. Synthesis of the literature green, lean, and global supply chains Common drivers and barriers lead to both complementary and conflicting points ac ross green/lean, green/global and lean/global supply chain strategies. Synthesizing t he literature in the areas of green, lean, and global strategy allowed the research ers to draw inferences about a combined green, lean, and global supply chain strategy. Four major factors motivate firms to adopt some combination of these strategies: cost reduc tions, customer demands, international standards such as ISO-9000 and ISO-14000, and ri sk management. Toyota is a prime example of a firm that has successfully integrated a green and lean supply chain strategy in a global setting. Toyota s commitment is e vident through its ISO certifications and financial investment into quality and environ mental research and development (Toyota, 2008; Womack and Jones, 2005). A lack of consistency in terminology across all three interfaces may arise from a differing focus in multiple disciplines. For example, the lean/global literature and Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 lean/green literature both highlight the common goal of risk management, but thi s is not evident in the literature on green/global strategies. Risk management manife sts itself as Six Sigma implementation in lean/global and control variability and commodity risk management in lean/green. While risk management is not specifical ly evidenced in the green/global literature, global environmental reputation manage ment is a driver of green and global supply chain strategies incorporated in risk management. An examination of the intersecting drivers of green, lean, and global supply cha in strategies revealed three interesting findings. First, despite the fact that exi sting literature has highlighted competition as a driver in both global interfaces, it does not surface as a driver in the lean/green interface. Second, although green, lean, a nd global supply chain strategies each focus on cost-reduction capabilities, green strateg ies also capitalize on the potential profitability from gaining new customer market segme nts. While the lean/green supply chain literature highlights profitability as a drive r, it is not specified in the green/global supply chain literature. Third, due to the importa nce of corporate culture in a lean supply chain, culture is expected to be an apparent driver of any lean strategy, even in a global setting. However, culture is highlighted as a driver in lean/green and green/global supply chain strategies, but is not cited as a dr iver for lean/global strategies. A similar analysis was conducted to assess common barriers across all three interfaces. Although existing research shows various hurdles to the implementati on of these strategies, none of these were common across green/lean, green/global or lean/global supply chain strategies. Two barriers converged across the two green interfaces: a lack of awareness among managers of the benefits of green initiati ves and a lack of metrics. This is most likely due to the novelty of GSCM. An assessment of the points of convergence across all three strategic interfaces reveals no common similarities amongst the green, lean, and global supply chain literature. Instead, common similarities emerge between two of the three interfa ces. The ISO-9000 quality standard has been shown to be highly correlated with the adoption of ISO-14000 environmental standard (King and Lenox, 2001). There is evidence of this relationship across both lean interfaces, but quality improveme nt has not been explored at the conjunction of all three strategies. Also, literature r

eveals that firms implementing green/lean and green/global supply chain strategies are using self-regulation in different forms, such as lean auditing procedures or environm ental self-regulation. However, government regulation often drives the need for green practices while lean auditing is internally driven. The relationship between int ernal and external pressures on self-governance has not yet been explored at the inter face of the three strategies. Only one common contradiction arose across both green inte rfaces. Green initiatives focus on reducing pollution, while this is not a priority driv ing lean and global supply chains. In some cases, the literature shows increases in pollu tion from implementation of lean and global supply chain strategies, highlighting the need to assess strategic trade-offs. Conflicting goals appear to consistently arise in the literature. Managers find it difficult to simultaneously implement these three strategies. For example, buyer-supplier alignment is addressed differently across the three interfaces. Buyers often focus on low costs, whereas suppliers may incur greater costs while attempting to provide more environmentally responsible or higher quality product s.

These differences manifest themselves particularly in sourcing strategies and inter-organizational communication. For example: [...] it is difficult to ask suppliers to engage in environmental practices when the buying organization lacks (or is perceived to lack) environmental commitment and concre te practices. Thus, buyers may need to get their own house in order before requiring the same of suppliers, or vice versa (Gattiker et al., 2008, p. 28). The lack of commonality across drivers, barriers, convergences, and contradictio ns may be explained by different stages of development among the three literature streams. Lean processes were initially developed in the 1940s, globalization of supply chains became common in the 1980s and 1990s, and green issues have become pressi ng even more recently. Lean research is the most developed literature stream, with more drivers and barriers specified in the research. Lean supply chain research may b e able to lend constructs and measures to the areas of green and global supply chain st rategy. From a theoretical perspective, the GSCM literature is underdeveloped, and even less so in a green/global context. Two recent exceptions discussed earlier work toward developing new theory through conceptual frameworks for sustainable supply chain management (Carter and Rogers, 2008; Seuring and Muller, 2008). This review of th e green, lean, and global intersections in the literature reveals that 77 percent of the research published is a theoretical. Of the research, 6 percent is based on tran saction cost economics (TCE) or game theory, and 17 percent of the literature reviewed represents a wide variety of other theoretical approaches each used in only one article. Lack of theoretical development may be due to the exploratory nature of research regarding the relationships among green, lean, and global phenomena. 5. Agenda for future research As new concepts are shaped, programmatic research fosters progress in a systemat ic manner. The intersection of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies has not yet been simultaneously addressed. To encourage research at any of the two-way interfaces or at the confluence of green, lean, and global supply chain strategi es, gaps in the existing literature are highlighted as a basis for developing a research agenda.

5.1 The need for theoretical application in research The most frequently utilized theoretical frameworks examining combinations of tw o of the interfaces include TCE and game theory. As research matures in the intersect ion of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies, the sustainability framework pr oposed by Carter and Rogers (2008) can serve as a guide for the development of green su pply chains in a lean and global context. The NDP is similar to the sustainability fr amework in that it is also characterized by social, ecological and economic development objectives (Dunning and Fortanier, 2007). Theoretical underpinnings to both approaches include resource-based view, TCE, population ecology, and resource dependence theory (Carter and Rogers, 2008). Each of these theoretical views pro vides a unique lens through which the knowledge base on green, lean, and global supply chain strategies can be further enhanced. Green, lean, and global strategies require cross-functional and inter-organizati onal involvement. Therefore, theoretical approaches that take a more holistic and strategic perspective could be employed to better explain this developing phenom enon. Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 Theories such as strategy-structure-performance (SSP), the political economy paradigm (PEP) and network theory can be applied to the intersection of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies. The relationship between the strategie s and the structures can be explored in different contexts focusing on the green, lean , and global strategies and the ensuing structures of the supply chain. An SSP approac h adds strategic impact, which has been lacking in the literature thus far. It hig hlights the structural requirements in order to facilitate the joint implementation of g reen, lean, and global supply chain strategies and leads to better understanding of financia l performance from the simultaneous implementation of these strategies. The PEP ca n be used as a conceptual basis for how firms manage green, lean, and global suppl y chain strategies (Arndt, 1983; Stern and Reve, 1980; Achrol et al., 1983) because it incorporates both behavioral as well as economic factors and by its nature consi ders the inter-firm context. Network theory also employs an inter-firm and inter-func tional approach necessary to study supply chain decisions (Choi et al., 2001). Supply chains and supply networks are continuously emerging, self-organizing, dynamic, and evolving (Choi et al., 2001). The network view includes explanations about extended relationships amongst actors in the network and is not restricted to a dyadic perspective (Fomburn, 1982; Wasserman and Faust, 1994). Applying network theory to the green/lean/global phenomenon would allow researchers to study this complex a nd continuously adapting environment with involvement of multiple actors and interfirm collaboration. Each of these theories provides a unique lens to investigate the phenomenon of interest. Theories employed to date have more of a tactical focus, whereas the suggested theories provide a more expansive strategic supply chain focus. Combinations of the SSP theory, the PEP, and network theory can provide further synergy for the development of a deeper understanding of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies. 5.2 The need to strategically integrate siloed knowledge Review of the green, lean, and global supply chain literature reveals silos in b oth

research and practice. Silo perspectives in research impede the cross-functional and inter-organizational scope needed to gain a holistic perspective of the broader phenomenon. Silo approaches in research also tend to focus on tactical and opera tional issues, missing the strategic perspective needed to study a phenomenon like green/lean/global. For example, lean research is predominantly focused on firm-l evel operational issues and only recently has addressed lean strategies from a supply chain context. The research in green practices has been more tactical in nature, focus ing on pollution prevention and end-of-pipe measures (Handfield et al., 1997). Research should be more multi-disciplinary in order to address inter-firm decision making. Suppl y chain research involves researchers from many disciplines. Therefore, supply chain researchers need to step out of their comfort zones and collaborate with academi cs in other disciplines to further research of the strategic integration of green, lea n, and global supply chains. Silo approaches in practice impede the effective implementation of the three strategies, in part because silo approaches alone tend to focus on improvements at the functional level rather than the supply chain strategy level. Purchasing and ope rations are faced with trade-offs when considering the impact of low cost versus quality control.

For example, purchasing managers attempt to obtain products at the lowest possib le price, whereas operations managers tend to focus more on receiving high quality purchased products. Such objectives are often incompatible, leaving suppliers ca ught in a web of conflicting goals. Silos tend to focus on fixing problems (i.e. waste, cost reductions, quality, etc.) instead of looking at the strategic picture of compet itive advantage. A supply chain by definition (Mentzer, 2001) is inter-organizational. In order for firms to effectively implement green and lean supply chain strategies in a g lobal context, managers must move beyond their silos, considering the entire supply ch ain and all of its participants. 5.3 The need to develop a systems approach The interaction of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies is arguably p resent in practice but absent in the peer-reviewed body of knowledge. There is extensive l iterature on each of the individual supply chain strategies and substantial research in th e context of green/lean, green/global, and lean/global supply chain strategies. However, r esearch combining all three strategies has not yet emerged. As environmental regulations become more stringent, firms will be forced to face this intersection. Therefore , supply chain researchers must broaden their approach to understand how firms can best manage this concurrent implementation to optimize the supply chain as a whole. Theoretically grounded research utilizing the SSP paradigm, network theory, or t he broad scope of PEP is suggested to enable researchers and practitioners to appro ach supply chain strategy and decisions from a systems perspective. A systems approa ch encapsulates the complexity of the supply chain. Considering the number of barri ers and drivers to implementing green, lean, and global strategies concurrently, a h olistic approach is needed to optimize supply chain performance through adaptive strateg ies to obtain fit for both the firm and the supply chain. In order to achieve supply chain strategic fit, firms and researchers should understand how to adapt to complexit y and better manage the global supply chain.

More research on the subcomponents of the supply chain (i.e. purchasing, logisti cs, measures, and metrics) should be undertaken to understand how to obtain synergie s from the drivers, overcome the barriers, and make trade-offs where necessary. At the current stage of literature development, researchers cannot predict the optimum balance point in determining trade-offs. For example, researchers could begin by further investigating the linkages between ISO-9000 and ISO-14000 in the global context in order to be better able to predict best practices for implementing a green, lean, and global supply chain strategy. The final part of the agenda discusses methods of investigation for researchers and application of measurement tools for practitioners that would facilitate the implementation of lean and green initiatives across the global supply chain. Thi s agenda item has broad implications for both researchers and practicing managers. 5.4 The need for applied metrics and measurement methods A common theme across the three strategic interfaces is the lack of integrated m etrics and measurement methods. Research has examined performance metrics in green, lean, and global supply chain strategies individually at the product or firm lev el, but little research focuses on metrics that encompass all three strategies throughou t the supply chain. Research could address the simultaneous implementation of these Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 strategies to provide more holistic measures that allow managers to understand t he synergies available or to make appropriate trade-off decisions should there be c onflict across green/lean strategies in their global supply chains. In order for manager s to implement green, lean, and global supply chain strategies successfully, practica l tools and guidelines are needed that enable data collection for consistent reporting a nd decision making across supply chain participants. A number of metrics do exist within the individual lean, green and global domain s, relating to efficiency, costs, and environmental impact. Two challenges must be overcome, however, to provide managers with useful tools for incorporating lean and green concurrently into their decision-making processes: the measurement framewo rk needs to become more holistic and more standardized. Current environmental metri cs and reporting procedures tend to be piecemeal and based on what a company can conveniently measure, for example. Just as research needs to extend beyond disci plinary silos, managers need frameworks and measurement tools that enable them to integr ate lean/efficiency and environmental measures and performance metrics across functi onal areas within the firm, and even beyond the firm and product levels, to enable mo re effective decision making across the supply chain in a more holistic manner. On the standardization front, the ISO-9000 family of standards provides guidelin es for quality management systems to help firms achieve desired quality requirement s and enhance customer-supplier relationships (Guler et al., 2002); environmental management systems are often predicated on the ISO-14000 family of standards and guidelines (Corbett and Kirsch, 2001). Guidelines that focus on environmental performance evaluation provide a basis for measuring and monitoring a firm s impac t on the environment (e.g. tons of CO2 emissions per year, contaminant concentrati on in wastewater, and number of regulatory fines per year). The current interest in ca rbon footprinting as but one environmental performance measure (Gattiker et al., 2008), addresses an individual component of a broader environmental management system but lack of standards in data collection procedures and standard assumptions in metrics makes these measurement techniques challenging. Wal-Mart s recent announcement of an environmental labeling program for the products it carries ma y provide the impetus for standardization in measuring and reporting the environme ntal

impact of many consumer products (Bustillo, 2009), going beyond single issue met rics. While the details of Wal-Mart s initiative are still unknown, the need for standardization in measuring and reporting environmental impact of a firm s produc ts cannot be underestimated. As legislation and market demands around the world escalate regarding environmental performance, measures and metrics need to be standardized, to allow global entities to measure their performance across multi ple operating arenas with a level of consistency that holds up for internal decision making as well as to external scrutiny. Standardized metrics and performance measures a lso provide an important base for shifting from ad hoc, static performance indicators towards systems of continuous improvement over time. An integrated life cycle management (ILCM) approach may provide the framework to bind green, lean, and global decisions more strategically across a firm and acro ss its supply chains. The ILCM approach involves integrating efficiency and environment al sustainability into firms decisions, optimizing costs, and minimizing the environ mental impact caused by the product from cradle to grave (Linnanen et al., 1995; Wolters et al., 1997). Importantly, ILCM represents a systematic management process that support s

decision making across time and across supply chain echelons. A measurement approach across time and across the supply chain is important because decisions made at the product design stage in one part of the supply chain, for example, can ha ve important implications for both efficiency (lean) and environmental (green) perf ormance at another echelon within the supply chain, or at a different point in time (e.g . carbon footprint at point of production should not be considered separately from carbon footprint at point of use, which may occur in very different places and at very different times). Established efficiency metrics used for measuring and monitoring lean processes across a global supply chain become an important component of an ILCM approach. Likewise, existing environmental metrics such as life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) need to be incorporated into an ILCM approach. LCA focuses primarily on environmental metrics (Frankl and Rubik, 2000) at the product level . LCC provides an economic piece to understanding environmental performance by quantifying costs across the life cycle of a product (Asiedu and Gu, 1998). Both LCA and LCC provide important environmental measurement approaches, but focus at the product level and typically neglect global supply chain implications. Finally, s trategic global supply chain decisions are increasingly influenced by social consideratio ns. An ILCM system could incorporate the necessary social metrics using social life cyc le assessment (SLCA) as a starting point (Brent and Labuschagne, 2005). These socia l measures influence green as well as lean strategies. Consider for example the lo cation of suppliers, availability of labor and clean water, wage rates and working cond itions. All of these factors influence the availability of inventory, the location and q uality of inventory, and the accessibility of suppliers. ILCM is gaining interest in practice (Caterpillar, 2008; Toyota, 2008) but needs further theory development and testing by researchers. Researchers need to better unders tand how to incorporate ILCM metrics across multiple geographies and supply chains. T he resulting knowledge would ultimately provide supply chain managers consistent an d cohesive tools with standardized approaches that allow for better decision makin g. These tools would also help to minimize the conflict across green/lean/global st rategies and help managers capitalize on synergistic areas across supply chain decisions that are often measured independently but implemented in parallel.

6. Conclusions There are several limitations to this research. Searches conducted using Google Scholar have potential for slight variation. Literature is continuously being published and therefore added to the base of existing knowledge. This research was conducted a t a single point in time, utilizing only the articles then available. The continuous growth of research in this area is indicative of a developing phenomenon and shows much fu ture research potential. Another limitation relates to the external operating factors considered to be beyond the scope of the current research. Future research could examine the influence of the external environment on the intersection of green, lean, and global supply chain strategies, with respect to regulation, trade barriers, and government intervention. There is also significant opportunity to examine the ro le of corporate culture in the green, lean, and global supply chain. In spite of the limitations, this research makes several contributions to the bo dy of supply chain management knowledge. This is the first attempt at synthesizing the Green, lean, and global supply chains

IJPDLM 40,1/2 literature on green, lean, and global supply chain strategies. The literature is replete with discussion on the individual strategies, but has thus far not addressed how firms can implement these strategies concurrently. A thorough examination of the indiv idual bodies of literature was used as a means to guide future research at the interse ction of green/lean/global supply chain strategies. The future research agenda addresses gaps in the current literature, and suggests several theoretical lenses from which to explore this phenomenon. The agenda presented in this paper allows for future research t hat begins to meet the call for more theoretical research in supply chain management literature (Flint et al., 2005; Mentzer and Kahn, 1995). The fact that green, lean, and global strategies have not been researched concurrently is not surprising given the inherent contradictions. Although some strategies do not seem naturally synergistic, the benefits gained by understandi ng the trade-offs and optimization possible could lead to future performance enhancemen t. The advantages of a broad perspective of these three supply chain strategies can serve researchers and managers alike. From a theoretical perspective, we suggest three theoretical lenses through which to examine this emerging phenomenon; each approach would allow researchers to take the systems approach necessary to understand the concurrent implementation of green and lean supply chain strategi es in a global context. Further theoretically grounded research will allow academics t o begin to predict the best methods of implementation for managers seeking to optimize o n the synergies of these three supply chain strategies. From a managerial perspective, creating an awareness of the synergies and conflicts between and among these thr ee strategies will allow for more effective decision making. Also, managers need to actively participate in the development and application of metrics and standards that facilitate integrated, holistic decision making within their firms and across th eir supply chains. As the world market becomes increasingly homogenized, green supply chain practices will continue to be an opportunity for firms to maximize lean quality improvements and performance while staying competitive in a complex global suppl y chain system. References

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