IMU Navigational System and Equipment

BNA - 041 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
I
Block
NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT

UNIT 1 Automatic Identification System UNIT 2 Speed Measurement at Ships UNIT 3 Radar for Navigation UNIT 4 Navigation by ARPA UNIT 5 Electronic Aids 71 53 35 27 5
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Navigational aids are important for ascertaining whether the ship is maintaining the direction in which she has been steering and the distance which she is supposed to have steamed and made good. It is also equally important that the voyages are executed without any pollution damage to the environment. This course deals with the above aspects as well as matters related to emergencies. It also covers some of the recent developments which have taken place in carriage of cars and containers and would be handy to the students who are sailing on car and containers carriers. Course comprises three blocks. Block I deals with the Navigational Systems and equipment and the importance of their correct use for safe navigation. Block 2 deals with the hazard caused to the environment due to ship's points and how to deal with those. It also covers information about containers, container handling and car carriers. Block 3 deals with all aspects of search and rescuer at Sea, ship Reporting systems and contingency planning.
NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT

This block consists of 5 units. Unit I introduces 'Automatic Identification System' (AID) which has been made mandatory for carriage by the IMO and discuss usefulness as a tool for avoiding carriag and reporting various parameters of the ship to VIS. Unit 2 deals with various methods of speed measurement on ships. Unit 3 introduces methods for using Radar as an aid to navigation and describes precautions required before standing the radar and when using its controls. Unit 4 deals extensively with displaying modes collision, avoidance and positions fixing by means of Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA). Unit 5 deals with the Navigation equipment and Systems on board the ship.
UNIT I AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Description of AIS 1.3 Carriage Rule Requirement 1A Components

1,5 AIS Information -- Ship's Data Content
1,6 Contents of Data Sent by VTS 1.7 Integrity Checks
1,9 Operation of AIS on Board 1.9 Inherent Limitations of AIS
1,10 Additional and Future Applications 1.11 Voyage Data Recorders

1.11.1 1,11,2 1-113 1,11.4 1,11.5 1,11.6 1.11.7 1.11.9 1,11.9 Preamble What Can a VDR Do? Rule Requirements Definitions Operational Requirements Data Selection and Security Performance Tests Process of Dealing with Data Data Items to be Recorded
1.11.10 Simplified Voyage Data Recorders
1,12 Summary 1.13 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) being a new system needs familiarisation and understanding its need and limitations. As the name indicates AIS facilitates the identification of ships and provides a tool for avoiding collisions, reporting various parameters of the ship to Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) and to other ships in the vicinity. The transmission of information as indicated below is automatic and the information received can be either interpreted or displayed in various forms including radar or a dedicated CRT Monitor.
O bj ectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to describe the AIS as a Navigational Aid, explain the mandatory carriage requirements, describe its components, describe the information transmitted by AIS, describe information transmitted by VTS, 5
Navigational System and Equipment
explain the integrity checks of the system, handle the operation AIS on board, describe inherent limitation of AIS and explain the present and future applications of the system.
1.2 DESCRIPTION OF AIS

In the early stages of its use, it may be noted that: AIS equipment is available from a number of manufacturers and many software applications are possible. The user should be familiar with the AIS in order to become competent in the use of the system and of the displayed data for safe navigation.
Warning : The Officer of the Watch (OOW) should always be aware that other ships, and in particular leisure craft, fishing boats and warships, and some coastal shore stations including Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) centres might not be fitted with AIS. The OOW should always be aware that other ships fitted with AIS as a mandatory carriage requirement might switch off AIS by professional judgement of the master. SOLAS regulation V/19 defines the mandatory carriage requirements as follows: AIS has the Following Functionality
Provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft information, including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed, navigational status and other safety-related information; receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships; monitor and track ships; and Exchange data with shore-based facilities.
Thus, AIS will become an important supplement to existing navigational systems including radar. In general. data received via AIS will enhance the quality of the information available to the OOW. AIS is an important tool to enhance situational awareness of the traffic-situation to all users. In particular, the purpose of AIS is to: It shall also: receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships; monitor and track ships; and exchange data with shore-based facilities. identify vessels; assist target tracking; simplify information exchange; provide additional information to assist collision avoidance; and reduce verbal mandatory ship reporting.
Technical Description AIS shall continuously transmit ship's own data to other vessels and VTS stations, continuously receives data of other vessels and VTS stations, and displays this data.
AIS operates primarily on two dedicated VHF channels (AIS 1 -161,975 MHz and AIS2 -162,025 MHz). Where these channels are not available regionally, the AIS is capable of automatically switching to alternate designated channels. The required ship reporting capacity according to the IMO performance standard amounts to a minimum of 2000 time slots per minute (Figure 1.1). The ITU Technical standard for the Universal AIS provides 4500 time slots per minute. The broadcast mode based on a principle called STDMA (Self-organized Time Division Multiple Access) that allows the system to be overloaded with 400 to 500% and still provides nearly 100% throughput for ships closer than 8 to 10 NM to each other in a ship to ship mode. In the event of system overload, only targets far away will be subject to drop out in order to give preference to targets close by that are a primary concern for ship-to-ship operation of AIS. In practice, the capacity of the system is unlimited allowing for a great number of ships to be accommodated at the same time.
Automatic Identification System
Vessel provides ID position, Course, heading, speed. vessel receives information on vessel, port data hazards in area
Figure .11 , AIS System Overview
When used with the appropriate graphical display, AIS enables provision of fast, automatic and accurate information regarding risk of collision by calculating Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA) from the position information transmitted by the target vessels. A1S operates primarily on two dedicated VHF channels. Where these channels are not available regionally, the AIS is capable of automatically switching to designated alternate channels. In practice, the capacity of the system is unlimited allowing for a great number of ships to be accommodated at the same time. The AIS is able to "see" around bends and behind islands if the landmasses are not too high. A typical value to be expected at sea is 20 to 30 nautical miles depending on antenna height. With the help of repeater stations, the coverage for both ship and VTS stations can be improved. Information from operational AIS is transmitted continuously and automatically without any intervention of the OOW. An AIS shore station might want updated information from a specific ship, or alternatively, might want to "poll" all ships within a defined sea area.
1.3 CARRIAGE RULE REQUIREMENT
IMO SOLAS Convention Chapter V [2002] requires: All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages and cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and passenger ships, irrespective of size, shall be fitted with AIS, as follows Ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002. 7
Ships engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) In the case of passenger ships and tankers not later than I July 2003. In the case of ships, other than tankers, of 50.000 gross tonnage and upwards not later than I July 2004. In the case of ships, other than tankers. of 10.000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 50.000 gross tonnage, not later than I July 2005. In the case of ships, other than tankers, of 3.000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 10.000 gross tonnage, not later than I July 2006. In the case of ships, other than tankers, of 300 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3.000 gross tonnage, not later than 1 July 2007. Ships not engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002, not later than 1 July 2008.
The administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirements for AIS when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the implementation dates specified above.
1.4 COMPONENTS
In general, the AIS on board (Figure 1.1) consists of Antennas; One VHF transmitter; Two multi-channel VHF receivers; One channel 70 VHF receiver for channel management; A central processing unit (CPU); An electronic position fixing system, Global Navigation Satellite System GNSS receiver for timing purposes and position redundancy; Interfaces to heading and speed devices and to other ship borne sensors; Interfaces to radar/Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA), Electronic Chart System/Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECS/ECDIS) and integrated navigation systems; Built-In Integrity Test; and Minimum display and keyboard to input and retrieve data.
G PS -ANTENNA
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ECDIS
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ALARM CiRCUIT
AIS Schematic
Figure 1.2 : AIS Schematic Showing Inputs/Outputs
Connections to Other Navigational Display Systems With the integral minimum display and keyboard unit, the AIS would be able to be operated as a stand-alone system. The AIS can also be connected either to an additional dedicated AIS display unit and possibly one with a large graphic display, or to an existing navigational system such as radar or an electronic chart but in the later case only as part of an integrated navigation system. It is becoming common practice for pilots to possess their own portable navigational equipment, which they carry on board. Such devices can be connected to AIS equipment and display the targets they receive. The Connection with Radio Communication Devices AIS is provided with a two-way interface for connecting to long range radio communication equipment. Initially, it is not envisaged that AIS would be able to be directly connected to such equipment. A shore station would first need to request that the ship makes a long range AIS information transmission. Any shipto-shore communication would always be made point-to-point, and not broadcast, and once communication had been established, the ship would have the option of setting its AIS to respond automatically to any subsequent request for a ship report, from that shore station. Under regulation 11. 11 of SOLAS Chapter V, as amended, the participation of ships in IMO-adopted ship reporting systems should be free of charge to the ships concerned.
1.5 AIS INFORMATION - SHIP'S DATA CONTENT

The information transmitted by AIS from a ship includes three different types of information: Fixed or Static Fixed or static information that is entered into the AIS on installation and need only be changed if the ship changes its name or undergoes a major conversion from one ship type to another. These are MMSI Call sign and name IMO Number Length and beam Type of Ship Location of position fixing antenna Those underlined would need to be changed when the ship changes its ownership or name.
Figure 1.3 : Information Shown by AIS
Dynamic
Dynamic information is automatically updated from. the ship sensors connected to AIS: thee include: Ship's position with accuracy indication and integrity status Position Time stamp in UTC Course over ground (COG) Speed over ground (SOG) Heading Rate of turn (ROT) Navigational status information has to be manually entered by the OOW and changed, as necessary, for example: underway by engines at anchor not under command (NUC) restricted in ability to manoeuvre (RIATM) moored constrained by draught aground engaged in fishing Voyage Voyage related information that might need to be manually entered and updated during the voyage in the form of free format short text messages addressed either to a specific addressee or broadcast to all ships and shore stations. The data is autonomously sent at different update rates and the update rates depend on the speed,e.g. when the ship is doing > 14 knots the rate would be 2 seconds while when doing < 14 knots and when on a steady course it shall be 12 seconds. The rate varies when altering course also. When stopped or when at anchor, the rate shall be 3 minutes. Static and voyage related data is updated every 6 minutes or on request (responds automatically without user action). Short Safety Related Messages AIS has the capability of sending short safety related messages in a Fixed or free 9 format text messages addressed either to a specified destination (MMSI) or a] I ships in the area. Their content should be relevant to the safety of navigation, e.g. an iceberg sighted or a buoy not on station. Messages should be kept as short as possible. The system allows up to 158 characters per message but the shorter the message the easier it will find free space for transmission. These messages are not further regulated, to keep all possibilities open. Operator acknowledgement may be requested by a text message. Short safety related messages are only an additional means to broadcast maritime safety information. Whilst their importance should not be underestimated, the usage of Such requirements t such short safety related message does not remove any of the requirements of the the Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS) and SOLAS Chapter V, underway by sail
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Regulation 31 (Danger messages and the practice of transmission of such messages by VHF should be continued). Confidentiality When entering any data manually consideration should be given to confidentiality of this information.
1.6 CONTENTS OF DATA SENT BY VTS

Pseudo AIS information is information about vessels which are not carrying AIS and which are tracked only by VTS radar, via the AIS to vessels equipped with AIS. Any pseudo AIS target broadcast by VTS should be clearly identified as such. Particular care should always be taken when using information that has been relayed by a third party. Accuracy of these targets may not be as accurate as actual directly received targets and the information content may not be as complete. Text messages include short messages either to one ship, all ships or ships within a certain range or in a special area, e.g.: (Local) navigational warnings; Traffic management information; and Port management information.
A VTS operator may request by a text message an acknowledgement from the ship's operator. Note: The VTS will continue to communicate via VHF. The importance of verbal communication should not be underestimated. This is important for the VTS operator to: SAQ 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) What information is available from use of AIS and to what extent can navigators rely on this information in the early stages? What channels does AIS operates and what happens if these channels are not available in the area? How is the information relating to the course and speed updated by AIS? Why is the AIS connected to the ships communication system? Assess the vessels communicative ability; and Establish the direct communication link, which could be needed in critical situations.
1.7 INTEGRITY CHECKS
which one is more accurate than the other? Which one does the navigator choose as its primary source? Such integrity is provided through: A built-in integrity test (BIIT) running continuously or at appropriate intervals; Monitoring the availability of the data; An error detection mechanism of the transmitted data; and Error checking of the received data.
If no sensor is installed or if the sensor (e.g. the gyro) fails to provide data, the AIS automatically transmits the "not available" data value. However, the integrity check cannot validate the contents of the data received by the AIS.
1.8 OPERATION OF AIS ON BOARD

Operation of the Transceiver Unit Activation AIS should always be in operation. It is recommended not to switch off AIS during port stays, because-of the valuable information to port authorities. If the master believes that the continual operation of AIS might compromise the safety or security of his ship, he may switch off the AIS. The master should, however, restart the AIS as soon as the source of danger has disappeared. This might be the case in sea areas where pirates and armed robbers are known to operate. Actions of this nature should always be recorded in the ship's logbook. If the AIS is shutdown, static data and ifr aoaeetd nomt ngrle i a ifrt n noao i voyag stored. Restart is done by switching on the power to the AIS unit. Ship's own data will be transmitted after a two-minute initialization period. Manual Input of Data The OOW should manually input at the start of the voyage and whenever changes occur the following information using the input device such as a keyboard Ship's draught; Hazardous cargo; Destination and ETA; Route plan (way-points); The correct and actual navigational status, and Safety related short messages. Correctness of Information To ensure that static information is correct and up-to-date, the OOW should check the data whenever there is a reason for it. As a minimum, this should be done once per voyage or once per month whichever is shorter. The data may be changed only by the master or by an authorized person. The OOW should also check the following dynamic information: Ensure that positions are given according to WGS 84; Ensure that the speed over ground is provided; and Verify the sensor information periodically. Integrity relates to the trust, which can be placed in the correctness of the information supplied by the navigation system. Integrity includes the ability of a system to provide timely and valid warning to the user. One would expect the integrity to be about 99.9 per cent. However, when fixing position using more than one input, e.g. GPS, radar and AIS,
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After activation an automatic built-in integrity test (BIIT) is performed. In case of any AIS malfunction an alarm is provided and the unit stops transmitting. The quality or accuracy of the ship sensor data input into AIS would not, however, be checked by the BIIT circuitry before being broadcasted to other ships and shore stations. The ship should, therefore, carry out regular routine checks during a voyage to validate the quality of the information being transmitted, and the frequency of those checks would need to be increased in coastal waters.
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Display of AIS Data
The AIS provides data that can be presented on the minimum display or on any suitable display device as described in Section 3.3.
Minimum Display
The display provides three lines of data. Each line displays at least bearing, range and name of a selected ship. Other data of the ship can be disp'ayed by horizontal scrolling of data, but scrolling of bearing and range is not possible. Vertical scrolling will show all the other ships known to the AIS. Graphical Display If the AIS information is presented graphically, it should ideally be consistent and should consist of the following: Sleeping Target A sleeping target indicates only the presence of a vessel equipped with AIS in a certain location. No additional information is presented until activated thus avoiding information overload. Activated Target If the user wants to know more about a vessels motion, he has simply to activate the sleeping target. The display shall show immediately:
Selected Target if the user wants detailed information of a target (activated or sleeping), he may select it. Then, the data received as well as the calculated CPA and TCPA values will be shown in an alpha-numeric window. The special navigation status will also be indicated in the alpha - numeric data field and not together with the -target directly. Dangerous Target If an AIS target (activated or not) is calculated to pass pre-set CPA and TCPA limits, it will be classified and displayed as a dangerous target and an alarm will be given. Lost Target If an AIS signal of any AIS target at a distance of less than a preset value is not received, a lost target. symbol will appear at the latest position and an alarm is given.
Use of AIS
When using the AIS in the ship-to-ship mode for anti collision purposes, the OOW should carefully note the information in the ensuing paragraphs: 13
Note that AIS is an additional source for navigational information. AIS does not replace, but supports navigational systems such as radar target tracking and VTS. The use of AIS does not negate the responsibility of the OOW to comply with all COLREG requirements, in particular maintaining a proper lookout, proceeding at a safe speed and radar observation. AIS Tracking is Highly accurate; Provided in near real-time; Capable of instant presentation of target course alterations; Not subject to target swap; Not subject to target loss in clutter; Not subject to target loss due to fast manoeuvres; and Able to look around bends and behind islands.
However, the user should not rely on AIS as the sole information system. He has to use all safety-relevant information available. AIS is just one of a number of aids to safe navigation available to the OOW. The presence on board of AIS should not have any special impact on the composition of the navigational watch, which should be determined in accordance with the STOW Code. When assessing the navigational situation without AIS, the OOW appraises other ships or targets relative to own ship. AIS information is geographically based (ground stabilised) and represents the actual navigational movement of a ship in near-real time. Care should, therefore, be taken when attempting to match AIS information with that which has been observed from the ship either visually or by radar. Once a ship has been detected, AIS can assist in tracking it as a target. By monitoring the information broadcast by that target, its actions can also be readily monitored. Changes in heading and course are, for example, immediately apparent, and many of the problems common to tracking targets by radar, namely Clutter, target swap as ships pass close by and target loss following a fast manoeuvre, do not affect AIS. AIS can also assist in the identification of targets, by name or call sign and by ship type and navigational status. The ability to identify targets should not, however, be used to use VHF to resolve collision situations. Further, ships should not agree to collision avoidance actions that contravene the rules contained in the COLREGS. Complying with the COLREGS should not necessitate the use of VHF, or any other means of ship-to-ship communication, other than the display of appropriate lights and shapes. Indeed, resorting to verbal VHF communications cations might lead to language misinterpretations and should be avoided. In developing close-quarter situations, the availability of AIS information should also not encourage any ship to stand-on for longer than would be usual where only visual or radar observations are available. Early and substantial action to keep well clear of another vessel, as required by the COLREGS should always be taken. AIS may calculate collision avoidance parameters such as CPA and TCPA. The OOW should be aware that such parameters calculated by AIS might differ to those -calculated by radar, for the same target. When using radar to match AIS and radar targets, it is important to switch the radar to ground stabilised mode to compare radar and AIS target vectors.
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Figure 1.4 : AIS and ARPA Targets on Typical Radar -Display
Symbols The user should be familiar with the symbology used in the graphical display provided,
1.9 INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF AIS

The Officer of the watch (OOW) should always be aware that other ships, and in particular leisure craft, fishing boats and warships, and some coastal shore stations including Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) centres might not be fitted with AIS. The OOW should always be aware that other ships fitted with AIS as a mandatory carriage requirement, might switch off AIS by professional judgement of the master. In other words, the information given by the AIS may not be a complete picture of the situation around the ship. It may be noted that AIS may not be supported by the older generation radars. The users must be aware that transmission of erroneous information implies a risk to other ships as well as their own. The users remain responsible for all information entered into the system and the information added by the sensors. The accuracy of AIS information received is only as good as the accuracy of the AIS information transmitted. The OOW should be aware that poorly configured or calibrated ship sensors (position, speed and heading sensors) might lead to incorrect information being transmitted. Incorrect information about one ship displayed on the bridge of another could be dangerously confusing, 9 It would be prudent for the OOW not to assume that the information received from other ships is of a comparable quality and accuracy as that which might be available on own ship.
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1.10 ADDITIONAL AND FUTURE APPLICATIONS

AIS in SAR Operations To some extent AIS is already used in search and rescue operations, especially in combined helicopter and surface searches. AIS enables the direct presentation of the position of the vessel in distress on other displays such as Radar or ECS/ECDIS, which facilitates the task of SAR crafts. It would be desirable to present the vessel in distress with a special symbol. For distressed vessels not equipped with AIS, the On Scene Commander (OSC) could create a pseudo AIS target as far as practicable. Aids to Navigation AIS, when fitted to selected fixed and floating aids to navigation can provide information to the mariner such as Position; Status; Tidal and current data; and Weather and visibility conditions. AIS in an Overall Information System AIS will play a role in an overall international maritime information system, supporting voyage planning and monitoring. This will assist administrations to monitor all the vessels in their areas of concern and track dangerous cargo. Reference Documents SOLAS Chapter V IMO Recommendation on Performance Standards for a Universal Automatic Identification System (AIS), (MSC. 74(69)). SAQ 2 (a) (b) (c) What in your opinion are the drawbacks of the system? Enumerate the static and dynamic information that shall be automatically transmitted. What additional and future applications shall the system be put to use?
1.11 VOYAGE DATA RECORDERS

Data recorders in some form have been around for quite some time in the marine industry. They include, but are not limited to, log books, navigation charts, bell or engine order logs, course recorders, hull stress meters, propulsion and auxiliary engine computer logs, vessel traffic service (YTS) systems, Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) radio transmission tapes, and the Automatic Identification System (AIS). A marine voyage data recorder (VDR) centralizes the various measurements taken on board a vessel in one "protective" place from which data can be retrieved later for analysis. Many companies have already taken the initiative of installing VDRs not only to obtain data in the event of an accident or incident, but also to assist in managing their fleets.
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When engaged on international voyages, unless exempted shall be fitted with a Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) as follows : passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002; ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than the first annual survey after 1 July 2002; passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than 1 January 2004; and
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ships, other than passenger ships, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2002.
1 .1 1. 1 P re am bl e Voyage data recorders requirement is a new rule under Chapter V of SOLAS. It requires VDRs to be fitted to all new ships of 3000 GRT and over, and existing passenger ships, when engaged on international voyages. The VDR or the marine "black box" is equipped to record key navigational information. Such information can then be used to build up an accurate picture of events preceding an accident and enable investigators to establish the causes. 1.11.2 What Cana VDR Do? In an October 10, 1998, article, Loyds List wrote: "Ironically, of all the technical requirements that are designed to prevent accidents (although most are designed to minimize their consequences), the provision of 'black boxes' is something that only comes into its own after the incident. Not that there is no commercial reason (value) for their adoption on ferries. Voyage event recorders can monitor whatever is required, from the way a ship is handled, to the performance of the machinery and its forensic employment must be considered almost incidental. They have proved themselves in operation in a number of areas, from the optimization of fuel economy measures to the defence of the owner in the event of an incident. And although it can be argued that they scarcely affect safety directly, the lessons they produce certainly do." The purpose of a voyage data recorder is to maintain a store, in a secure and retrievable form, of information concerning the position, movement, physical status, command and control of a vessel over the period leading up to and following an incident having an impact thereon. Information contained in a VDR should be made available to both the administration and the ship-owner. This information is for use during any subsequent investigation to identify the cause(s) of the incident. Voyage event recorders can monitor whatever is required, from the way a ship is handled, to the performance of the machinery and its use in an accident must be considered almost incidental. They have proved themselves in operation in a number of areas such as: the optimization of fuel economy, and the defence of the owner in the event of an incident.
Although it can be argued that they scarcely affect safety directly, the lessons they produce certainly do. Fulfil "ISM Responsibilities" A survey found that a number of operators view VDR systems as valuable tools tc achieve the objectives of the ISM Code. P & 0 Lines, which is considered a pioneer in the development and use of VDRs, has been using VDR systems for years to fulfil its ISM responsibility to provide management oversight of its fleet. A P & 0 subsidiary reports that it has 120 VDR units throughout its fleets of Ro-Ro ferries, bulkers, tank ships, and other vessels. VDR systems have been voluntarily installed on BP tankers, Conoco tankers, Chevron tankers and Holland
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America Line passenger ships. In addition, the US Navy has an experimental project with a system called "Smart Ship", which, among other functions, records radar data. Operational Efficiency Companies are finding that, in addition to the obvious ISM and post-accident value of VDR information, they can realize a payback in their fleet operations by using the data to monitor the various systems on board. In a 1998 article written for DNV FORUM ISSUE No. 2, Performance Monitoring Enhances Operational Efficiency, Stuart Brewer endorses the benefits of maintaining vital machinery data in order to review main engine performance data and to make adjustments as needed. Mr. Brewer's article states: "There are several benefits in maintaining performance (records) of the main engine. As an example: modern two-stroke slow-speed engines are fitted with variable injection timing equipment (VIT). Correct functioning of the VIT is essential for good engine performance and by monitoring performance as laid down in the DNV program we can detect maladjustment's and make the necessary corrections. A correctly adjusted engine ensures better fuel economy, more operating hours per cylinder, and better overall engine condition and economy. It also results in cleaner exhaust gases and reduced harmful emissions. We see performance monitoring as a means to optimize the engine's condition and its maintenance intervals." Based on the results from its "New Machinery Project" and in line with the procedures from its pilot test ship program, the DNV is planning to launch a new, voluntary class notation. When the DNV was asked if it saw any use for such a new notation, a representative replied that such a notation would be much like a "stamp for good housekeeping", conveying to the market that from this ship you could expect reliable performance, good fuel economy and fewer unexpected costs in machinery maintenance. .41 the very early stages of satellite communications, a well known shipping company used to get the engine room parameters transmitted to the head office computers on a daily basis. The data was then analysed and the company, intimated the ship if some of the machinery parameters needed correction! Accident Investigation and Reduction In its first review of maritime safety, the European Transport Safety Council (ETSC) estimates that 140 fatalities occur annually in European sea transport and observes that the safety.culture and safety regulations must be improved. The ETSC identifies priority measures for accident reduction. Among these measures are a systems approach to safety and the need for better statistical information, specifically a European Union (EU) database and VDRs and an independent maritime accident investigation agency. Other needs or changes that the ETSC identifies include the following: a common education and training framework, international medical/psychological standards, a legal maximum blood alcohol level, fatigue reduction measures, on-board facilities, improved communications technologies, safety guidelines in and near ports, bulk carrier and ro-ro ferry design, survival capability of high speed Passenger ferry survivability. and
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VDRs in International Investigations On November 27,1997, the IMO adopted IMO Resolution A.849(20), Code for the Investigation of Marine Casualties and Accidents, which the US Coast Guard endorsed and disseminated in Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular Number: 598. In issuing NVIC 5-98, the Coast Guard summarized the IMO action as follows: The international community has increasingly become aware of the benefits of cooperating in casualty investigations given the international nature of shipping and the fact that Flag-State interests often overlap port-state interests. As a result, a series of IMO resolutions have addressed international cooperation in increasing depth, and many valuable cooperative investigations have resulted in the past 10 years. Drawing on the experience of these cooperative investigations, and recognising the opportunity to improve safety through information sharing, the IMO member states developed a Code for the investigation of marine casualties and incidents. The Code provides a standard international approach to investigations and enhances the existing cooperative frameworks. The Code includes an appendix, Guidelines to assist investigators in the implementation of the Code, which provides the following guidance on VDRs Where information from a VDR is available, in the event that the State conducting the investigation into a casualty or serious incident does not have appropriate facilities for readout of the VDR, it should seek and use the facilities of another State, considering the following: (a) (b) (c) The capabilities of the readout facility; The timeliness of the availability of the facility; and The location of the readout facility.
The installation of VDRs is an important safety issue for all marine operators, especially for operators of passenger vessels. Automatic data recording devices provide crucial information for accident investigation and play a key role in identifying and addressing causal factors. While it can be argued that the VDR may not be a first line safety tool, such as a life jacket or fire extinguisher, it certainly has great value in ensuring that a vessel is operated safely, that its gear is performing as intended, and that the crews are performing as required by regulation, company policy, and the general rules of "good seamanship".
VDRs in Port State Control Compliance
In a 1997 article for IMO News, the senior deputy director of the IMO's Maritime Safety Division states on Port State control: "The inspection of foreign flag vessels visiting national ports has been described as the last safety net in marine safety. In an ideal world, Port State control would not exist, but when shipowners, classification societies, insurers or Flag administrations have in one way or another failed to do their job, Port State control comes onto the scene. Port State control is recognized as being a step in the right direction towards the eradication of substandard ships, when it is carried out in accordance with IMO Assembly resolutions and recommendations." It is only natural that government agencies and their delegated inspectors employ the information gathered by the VDR in conducting the various Port State requirements, which includes enforcing the ISM Code and ensuring that a vessel complies with navigation and other safety regulations and applicable pollution prevention regulations (IMO/MARPOL).
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V DR as a Management Tool
Automatic Identification Me VDR provides the ves,,ci operator and owner with information that can be used System to better manage the vessels operation, thus providing key information that can be used to improve traffic routing, manage hull stress conditions, and better manage fuel consumption. The VDR also provides the owner/operator with a comprehensive record of what occurred in an event, thereby assisting in the event of some tort action. The management benefits derived from installing a VDR system would quickly offset the cost of its installation.
1.11.3 Rule Requirements Ships on international voyages are to be fitted with VDRs according to timetable given (to assist in casualty investigations, ships) as follow! (a) (b) (c) (d) passenger ships constructed on or after I July 2002; ro-ro passenger ships constructed before I July 2002 not later than the first survey on or after I July 2002; passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than 1 January 2004; and ships, other than passenger ships, of 1,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after I July 2002.
1.11.4 Definitions Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) Voyage data recorder means a complete system, including any items required to interface with the sources of input data, for processing and encoding the data, the final recording medium in its capsule, the power supply and dedicated reserve power source. Sensor Sensor means any unit external to the VDR, to which the VDR is connected and from which it obtains data to be recorded. Final Recording Medium Final recording medium means the item of hardware on which the data is recorded such that access to it would enable the data to be recovered and played back by use of suitable equipment. Playback Equipment Playback equipment means the equipment, compatible with the recording medium and the format used during recording, employed for recovering the data. It includes also the display or presentation hardware and software that are appropriate to the original data source equipment. Dedicated Reserve Power Source Dedicated reserve power source means a secondary battery, with suitable automatic charging arrangements, dedicated solely to the VDR. of sufficient capacity to operate it. Administrations may exempt ships, other than ro-ro passenger ships, constructed before I July 2002 from being fitted with a VDR where it can be demonstrated that interfacing a VDR with the existing equipment on the ship is unreasonable and impracticable.
20
There is no requirement at present for ships under 3000 gt, or for existing ships other than passenger ships, to be fitted with VDRs. Owners of all vessels are, however, encouraged to fit VDRs, when practicable to do so, in order to assist in the investigation and identification of the causes of accidents and other incidents. A separate standard for a simplified VDR is given below:
R e m l e Alarm Data Caosolf,
System Options
icroph,
1
ones with 3 line feeds!
Date and time Rudder order/response Ship's position Engine order/response speed Hull openisplaretertight doom Heading and fire ,ofS status Depth Accelerations and hull stresses Main alarms Wind speed/ direction
Typical VDR Schematic diagram

Figure 1.5: Typical VDR Schematic Diagram
1.11.5 Operational Requirements

(a) The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of pre-selected data items relating to the status and output of the ship's equipment, and command and control of the ship. To permit subsequent analysis of factors surrounding an incident, the method of recording should ensure that the various data items could be co-related in date and time during playback on suitable equipment. The final recording medium should be installed in a protective capsule which should meet all of the following requirements : (i) (ii) be capable of being accessed following an incident but secure against tampering; maximize the probability of survival and recovery of the final recorded data after any incident;
(b)
(c)
(till) be of a highly visible colour and marked with retro-reflective materials; and (iv) be fitted with an appropriate device to aid location. (v) the design and construction, which should be in accordance with the requirements of resolution A.694 (17) and international standards acceptable to the Organization, should take special account of the requirements for data security and continuity of operation.
SAQ 3
(a) What is the similarity between the Black box and the VDR?
21
(b) (c)
Enumerate the capabilities of the VDR besides data recording as per regulations. What data should be recorded additionally if improvements are to be made in cargo handling systems in a crude oil tanker?
1.11.6 Data Selection and Security

(a) The minimum selections of data items to be recorded by the VDR are specified below. Optionally, additional items may be recorded if the requirements for the recording and storage of the specified selections are not compromised. The equipment should be so designed that, as far as is practical, it is not possible to tamper with the selection of data being input to the equipment, the data itself nor that which has already been recorded. Any attempt to interfere with the integrity of the data or the recording should be recorded. The recording method should be such that each item of the recorded data is checked for integrity and an alarm given if a non-correctable error is detected. Playback equipment is not normally installed on a ship and is not regarded as part of a VDR for the purposes of these performance standards. To ensure that the VDR continues to record events during an incident, it should be capable of operating from the ship's emergency source of electrical power. If the ship's emergency source of electrical power supply fails. the VDR should continue to record Bridge Audio from a dedicated reserve source of power for a period of 2 h. At the end of this 2 h period all recording should cease automatically. Recording should be continuous unless interrupted briefly. The time for which all stored data items are retained should be at least 12 h. Data items which are older than this may be overwritten with new data.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
1.11.7 Performance Tests

The VDR system, including all sensors, shall be subjected to an annual performance test. The test shall be conducted by an approved testing or servicing facility to verify the accuracy, duration and recoverability of the recorded data. In addition, tests and inspections shall be conducted to determine the serviceability of all protective enclosures and devices fitted to aid location. A copy of the certificate of compliance issued by the testing facility, stating the date of compliance and the applicable performance standards, shall be retained on board the ship. Onboard inspection of equipment shall ensure that batteries, enclosures and location aids are in good condition and operational. This should be undertaken in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions by suitably qualified/experienced personnel. Successful completion of the maintenance routine should be recorded in the ship's onboard planned maintenance log. VDRs have a 12 hour recording capability to cover operational period when majority of sensors will be operational, e.g., arrival, disembarkation, embarkation and departure of a roro ferry. Download of this recorded data or exchange of recording medium should be tested and the record of these tests shall be maintained.
1.11.8 Process of Dealing with Data

In all circumstances and at all times the ship owner will own the VDR and its data. However. in the event of an accident the following guidelines would apply. Recovery of the V DR is conditional on the accessibility of the VDR or the data contained therein. In the case of a non-catastrophic accident, recovery of the memory should be straightforward by removal of a hard disc from the
22
22
Automatic Identification
VDR unit to be done soon after the accident to best preserve the relevant evidence for use by both the investigator and the ship owner. The owner must be responsible, through its on-board standing orders, for ensuring the timely preservation of this evidence in this circumstance. Recovery in the case of abandonment of a vessel during an emergency, masters should, where time and other responsibilities permit, recover the memory and remove it to a place of safety and preserve it until it can be passed to the investigator. Recovery in the case of a catastrophic accident, where the VDR is inaccessible and the data has not been retrieved prior to abandonment; a decision will need to be taken by the Flag State in co-operation with any other substantially interested States on the viability and cost of recovering the VDR balanced against the potential use of the information. In all circumstances during the course of an investigation the investigator should have custody of the original VDR data, perhaps in the form of the whole or part(s) of the VDR itself, in the same way as if I e has custody of other records or evidence under the Code for the Investig tion of Marine Casualties and Incidents. In all circumstances the responsibility to arrange down loading and readout of the data from the recovered memory in whatever form should, in the first instance, be undertaken by the investigator who should keep the ship owner fully informed. Additionally, especially in the case of a catastrophic accident where the memory may have sustained damage, the assistance of specialist expertise may be required to ensure the best chance of success. Although the investigator will have custody of the original VDR memory in whatever form for the duration of the investigation, a copy of the data must be provided to the ship owner at an early stage in all circumstances. Further access to the data will be governed by the applicable domestic legislation of the flag state, coastal state and the lead investigating state as appropriate and the guidelines given in the Code for the Investigation of Marine Casualties and Incidents.
Table 1.1: List of Data to be recorded by a VDR Data Item Source Date and time Ship's position Speed (through water or over ground Heading Bridge Audio Communications. Audio Radar data post display selection Water depth Main alarms Rudder order and response Engine order and response Hull openings status Watertight and fire door status Acceleration and hull stresses Wind speed and direction Preferably external to ship (e.g. GNSS) Electronic Positioning system Ship's SDME Ship's compass One or more bridge microphones VHF Master radar display Echo Sounder All mandatory alarms on bridge Steering gear & autopilot Telegraphs. controls and thrusters All mandatory status information displayed on bridge All mandatory status information displayed on bridge Hull stress and response monitoring equipment where fitted Anemometer when fitted
System
1.11.9 Data Items to be Recorded

SL No. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 10 11 12 13 14 15
1.11.10 Simplified Voyage Data Recorders The early regulations did not include cargo ships for carriage of VDRs, however it was realised that such carriage shall assist in casualty investigations. The existing cargo ships, when engaged on international voyages, would be fitted with a simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR). These dates are not yet agreed as the problem of interfacing on such ships is not vet resolved. From present indication, it is probable that all cargo ships of more than 3000 gross tonnage shall be required to carry such equipment. Most requirements of the VDR and the simplified VDR are common except that the data to be recorded. Items to be recorded are similar to those detailed in table above except that SVDR need not have the capability to record the following: Water depth Main alarms Rudder order and response Engine order and response Hull openings status Watertight and fire door status Acceleration and hull stresses Wind speed and direction If it is impossible to obtain radar data then AIS target data should be recorded as a source of information regarding other ships. If radar data is recorded, AIS information may be recorded additionally as a beneficial secondary source of information on both other and own ship. Any additional data items listed in the table above should be recorded when the data is available in accordance with the international digital interface standards using approved sentence formatters.
SAQ 4 (a) (b) (c) How is the data recoded secured? What maximum period would the data be available? What happens to the recorder after this period is over? How are OOWs expected to ensure the satisfactory working of the VDR?
1.12 SUMMARY
This Unit explains the AIS as a navigational aid for transmitting and receiving information on ships and objects in the vicinity so that the navigator is not only aware for its existence but also the parameters such as identity course, speed and positions. In addition it has capacity to transmit information essential to ports such as cargo, draft etc. The Unit also explains its limitation particularly that all ships may not be equipped with the system or it may have been switched off and as such total reliance should not be placed on the AIS. The module in its second part gives details of the Voyage Data recorder which is to be give on board as a SOLAS requirement on ships of more that 3000 gross tonnage and 24
24
passenger ships and tankers and other such ships. The VDR is self recording machine and though strictly not a navaid, it provides a record of navigational aspects performed by the ship. The date can be useful as an assessment of performance of the ship or for investigation into casualties.
1.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ I (a) Receive information, including the ship's identity, - type, position, course, speed, navigational status and other safety-related information,- and receive automatically similar information from other ships or stations. In the initial stage, a number of ships may not be fitted with AIS or many of them may not send correct information. Hence a double check is necessary. AIS operates primarily on two dedicated VHF channels (AIS I - 161,975 MHz and AIS -162,025 MHz). Where these channels are not available regionally, the AIS is capable of automatically switching to alternate designated channels. The equipment is connected to gyro, log. GPS and to radar and to ECDIS where available. The information, therefore, shall be updated automatically but if there is a failure in any one, the OOW may have to update the information manually. The AIS is connected to the communication system so that it could be used as a long range system. The system is not automatic and the shore station has to request the ship for the same. Informatively it is not mandatory either.
(b)
(c)
(d)
SAQ 2 (a) The system would be very useful in position fixing if shore beacons had the AIS transmitters and is useful in collision avoidance provided all ships send correct information. However, presently the equipment is new and a number of users are not aware of how to use it. The system. therefore, should not be totally relied on for collision avoidance or position fixing. Another disadvantage is that the information so transmitted could be used by pirates or terrorists also. Static information is the permanent information of the ship such as name, number, etc. and the dynamic information is course speed position, etc. which changes and needs updating automatically. Future applications shall include : SAQ 3 (a) Black box is the data recorder in the aviation industry and is so called because of its colour. It records data relating to the operation of an aircraft while in flight. Provided the additional recording systems are included the capabilities of the VDR include : Provision of evidence relating to ISM compliance. 25 SAR application the SAR centres shall be in a position to direct the rescue crafts more effectively. As it shall be possible to know the position of all the ships in the area a local traffic controller may be able to direct traffic more. If lighthouses or buoys are fitted with AIS it may be possible to use them as beacons to fix positions.
(b)
(c)
(b)
Improvement in operational efficiency where data relating to these parameters are recorded. Investigation of accidents is not meant for setting the blame but to find out how not to let similar accident happen again. If this no blame culture were followed, every investigation would improve safety. Internationally there is a need to investigate accidents that happen to foreign ships in National waters. Getting data becomes difficult. However, if the VDR data is secured such investigation can then be conducted smoothly. In port state control, proving compliance becomes difficult and the automatically recorded evidence would be a boon. To be used as a management tool. Every ship manager would like to know how to improve the running of his ship. Present records do not provide adequate means of analysis and control but the VDR may just do that.
(c)
Cargo parameters shall include the initial cargo plan the rate of pumping, back pressures, ullages recorded automatically, status of the valves, times when each tank completed. Gas pressures in the tanks, details of deballasting operations, etc.
SAQ 4 (a) The equipment does not allow any tampering. It is possible to remove the hard disc and take it ashore in case of abandonment of the ship. In a float free VDR there is no need to this either. The data can be recovered only by the authorised persons even though the ownership of the data lies with the ship owner. The VDR is to record the specified data for a minimum periods of 12 hours. The equipment starts to re-record the data so that any one time there is a twelve hours recording available. 0OWs are to ensure that the power supply is in order and where there is a failure that the emergency supply comes on line immediately. Normally, the OOW is not required to decide anything else.
(b)
(c)
26
UNIT 2 SPEED MEASUREMENT AT SHIP

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 History of Speed Measuring Instruments on Ships

2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.2.9 2.2.10 The Dutchmen's Log The Common Log or Ship's Log The taffrall Log A Tachometer The Impeller Log The Patent Log The Pilot Log The Electromagnetic Log The Ideal Log Doppler Effect and Its Use in Logs
2 .3 S u mma r y 2.4 Answers to SAQ's
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to monitor the navigation of your ship you need to know your position, the speed and the direction of your progress. We will now see how navigators at sea determine the speed. The necessity of knowing the speed and distance covered by the vessel needs no emphasis. It should suffice to say that like any driver of a vehicle or train, pilot of a helicopter or aircraft, a navigator would certainly like to know, at all times, what speed his vessel is doing and what is the distance covered from last known position. Rather, it is all the more important to him. The peculiar situation of navigating at sea is that with no visual reference points available, the navigafor needs to know the speed as accurately as possible. In spite of tremendous advancement in the field of science and technology and in the age of star wars, nuclear armaments, Antarctica expeditions and super computers; there are still a large number of ships sailing all over the world with no primary means of knowing the speed. The navigators on these ships are still expected to use and rely on Patent Log, (comparatively simple instrument) for measuring speed, knowing fully well that better systems are available. This problem becomes all the more acute as today's masters are required to handle modern and larger ships, in confined waters and in heavy traffic density areas. [Note : Before we go any further, let us be clear that the patent log as speed and distance measurement instrument was used when no better systems were available. It records the speed and distance with some limitations.]
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to explain dutchmen's log, common log, taffrail log. tachometer. impeller log, 27
patent log, pilot log, EM log, ideal log, doppler log and principle. transducer errors, effects of ship conditions and ship motions, and calibration of logs.
2.2 HISTORY OF SPEED MEASURING INSTRUMENTS ON SHIPS

Probably the earliest known attempt to estimate distance was made by the Romans, who used a type of waterwheel. The wheel fixed to the hull, carried a drum, filled with pebbles. Every time the wheel revolved, one pebble fell out into a tally box. By counting the number of pebbles in the box, an estimate of distance travelled could be obtained. Let us read the above paragraph again. Understand and try to imagine the system. Now make an outline diagram of this device showing various parts. Can you indicate the limitations of such a system'?
2.2.1 The Dutchmen's Log

This log was in use since 15th Century. The system used a small float thrown as far ahead of the ship as possible and timed accurately between two points on the ship with known distance between them, to determine the speed. The success of results depended on the accuracy of observation and timing. So now, you know the limitations of this type of log. It could only be used on very slow ships of earlier era. Try this and Record the Process and the Results When you are at anchor with a strong current running, try the above experiment on your ship (with chief officer's permission, of course!). The two reference points need not be bow and stern. It would be preferable to select them along parallel body, so that signals for starting and stopping the stopwatch could he heard. Carry out this experiment again as the tide is slacking and note the difference.
2.2.2 The Common Log or Ship's Log

This was invented in 1758 and consisted of a piece of wood (also known as chip or log). The log or chip was allowed to drag in the water behind the ship attached with a line. The line was wound up on a reel. The log caused the line to unreel as the ship moved. The line was marked with pieces of cord, each having specified number of knots in it. The distance between the markings was 47 feet 3 inches each. The line was allowed to run out for 28 seconds. (28 seconds was the time needed then by the hour glass to empty?) The ratio of one-hour (3600 seconds) to 28 seconds is the same as 6080 ft. to 47 feet 3 inches. Thus if the log pulled 47 feet 3 inches in 28 seconds: it would pull 6080 ft. in one hour, i.e. the speed is 6080 ft/hour or 1 nautical mile/hour or I Knot. If the log pulled the line in 28 seconds up to the two-knot marking, the speed would be 2 knots and so on. Even fraction of knots could be estimated by measuring the distance to the nearest knots. Do You Know? If the nautical mile = 6080 feet and the duration of the hourglass is 30 seconds what should be the distance between the marks? 28
2.2.3 The Taffrail Log

it was fitted to the rail in the stem called taffrail and hence it was called the taffrail log. This works on the principle of flow of water past a rotator with spiral fins that causes it to turn as the ship pulls it through water. The rotator when connected to a recording device shows the revolutions of the rotator and, therefore, the distance travelled. A sailor needed to make two readings, with a known interval of time between them, to obtain the speed of the ship. 2 . 2 . 4 A T a c h om et e r This is used for determining the revolution per minute (rpm) of a ship's propeller. It is also used to determine the speed and distance travelled by ship. Knowing the pitch of the propeller (distance travelled in one revolution) and multiplying it by rpm, the speed of the ship can be determined and the distance covered can be worked out. However, the accuracy of this method is greatly affected by weather, by the displacement, trim or by the growth of seaweed or barnacles on the underwater portion of the ship's plates. Use this method on your ship, calculate the speed and compare with your ship's log. 2.2.5 The I m pel l er Log This log works on the principle of flow of water, which rotates an impeller, situated at the base of a log tube. The impeller in turn rotates a magnet fitted at the base of a coil generating a proportional voltage. An electronic computer unit feeds an indicator showing speed and distance.
Speed Measurement at Ship
2.2.6 The Patent Log

The Walker cherub Log developed in 1879 by Thomas Ferdinand Walker was probably the most useful and long serving often it had the hourly and accumulated miles recorded This commonly as well. Ths Walker patent log was very commonly used. Later on, the readings were electrically transferred to the bridge. The walker log was reliable providing you had a bit of speed; otherwise, it was useless. This log tows a streamlined gunmetal rotator having four pitched fins by means of a logline having a wire heart. The rotator revolves at a speed proportional to the speed of the ship through the water and induces a constant twist into the line. The line is connected to the register, which dissipates the twist and converts the number of rotations into nautical miles, indicated on the dial of the register as well as the speed on a remote gauge. The usual causes of error are either the rotator is damaged, the line is of incorrect length, or that the rotator is towed in the slipstream of the propeller. Taking in the log line at the end of the voyage required good seamanship. The line had to be disconnected from the register and then released back in the water so that it could unwind itself. 2.2.7 The P i l ot Log This operates on the pressure principle, and the pressure element protrudes through the bottom of the ship. Increase in speed was measured as increase in pressure. The main problems with any bottom log are: (a) Mechanical damage to the log tube assembly occurs due to the vessel rolling or pitching heavily in a seaway or in shallow waters or when dry-docking. (b) Silt may be forced into the log tube to such an extent that the pressure inlet becomes choked. (c) Physical g mis-handlin of the tube itself, i.e. withdrawing it into the hull mis-handling with possibility while flooding. (d) (e) Neglect of maintenance of the device used for converting water pressure into speed and distance. Lack of calibration. 29 -
2.2.8 The Electromagnetic Log

This is based on the induction principle. A coil in the sensor protruding under the keel is supplied with an alternating current. The sensing electrodes on the outer side of the sensor measure the voltage difference generated in the surrounding water by induction due to current in the coil and movement of the sensor with respect to the water. This voltage difference is proportional to the speed of the ship and thus indicated. The integrated values of the speed give the distance covered. All of the logs seen by us have some limitations. What should be then being the ideal log?
2.2.9 The Ideal Log

The ideal log should have the following characteristics: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) Accurate determination of speed of the vessel ahead as well as astern. Speed should be measured with respect to the ground at all times and not with respect to water as in the case of other logs. Versatile equipment sensitive to indicate instantaneously any changes in the speed up to 0.01 knots and to cover all possible ranges of speed. Unaffected by weather conditions. Unaffected by Heaving, Rolling & pitching motion of the ship. Unaffected by ship conditions such as List, Trim, Hog and Sag etc. Unaffected by aeration. No moving parts and problems associated with bottom logs as listed above. Accurate determination of athwartship drifts in terms of angle of drift at sea and in channels etc. Athwartship speed both forward as well as aft needed while docking, mooring to Single Point Mooring buoy etc. (k) (1) (m) (n) (o) Digital, easy to read. Precise distance covered information for dead reckoning, survey purposes and for monitoring engine performance. To facilitate keeping of anchor watches and to warn if the anchor is dragging. Easy calibration at the time of installation. Compatible with other navigation and other equipment where speed is needed to be fed, viz : True Motion Radar, SatNav, ARPA, Gyro, Electronic chart and Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System (ODMCS) etc. Should be ergonomically designed to enable immediate and precise reading.
(p)
Doppler log is an attempt to cater for the requirements of an ideal log as listed above and fulfils all of them except item (h) and partially item (b). However, as regards item (b) it provides speed over ground in all shallower water (only up to 200 metres depth) where it matters the most. It operates on the principle of Doppler Frequency shift in the sound waves transmitted from the transducers fitted under the keel due to vessel speed.
2.2.10 Doppler Effect and Its Use in Logs

In 1842 in Vienna, Doppler pointed out that a star moving towards an observer had a different colour than when moving away. Since colours are associated with wavelengths of frequencies, it implies that the frequency of light is different on two occasions; hence the name "Doppler effect or Doppler frequency shift".
30
Buys Ballot proved experimentally in 1843 that sound is heard to have a higher frequency when its source is approaching the observer than when the source is stationary. The same can be observed when a whistling train crosses a station or a fire brigade engine passes on the road. This change in frequency is dependent upon the relative velocity of approach. (Higher when either source is moving towards observer, or observer is moving owards the source or both are moving towards each other and lower when either source is moving away from the observer, or observer is moving away from the source or both are moving away from each other.) It can be inferred from above that if the difference between the transmitted and received frequencies were measured, the velocity of approach can be calculated.. Principle of Doppler Log In Doppler log, the transducer at the bottom of the ship transmits sound waves which are reflected by the sea bed and received by the receiving; transducer. However as neither the ship is moving towards or away from the sea bed nor the sea bed is moving towards or away from the ship, the relative velocity of approach is zero and thereby no Doppler frequency shift. To overcome this problem, the signal is transmitted from the transducer along the fore and aft 'ine at an angle of approximately 60' to the keel of the vessel. This creates an apparent component of vessels speed equal to (V cos 60) towards seabed, thus causing Doppler shift. This increase in frequency, if measured, will provide ship's fore and aft speed. However, it is electronically difficult to find the difference between transmitted and received frequencies. This problem is overcome by installing two transducers, one forward and one aft, "looking" away from each other, i.e. the forward one directing the beam along the forward direction and the aft one transmitting along the aft direction at the same angle to the keel. This arrangement is known as "Janus configuration" in the name of Greek God Janus who is believed to have had two faces pointing in opposite directions so that he could tell everything about the past and the future.
Speed Measurement at Ship
Janus the Greek God Assuming the vessel moving ahead, the frequency received after reflection from the sea bed at the aft transducer will be less than the transmitted frequency by the same amount as the received frequency is higher than the transmitted frequency at the forward transducer. The difference between the two received frequencies, i.e. one received forward and the one received aft can easily be measured electronically by mixing the two frequencies in a beat frequency oscillator (B.F.O.) counting the resultant beats and determining the beat frequency. The speed of the vessel in the fore and aft direction can now be computed from the beat frequency. It may be noted that this speed is with respect to seabed or so to say "speed over ground". Speed over Water Generally, Doppler log can receive echoers from seabed only up to depths of 200 m or so. However, beyond these depths a weaker echo is available from a layer between 10 to 30 metres below the keel. The speed of the vessel can be determined as earlier but in this case 4 will be w.r.t this layer and not w.r.t ground. This is called "speed over water" similar to that obtained from other types of logs mentioned earlier. In this case, the -effect of current has to be allowed for to get the speed made good but the reflections from a layer deep down eliminates the effect
31
of disturbances caused by the vessel itself and the effect of surface currents caused by wind and wave motion. Athwartship Speed The unique feature of the Doppler log is to provide athwartship speed over ground, which was never possible by any other logs. To measure the athwartship speed, a similar Janus configuration is employed on port and Stbd. side amidships, transmitting outward athwartships. Difference is measured between frequencies received at port and Stbd. transducers and athwartship speed determined in the usual manner. On a larger vessel, additional information is required particularly while docking, in the form of athwartship speed both forward and aft. In that case athwartship Janus, configurations are mounted forward as well as aft. Transducer Errors Transducer Orientation Error If the transducers are not aligned properly with the vessel's keel or with the vessel's fore and aft line, there will be an error in the speed indicated. Oscillator Error If the frequency generated by the local oscillator is not exactly the one used for computation or not constant, the speed indicated would be in error. Beat Frequency Oscillator (b.f. o) Error Measurement of accurate frequency difference by Beat Frequency Oscillator is prerequisite to speed determination. Any error will directly affect the speed indicated. Side Lobe Error If side lobe reception dominates over main beam reception, the indicated speed will be lower than the actual speed. Latest design of transducers largely eliminates this error. Velocity of Sound Error Doppler log is affected by the error in speed of sound waves through the water similar to an echo sounder. This in turn depends on the temperature of seawater, and to a lesser degree, on the salinity and the water pressure (thus neglected). To compensate the error due to temperature, a thennistor or velocimeter is mounted near the transducers and deviations of the speed of sound through water from the standard value are fed to the system computer. Modern design of transducers and transmitting system compensate for any error due to transducer orientation, oscillator frequency and speed of propagation of sound waves due to salinity, temperature or the effect of water pressure. Effect of Various Ship Conditions and Ship Motions Effect of Heaving It can be mathematically shown that any heaving of the vessel will have no effect on the fore and aft or athwartship speed indicated by Doppler log as the Janus configuration cancels out the effect on individual transducers. Effect of Trim It can be derived that the trim of the vessel does not substantially affect the fore and aft speed and has no effect on athwartship speed as both the transducers go up by the same amount, e.g. typically for a trim of 1.5% of
32
ry
Speed
the length of the vessel, a speed of 15 knots ill be indicated as 15.00 1689
w
Ship
knots. Effect of Pitching
"
The effect -Of pitching is similar a vessel with Arim changing continuously .It speed as both transducers keep going up and ;u dawn amp for long vessel pitching p 5m down, a fore& aft speed of wil be d as oscillating indicate between 15.005 knots and 14.995 knots.
has no effect on athwartship
l
Effect of List
knot
No effect on the fore and aft speed of the vessel. Athwartship speed is affected in the similar manner as trim affects F & A speed. Typically for adrip knots. ill be indicated 1.997 .
w
Effect of Rolling(')!
Vll 1; f:,l
No effect on F &A speed but athwartship speed is affected if the list is changing to and fro. A vessel rolling 20 on each side will have a drift of 2 knots indicated as fluctuating between 1.87 knots and 2.13 knots. However, if the mean value is noted, correct drift can be ascertained.
,
,
Calibration
Doppler log must be calibrated during engine manoeuvring trials at the time of new delivery of the vessel. Measured mile distance during each of the runs must be compared with the distance covered as indicated by Doppler log on Ground Track. The average percentage error is to be calculated and incorporated in the Doppler log equipment. This ensures virtually error free operati n in service. While the vessel is in service, Doppler log distance readings may be compared with charted & distanced covered While on Ground Track. To ensure correctspeddv~vhd indication by patent log When Dopper log is in operational Patent log may be the Doppler log readings on Water Track and percentage "'
o " l
Conclusion
The introduction of Doppler log has brought about a tremendous change in the outlook and approach. of Masters and officers at spa. Navigators never looked .4 at nor had any respect for the speed indicated older logs are using accurate speed and drift indicated by Doppler to their advantage all their manoeuvres Safety of navigation can be improved considerably if all ships were equipped with' an operational, Doppler
by in
log,. A s s i g n m e n t
J,,
l f j , ,
k j j, , u H 5 , !
equipment provided your shi . While Write in detail about the speed m asuring equipment p on doing this include in your explanation e o owing (a) Type of equipment. i , 'I 'J;
e
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, j
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1 , 1 ' ) ( ,
-1 1
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"
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1, 2 3
he
;fit
(d) What maintenance, does it need?

lkr~n
etc ?
and under all, Wweather
tc.t
keumn fqp et ii
(g) (h)
Is it connected electronically to other navigation instruments? Does it provide speed in the ahead direction only?
33
(i)
Does it show the speed or does the speed have to distance run? Are there any corrections to be applied?
deduced
from the
(k)
What method is used on board in case of failure of this equipment?
It is our sincere belief that by studying the system on board not only you will be more familiar with the equipment but also you shall educate us. Best explanation of each of the log shall be our courseware on that system at the next revision [Hint: Most of the information should be available in instruction manuals.]
SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Why is the knowledge of speed necessary to a navigator? In most of the older logs rotator, impellers or similar devices were used. What is the principle involved in obtaining speed using these? How would you ascertain the speed and distance by reading the tachometer? In what way is the patent log a simple instrument?
2.3 SUMMARY
Essential function of the speed log is to measure the distance the ship has steamed or sailed and then finding the speed. This unit explains the equipment for this purpose from the very ancient to the most modern times. The unit also explains that even in the most modern logs there are limitations and they need to be taken into account when a ships dead reckoning position is to be worked out. Modern logs, which use Doppler principles, In are to date considered the most accurate.
2.4 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1 ( a ) )
Fixing the position of a ship by dead reckoning needs distance steamed and course steered. Distance steamed can be obtained by logs. The principle of impeller is the same as the distance moved by a screw. Knowing the pitch, it is possible to calculate the distance the impeller moves. The tachometer reads the number of revolutions of a propeller. Knowing the pitch of the propeller, it is possible to calculate the distance the propeller and, therefore, the ship moves through the water. In such calculations, there is possibility of a slight difference and this is called slip of the propeller. Patent log utilises no advanced technologies and needs the log line, impeller, a governor and an indicator, with three dials, one marked in divisions of 10 up to 100 miles, the second marked in divisions of miles up to 10 miles and the third marked in four quarters of a mile. On some ships the reading were transferred to the bridge electrically.
(b)
(c)
(d)
34
UNIT 3 RADAR FOR NAVIGATION

Structure 3.1 3.2 Introduction
Objective
Precautions to be Taken Before Starting the Radar Starting Initial Process
3.3
3.4 Switching on the Radar Set 3.5 Using Range Rings Accurately 3.6 Use of Bearing Cursors and Different Methods of Measuring Bearings 3.7 Use of Electronic Beari ig Cursor (EBL)
3.8 The Main Units of the Radar 3.9 Summary 3.10 Answers to SAQ's
3.1 INTRODUCTION
All of you have heard about the Radar and perhaps have seen it on your ship visits before joining a ship, Radar in its early days, instead of being an aid to navigation to avoid collisions. it got a bad name as radar oriented collisions. The main reason for this was ignorance on its abilities and limitations. As you learn to operate this very valuable I equipment, try to understand this important aspect and the radar shall be your friend. A radar unit can pierce darkness and weather conditions in which human eyesight is obstructed. Within its range, it can show ships, planes, storm clouds, small islands, coastlines and prominent landmarks. It can also be used to measure the distance to an object and the speed at which the object is moving toward or away from the observer. Radar was developed from the work of many scientists. Discoveries made by Heinrich Hertz, Karl F. Braun, and Christian Hulsmeyer of Germany, Guglielmo Marconi of Italy, and Lee De Forest of the United States la i d some of the foundations. Robert Watson-Watt of Scotland patented a radar system in 1935. British and American scientists when working together perfected radar during World War 11.
6, Marconi
Radar uses electromagnetic waves usually short-wavelength waves called microwaves. These waves bounce back from solid objects in their path, the way sound waves bounce back from an object and produce an echo. Scientists learned to use reflected microwaves for detection and measurement. The name radar was coined from the first letters of the words "radio detecting and ranging'. A radar set with its antenna, both transmits and receives. In the most widely used type of system, wave bursts or pulses are spaced so that the echo from one pulse is received before the next pulse goes out. For example, a 35
set may be designed fora range of 93 miles. It sends out pulses at internals of a thousandth of a second, and these travel at a speed of I I86,000.miles (300,000 kilometres) per second. In a thousandth of a second, a pulse has time to travel to the edge of the search area, strike an object and return a round trip of 186 miles (300 kilometres) before the next pulse of radio energy goes out. Design and Operation of a Radar System The details of a particular type of radar system depend primarily upon the use for which it is intended. However, the basic principles are the same for all systems. An example is the type of unit used for search and fire control against aircraft. The complete system includes an antenna with parabolic reflector, a transmitter and a modulator, a receiver and its indicator, and a power supply unit. High-frequency electrical impulses are created in a pulse generator. They move to a modulator where they are amplified. The pulse produced in the modulator has a voltage greater than 10,000 volts and lasts about 1 microsecond. Pulses from the modulator provide power for the oscillator in the transmitter. The oscillator generates an alternating electrical pulse with a tremendously high frequency. It is commonly as high as 100 million cycles a second. In some instances, it may be as high as 10 billion cycles a second. The oscillator used in most radar transmitters is a special kind of vacuum tube called a resonant-cavity magnetron. A magnetron consists of a block of copper with holes or cavities inside. The structure is enclosed in a vacuum. A cathode mounted in the I center provides a supply of free electrons. Under the influence of a magnet, these electrons are whirled in a spiral path at very great speeds. As the electrons whirl'' past the cavities, they produce electrical vibrations in the cavities. The vibrations form an alternating current of extremely high frequency that is carried to the antenna for transmission into space. A radar transmitter produces a large amount of power. For most systems, it exceeds 10,000 watts. Powerful pulses must be sent out so that the reflected waves will have sufficient power to be detected clearly by the receiver. Transmission and Reception of Radar Signals The radar antenna does two jobs. First, it receives the high-frequency pulses from the transmitter, focuses them into a beam, and sends them into space. Second, it picks up reflected pulses coming from objects that have been struck by the beam. The antenna focuses the reflected waves and sends them to the receiver. In operation the antenna rotates continuously. Its angle of elevation may also be ry adjusted. The field being observed is scanned by the antenna and its signal just as it would be scanned by a light beam for visual searching. The operation of the antenna is controlled by an electronic switch located between the transmitter and the receiver. When the, switch is in one position, the antenna transmits. It does this for about 1/1000 of the time it operates. At the end of this brief transmitting period the switch automatically shifts to a second position. In this position, it receives and focuses reflected pulses. Thus, though the transmitter produces a large amount of power, it uses this power for only about 1/1000 of the total time of operation. The radar pulses transmitted by the antenna travel through the air at a speed of 186,000 miles a second. Upon striking an object, a portion of the energy of the pulses is reflected back to the antenna in the form of waves. Not all objects reflect these microwaves equally well. The strength of the reflection depends upon the size, shape, and composition of the object. Metal objects are the best reflectors of microwaves. Wood and plastic produce weaker reflections than metal does. Sea water is a good reflector; open countryside is a poor one. The reflected microwaves forma pattern which is an image of the object that was struck by the transmitted waves. When reflected pulses return to the antenna, they
36
36
are directed to the receiver. In the receiver their voltage is amplified by a multiple of several million. This alternating voltage is then converted to direct current and impressed upon a cathode ray oscilloscope. Making the Radar Image Visible There are a number of electronic methods for converting reflected pulses into visible symbols on a display system composed of advanced data processors and symbol generators. They may be divided into range indicators and plan-position indicators. Some radar systems use a combination of both types of indicators. One type of indicator, the A-scope, has an electron beam which sweeps across the oscilloscope screen once in the interval between pulses. In other words, this sweep is made when the antenna is receiving reflected waves. The line of light formed by the sweep is called a time base. The length of the time base corresponds to the range of the radar system. Thus, if pulses are emitted 1/1000 of a second apart, the time base corresponds to a range of 93 miles. Repeated sweeps of the electron beam maintain the straight line on the screen. A reflected wave causes the line to spurt upward in a narrow peak called a pip. The pip occurs at a point that corresponds to the distance of the reflected object. Thus, with a range of 93 miles, an object 31 miles away produces a pip one third of the distance along the line. In a plan-position indicator system (PPI), the antenna's movement is tracked by the trace of an oscilloscope tube. The position of the trace on the scope corresponds to the direction of the beam from the antenna, A reflection appears as a bright spot on the oscilloscope. The scanning is radial. A sweep starts from the center of the oscilloscope screen and radiates outward at a constant rate. When the beam reaches its maximum radial length, it quickly returns to the center. The direction of the line on the screen matches that of the antenna's radio beam. The position of the spot on the screen bears a direct relation to the distance and direction of the object.
Radar for Navigation
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to explain the precautions to be taken before starting the Radar, procedure of switching on the Radar, procedure of switching off the radar, use of range rings accurately, uses of bearing cursors, use of Electronic Bearing Cursor (EBL), and main units of the RADAR.
3.2 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BEFORE STARTING THE RADAR

Go on the bridge wings outside the wheelhouse and see that the Radar Scanner is clear and the halyards and other loose wires or lines are not fouling the Scanner or there is no other obstruction such as flag, etc. See that no one is working near the Scanner on the Radar Mast. If so, advise the person to get down from the mast as you are starting the Radar.
Do You know? "Whenever any person is working on the radar scanner or in the vicinity of it, such person must place a notice to indicate the same on or very near the radar so as to avoid accidental starting of the radar. This is applicable whether the ship is at sea or in the port."
3.3 INITIAL PROCESS

Come to the display unit and check by turning the knobs anticlockwise that following arc in minimum or zero position. Brilliance Gain Anti-clutter rain Anti-clutter sea Range rings EBL (Electronic bearing line)
Did You Find Them? If any of these knobs are not in the minimum then bring it to the minimum position. Check that main switch on display unit is in off position. It has three positions.
STAND - BY INDICATOR LIGHT
OFF
ft -
__ 7S -I
--"
0N
Figure 3.1: Radar Display & Main Switch
If the switch is not in OFF' position, then turn it anticlockwise and bring it in OFF position so that no light interference occurs. Put the cover or hood of display unit on the PPI (Plan position indicator).
Figure 3.2: Radar Display Unit
Go on the Bridge wing outside the wheelhouse and see if the scanner is clear. What could have fouled it?
3.4 SWITCHING ON THE RADAR SET

First, check that the Main switch for the Radar is in ON position on the Main Control Panel. If not, put it in the ON position.
Put the Main switch on the Display unit to STAND-BY position. This allows radar to get warmed up and remain warned tip. Wait for 2-3 minutes for the set to warm up. At sea the set should be always in warmed up state. In an emergency, we can put the switch to ON position directly. Once the set is ready, the indicator light glows. The Radar set can be used now. Select a medium Range scale by turning the range selector switch to, say six miles range.
STAND-BY INDICATOR LIGHT
C)
OFF No-
,t,
-10 ON
Figure 3.3: Main Switch on Display Unit
3 1.5 1
12 /2 4
X 48
120
Figure 3.4: Range Selector Switch
Display Mode Selector Switch
NORTH UP ) R-M (STABILIZED)
HEAD UP R.M ( STABILIZED TRUE MOTION RESET TRUE MOTION DELAYED RESET )
HEAD UP R.M ( UNSTABILIZED )
Figure 3.5; Selector Switch
Put the pulse length (PL) selector switch to short put short ranges and long pulse for longer ranges. Most of the Radar sets are fitted with in-built PL selector circuits in use .In these which automatically changes with the range Rear sets, ets, no switch is provided. Manual pulse changes are, therefore, necessary while using different ranges. Adjust Display panel lights to the required intensity so that all the controls can-be seen clearly. J: - BY
k f I
~ ~ ,7
STAND
,;~ ! A q u
ol
'.
INDICATOR ~ t ; f ' N , f d
OFF
1(
ON'
1 1 ?L 5'
161
,yr
Figure:3.6 Main Switch on Display Unit is on Position
Choose the presentation mode you want to use by turning the presentation mode Switch to the desired mode. If the display mode used is "true motion stabilised" then our vessels course and speed through water has to be fed in with the course and speed knobs provided. If the display mode used is "true motion ground stabilised" then in addition to own vessel's speed the direction of current and rate of current is also fed in with the direction of the current and rate of current knob.
Turning Indicator
r
I yL
MIN
MAX
DEF46TION NEEDLE
1 St TYPE
Figure 3.7
40
Put the main switch on display unit to ON position. The radar scanner will start to rotate, transmit and receive pulses. On some radar sets, the scanner starts rotating even in STAND-BY Position, but no transmission or reception of pulses takes place. Normally tuning is not required as modern Radars are fitted with automatic frequency control (AFC) circuits. However, some radar sets are not fitted with AFC circuits. The tuning has then to be done by tuning the Tuning knob and looking for maximum deflection on the tuning indicator as shown in the diagram. Once the set is tuned, the side screw provided for this purpose shall lock the tuning knob. Slowly increase the brilliance until the rotating trace is just visible on the PPI and the heading marker appears with each sweep. Reduce the brilliance so that the rotating trace Just disappears and only the heading marker can be seen.
000
Heading Marker
Eletronic Eletronic 270" 0900 --Geometric Marker Fixed Scale
180 0
Figure 3.8: Different Markers
Check that the electronic centre is precisely under the centre of the face of the tube (geometrical centre) marked as at the centre. If it is not, align it with the centring control. 000
Heading Maker Not Aligned to Zero On the Fixed Scale
Heading Marker
2700
180'
Figure 3.9: Heading Marker Alignment
Check that the heading marker is on zero on the fixed bearing scale. If not then, align by rotating the picture using a spring-loaded knob marked HEADING MARKER. If Gyro-stabilised connect the compass repeater to the display when the reading of the Heading Marker on the bearing scale is the same as the reading of the gyrocompass. This can be carried out with the help of the compass knob provided for this purpose Increase the gain by turning the gain control until the speckled background is barely visible. The setting of the gain control will have to be reduced while using shorter-range scales, Too much gain should never be used, otherwise the centre of the display unit will be burnt out.
41
In modern radar sets, the focus is pre-set and hence no control for focusing is provided. Check the efficiency of the set by switching on the "PERFORMANCE", a feather or a cartwheel pattern will appear on the screen. Measure off the present length of the feather (or in case of cartwheel the maximum radius of the cartwheel) with the help of Variable Range Marker (ARM).
Then Efficiency as % = (Present length of feather/Maximum length In the past) x 100, Make note of the efficiency for reference. Tune the set using tuning control in case 0 manual tuning is necessary. Clutter control allows elimination of close to ship echoes of clouds, rain, sea, etc. to obtain a better resolution of targets. Adjust the clutter as required and select the range scale. To Summarise Switching on Check that the main power switch for radar is on (the bridge control panel) Check if the ready indicator lamp is glowing. Check if correct presentation mode is in use. See that the brilliance and gain controls are increased very slowly. Check that the electronic and geometric centre is coinciding. Check that heading marker is aligned to zero on the fixed bearing scale.. Check the efficiency of the set. Tune the set where manual tuning is provided. After the set is on check that the ships, land, buoys, or small fishing vessels you see visually are on the PPI and identify such echoes on the PPI.
Switching Off Put the range scale to the short range (3 or 6 miles) in order to be ready for an emergency when you switch on the set again. If the Radar set has short or long pulse control knob then put the control knob to short pulse. Put the controls for brilliance, gain, anti-clutter sea, Anti clutter rain to the minimum position by turning the switches anti-clockwise. Reduce the Brilliance of the EBL and VRM range rings to minimum if in Use. Bring the Main switch to stand by. Put the Main switch to OFF position. On switching off ensures that the range scale knob is put on short ran ge and the four control knobs are in minimum position. This is to facilitate your switching the Radar on the next time.
3.5 USING RANGE RINGS ACCURATELY

Use of different types of range measurement devises such as: (a) (b) Fixed range marker, and Variable Range Markers.
42
There are two means for measuring range. Fixed range rings and variable range marker. Fixed range rings are six equidistant circles from the centre to the edge of the PPI. The radius of each ring is fixed. Variable range marker is only one circle and its radius can be varied with the help of a knob from the centre of the PPI to the edge. As the radius of
fixed
rings is constant, there is minimum chance of error creeping in.
000
Fixed ring
Figure 3. 10: Fixed Range Marker 0001

VRM
Figure 3. 11: Variable Range Marker

9
Fixed range rings can be used for measuring distance of an object. For this echo should just touch one of the circles, e.g. if the range is 6 miles and the target echo touches the 2nd ring from the centre then the range is two miles. If the target echo lies in between the rings then interpolation is necessary. This is always difficult and it shall be more so in a curved screen with other factors creeping in, such as parallax, etc. 000 2 nd Ring Touching The Land Point
270
090
180
Figure 3.12: Fixed Range Marker an example of its use
43
Navigational System
and Equipment
Fixed range rings can be used to pass an object or target at a particular distance. E.g. to pass the edge of land at 4 miles off a tangent line is drawn to the 4th ring if the ring scale in use is 6 miles as shown in the figure. Vessel is steered so that the edge of land j ust touches the dotted tangent line. 0000
H e a d i n g M a r k e r
Dotted Tangent Line
0900
Figure 3.13: Use of Fixed Range Marker
The approach of a target on collision course can be monitored on the fixed rings. Avoiding action can be taken at the pre-determined range. Collision is very serious and it needs to be paid very sincere attention. Whenever you find something is not going right do not hesitate to call your superior. You may save a disaster. The fixed range rings can be used to check the accuracy of the variable range markers. For this the variable marker is aligned with one of the fixed rings and the range is read off. In case it is same as the fixed rings then there is no error., e.g. if the 3rd ring is aligned with the VRM and the VRM reading is 3.2 miles then there is an error of -F/-- 0.2 miles on distance measured by VRM (when range scale in use is 6 miles). In case the number of rings is more than six (say 7) or less than 6 (say 5) and they are not equidistant then these should not be used for range measurement. In case they are equidistant they can still be used keeping in mind that each ring is 1/7th or 1/5th of the range scale in use. 'The accuracy of Range rings can be checked by parallel index line. For this, you should first align the electronic centre with the geometric centre of the PPI, and then select six miles range scale. Increase the fixed range the ring brilliance and get the sixth range rings on the PPI each concentric circle should be exactly under each parallel line. In case, one of the fixed rings, say, 4th ring from the centre is not under the 4th parallel line, then there is an error in the fixed ring. In addition, they are not equidistant. Similarly, VRM can be checked for accuracy by aligning the VRM with one of the parallel line, e.g. the VRM is coinciding with the first line at one mile range should coincide with second line at two miles range and so on. In case the VRM doesn't coincide with the lines, then an error in VRM exists. VRM is used for Finding the range of an object whose echo ties between two fixed range rings. Navigational purposes, e.g. position fixing, when making a land fall or CPA (closest point of approach) etc. Plotting ships at great distance. Nionitoring the relative motion of the object along with the bearing cursor.
44
The accuracy of the VRM should be frequently checked. VRM is also used to pass an object at a safe distance and in the parallel indexing techniques along with parallel index lines. In off cantered display mode the range rings and VRM remain centred over the electronic centre and the accuracy remains unaffected. VRM can be used to check the range scale in case the range selector knob is defective. It also gives the idea whether the picture is distorted or not.
3.6 USE OF BEARING CURSORS AND DIFFERENT METHODS OF MEASURING BEARINGS

The cursor consists of a double hairline diametric line etched on Perspex sheet centred over the PPI and the line passes through the centre of the PPI.
Bearing Cursor Heading Marker Me c hanical Cursor
Figure 3.14: Origin Correctly Centered
It can be rotated by means of cursor control through 360 degrees. This diametric line passes over the target and the reading where the line meets the fixed hearing scale graduated in degrees around the periphery of graduated display is the bearing of the target. The bearing is relative bearing for an un-stabilised display and true bearing for Gyro-stabilised display. Before taking bearing using the mechanical cursor, heading marker should be aligned to zero on the fixed bearing scale in an un-stabilised display mode. In case, the bearing is read in a Gyro-Stabilised display mode. The heading marker should be aligned to the outer Gyro-repeater ring, (course being meered. Heading Maker.
Wrong Bearing using Cursor. Mechanical Cursor. True Bearing of the Target
Figure 3.15: Bearing Cursors
The electronic centre of the PPI should coincide with the geometric centre. 45
While reading the bearing with the mechanical cursor the viewer should look down on the fixed bearing scale vertically to avoid error of parallax. The mechanics of the system require that the accuracy of alignment with the bearing scale be maintained when the diametric cursor line is rotated, i.e. if one end of the line is 000 degrees then the other end should be 180 degrees and when one end is indicating ting 90 degrees then the other end should indicate 270 degrees. The heading marker should appear when the radar pulse leaves the scanner in the ahead direction, i.e. on the zero mark on the fixed bearing scale otherwise the bearings by the mechanical cursor will be wrong.
3.7 USE OF ELECTRONIC BEARING CURSOR (EBL)

The Electronic Bearing Cursor is by the electronic circuit in the form of a bright line (some radar sets may have broken dashes) emanating from the electronic centre of P the PPI.
EBL
Figure 3.16: Electronic Bearing Line
This cursor is also known as the EBL (Electronic Bearing Line) or EBM (Electronic Bearing Marker) and can be used in stabilised and un-stabilised presentations. This line emanates from the electronic centre and the bearing is read on the digital indicator controlled by the circuit. It can be used in taking bearings in the off centre mode as well without any error.
EBL
Figure 3.17: Electronic Bearing Line
The EBL is generated on the tube surface. There is therefore no parallax error while observing bearings. The brilliance switch controls the brilliance of the electronic line or the marker. The EBL can be rotated clockwise or anticlockwise through 360 degrees with the use of the switch provided. Using the joystick or tracker ball can shift the origin of the EBL. The electronic line can be used for passing 4 safe distance off a danger. It can be used for taking the bearing between two objects by shifting the origin through one and passing the line through another or vice-versa.
46
Bearing IndicatorRange Indicator
Range dots
EBL
Figure 3.18: An example of use of Electronic Bearing
Having identified a land echo, it is possible to identify positively other land echoes by measuring their range and bearing from the known echo using the bearing line.
D 6T Bearing
BRILLIANCE EBL
9
O
ERZL Ongm shift N/S.
(ELECTRONIC RANGE and ERBL Bearmg Lme)
0
Figure 3.19: Functioning of Radar
It can be used for measuring the range and bearing between two targets on the PPI. Use the joystick or tracker ball, read off the VRM bearing, and range on the electronic indicators for bearing and range.
3.8 THE MAIN UNITS OF THE RADAR

The main units of radar set are: The Transmitter The Aerial The Receiver The Display
The Transmitter Unit
The Transmitter Unit consists of a Trigger circuit, a Modulator (which determines the pulse repetition frequency or PRF) and the Magnetron where the centimetre (cm) wave pulse is produced. The function of transmitter is to generate pulses of electromagnetic energy having correct repetition frequency, length, shape, power and radio frequency. 47
Trigger
00
Modulator
Magnetron
The transmitter sends out the signals at a very precise sequence. The target returns these signals. The time interval taken for the same can be measured precisely.
g The trit,ger is so to say the manager of generating the signals. Modulator ensures that the signals are sent out at the frequency and at intervals as are designed. The magnetron is a box, which receives a pulse transmitted by the trigger through the modulator. The shape of the box is so designed that the signal gets amplified through resonance.
(Detailed functions of Trigger circuit, Modular and Magnetron will be taken up in 3`d semester.) The transmitter is sometimes located inside the chartroom & sometimes on the Monkey Island in a protective container. The transmitter unit is marked with the minimum distance at which it should be mounted from the standard and steering magnetic compass. It should not cause any electric interference to other radio equipment. From the Magnetron the Electro-magnetic energy is guided along the inside of a hollow tube called "wave guide" to a series of slots positioned in the "scanner Unit" or to a horn.
The Aerial Unit
This unit is also known as pedestal unit. It consists of the scanner or aerial motor and Synchro-transmitter. There are different types of scanners. Its function is to radiate the radio energy into space and receive the returned echo. In the Parabolic scanner the horn is placed at the focus of a parabolic plate and the radar energy is released after reflection by this plate.
Parabolic plate
Parabolic mesh
Cheese
Double cheese
Slotted wave guide
Figure 3.20: The Arial Unit
In the slotted wave guide type of scanner, an end section of the guide about 1.8 (or 3.6 m) long with slots cut out in the wall of the guide is turned in the horizontal plane. The electromagnetic energy is transmitted outwards from the aerial slot and is made directional by rotating the aerial at a uniform speed by the aerial motor. The aerial picks up the returned electromagnetic energy (echo) but during the period when aerial is receiving the returned energy, transmission is put off. When the Aerial is transmitting, reception of returned energy is also put off. 48
the scanner the horizontal
the vertical
cross-section oflength of the line
Radar
for
q m-width. too The slotted wave-guide aerials placed' in it casing of perspex or protect it from dust, soot particles and weather. The construction of the aerial determines the power distribution of the radar in both horizontal and the yea{
planes.vertical planes.
Navigation 0The
The function of transmitter is to synchronise the rotation of the scanner or '11 'to the sweep on the display so that the trace rotates in unison with the scanner and 4 its true or relative indication on the screen corresponds to the direction of the aerial. (We will discuss this in detail in 3rd semester) After receiving the echo the aerial sends it to the receiver
The Receiver Unit
The function of the receiver unit is to amplify the veryechoesechoes~ --a weak , , 1 (returned ~ electromagnetic energy) intercepted by the aerial. , (- ~ The receiver amplifies the echoes and generates pulses whose form and power will Visible re response of the screen cathode ray tube. screen s catho, as well as
pulse
Single aerial is used for transmitting the pulses as well as for receiving the pulses. The wave-guide is cotnmbn for both the Transmitter. and Receiver. The powerful pulses generated by the transmitter might pass into the receiver directly if no protecting device is provided. The receiver is protected from this by a, device known as Transmit/Receiver (T/R) switAbell which is situated in the wave-guide just before the (input gees in the) receiver. The function of T/R switch is to block the powerful pulses from entering the receiver unit when the transmission is taking place and to block the transmission sections when reception of the echoes is taking place. There are two inputs into the deceiver. The received signal the T/R switch and the trigger pulse to initiate sea Mutter suppression. The Gain, Anticlutter and IF amplifying circuit form part of the r e ceiver unit. The output from the receiver P carries the amplified signals to the display unit. y V '0. 1
To. S c a n n e r 0114 'i
ill
To Transmitter
Oceiver -Figure 3.21. Receiver (T/R) Switch
A-
The Display Unit
The display unit consists of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The CRT is an electronic 4-access valve with several anodes and it generates a radar picture. The CRT contains a gun, comprising cathode, grid and one or more pierced anodes, which fire electrons at the screen. The screen is transparent and acts as the final anode. The inside of the screen is coated with a special chemical so that the electrons paint a spot when they hit the
49
screen. Coating material such as Willamette containing zinc is used to obtain a short after glow or persistence. This gives a green display. Long afterglow screen coating material is of Magnesium fluoride and gives the screen orange phosphorescence. Cathode Ray Tube col our r adar , s everal phos phor l ayer s ( from r ed t o bl ue yi el di ng phosphorescence) are applied to the screen and their excitation is dependent on the penetration of electron stream.
In
The coating is sprayed with an extremely thin film of aluminium to which an extra high tension is applied. It forms a good conducting path for the electrons, which are then carried away along the walls of he tube by means of another conducting layer known as 'Aquadag' coating (colloidal graphite). The extra high tension applied to the rear of the screen is for making the screen to hig as the final accelerating anode. A superfine mesh of very thin aluminium. connected to the final anode, Aquadag coating prevents secondary emissions of electrons on the screen.
t
The intensity of the electron stream (and of the spot) is called BRILLIANCE and is controlled by applying a positive pulse to the grid or by a negative pulse to the cathode. This brightness pulse which is applied either to the grid or to he cathode extracts electrons from the cathode.
t
=4')A
ANODE)
PRO"It"
COATED SCREEN ANODE CONNECTOR
VAC UWA
DEFLECTION CM FOCUS cot ELECTRON STRE 6LASS F14VELOK ACCELEMAIM MODE
cowl"
ELECT""
BALD --
XIDE-COATED CANAOE NEATER

O
RMLATING RASE CONMEC r"K M5
Figure 3.22: The Cathode Ray Tube
The
square wave
orN74;~,'YlipWilianeous
actions:
50
(a)
(b) (c)
It operators the Time-base circuit which sets the spots into motion so that it moves uniformly over the screen which is known as trace sweep or Timebase. It produces the brightening pulse so that the trace became visible. It initiates the oscillations of the fixed range mark generator, so that zero range coincides with pulse Transmission, resulting in production of pips on the screen of A-Scan or rings on the PPI.
When the spot reaches the edge of the screen the time bar voltage generator quickly returns to zero, the brightening pulse is suppressed to a low or zero intensity and the Oscillation of the range unit dies down. On the screen the spot returns at an extremely high speed in complete darkness, to its starting point (this movement is known as "fly back"). The number of sweeps per second across the face of the tube equals the numbers of transmissions per second, which equals the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). Two types of cathode ray tube are used : (a) A-Scan or short persistence tube: In this type, the trace is horizontal and diametric from left to right when facing the screen. The strength of an echo can be derived from its amplitude. The pips die away quickly. Plan position Indicator or PPI also known as Long persistence tube: The trace is rotated round in synchronisation with the rotation of the scanner; the echoes previously recorded are retained during at least one scanner revolution. The trace is from the centre to the edge. The strength of an echo can be derived from its brightness. I low will you take the bearings of a target using the mechanical cursor on the fixed bearing scale and check the same by compass. How will you take the bearing of a target using the gyro-stabilised mode and check same by the gyrocompass. How will you take bearing and range between two targets. State whether true or false? (i)
(11)
(b)
SAQ 1 (a) (b) (c) (d)
The mechanical cursor can be rotated up ISO degrees by using the cursor control.
The bearings taken by using mechanical cursor are true bearings for a stabilised display.(iii ) The bearings taken by using mechanical cursor are accurate whether you align the heading marker with the zero on fixed bearing scale or The bearings taken by using mechanical cursor are accurate bearings even if the geometric centre doesn't coincide with the electronic centre of the PPI.
not. (iv)
The bearings taken by using mechanical cursor are accurate even i I' the receiver reads the bearing at an angle and not vertically down on the bearing scale. (vi) Electronic bearing cursor can not be used in a stabilised display.(vii) (vii) Electronic bearing cursor can not be used in off centred mode. (viii) Electronic bearing cursor is a double hairline diametric line etched on Perspex sheet centred over the PPI. (ix) (x) The bearings taken using the electronic bearing cursor are read on a digital indicator. There is no parallax error while observing bearings with EBL
(v)
3.9 SUMMARY
The module introduces the radar technology and its use in navigation for the essentialpurpose of detecting ship targets and shore objects and introduces you to the process of how to ascertain the speed, course and aspects of an approaching ship. Radar is also used to ascertain the ships position from observation of known shore object. Use of radar effectively can only be achieved by practice and you are encouraged to do so as many times as possible. 'Such use should be sensible keeping in with the accepted procedures 'given in the radar manuals on your ship. The subsequent modules shall advance the theory further to collision avoidance and other position fixing processes.
3.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a)
Before taking bearing using the mechanical cursor, heading marker should be aligned to zero on the fixed bearing scale in an un-stabilised display mode. The electronic centre of the PPI should coincide with the geometric centre. In case; the bearing is read in a Gyro-stabilised display mode. The heading marker should be aligned to the outer Gyro-repeater ring. (course being steered). EBL can be used for measuring the range and bearing between two targets on the PPI. Use the joystick or tracker ball, read off the VRM bearing, and range on' the electronic indicators for bearing and range. (i) F (ii) T (iii) F (iv) F F (vi) F (vii) F (viii) F
(ix) F
(b)
(c)
(d)
Assignment
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (g) (h) (i) (j)
What type of chemical coating is used inside the screen? Is the CRT on your ship A-Scan or PPI? Find size of the cathode ray tube (diameter) on your ship. Identify location of the T/R switches (T/R cell). Describe type of aerial fitted on your ship. Locate the aerial motor. Find rate of rotation of the scanner on your ship. Locate the Transmitter unit on your ship. Locate and trace the path of the wave-guide on your ship. Identify location of the Main switch for Radar
52
UNIT 4 NAVIGATION BY ARPA

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2
I IA
~. I I ,
Display Modes
4.3 Collision Avoidance 4.4 Radar Plotting Problems with Action to Take 4.5 Radar for Position Fixing 4.6 Automatic Radar Plotting Aids 4 .7 S u mma r y
4.1 INTRODUCTION
previous Unit we learnt the origin and operation of the Radar. We shall learn its particular use in navigation and collision avoidance. In the early years of radar use the navigators not having understood the limitations of the radar actually caused collision and thus coining the words -radar assisted collisions". It is necessary that all cadets practice skill of plotting targets even if a ARPA is provided on board.
In a
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to explain how the radar is used for navigation and for collision avoidance, describe how to avoid the misuse of the equipment, and interpret the radar information to achieve precise navigation.
4.2 DISPLAY MODES

There are two modes of displays: (a) The relative motion display and
(b) The true motion display. In the relative motion display the origin of the display and own vessel is assumed stationary and the movement of all the targets is shown with respect to the observing vessel (which is at the origin). The origin is located at the centre of the circular screen. The origin can be shifted from the centre to obtain increased rang the, It is then called
Figure 4.1
53
In Figure 4.1, we see two ships echoes 'A' and 'B' and a stationary echo 'C'. We assume own vessel is steering 000' (T) at 12 Kt. Then in 15 minutes own vessel will move 3 miles north through the water. Therefore, the stationary echo will move down by 3 miles exactly, in the opposite, i.e. in a southerly direction. If there is current, it will have the same effect on all moving targets. Now consider ships A and B. In 15 minutes, they will move on the radar screen to A' and B' which is relative approach of the ship A and B and not the true course or speed of the ships. Hence. we use the process of stationery objects as in the case of 'C' for "navigation purpose" and the process of relative approach of ships A or ship B for "collision avoidance". As is evident by producing the line joining AA' and BB' we come to know how close these ships will pass to own ship. i.e. closest point of Approach (CPA) and time of closest point of Approach (TCPA). In relative motion, there are three modes of presentation of the display. (a) (b) (c) Ship's Head up (Unstabilised) North up (stabilised) Course up (stabilised)
In ship's head-up (Unstabilised) display, the observer views the picture with the heading marker or the ship's head at the -top' of the screen as shown in the diagram below.
Figure 4.2: Ship's Head Up Unstabilised Display
Before alteration of course, vessel was steering 210'T and after alteration of course the vessel is steering 240 T. The main advantage of this type of display is that it resembles the scene as viewed through the wheelhouse windows. Thus, if you look on the radar screen or look forward through the wheelhouse window, objects on starboard side of the ship will be on the right and those on the port side will be on the port side. Thus, when on a course of 210', if there was a target P on the starboard side, after alteration of the course the target would appear at P on the screen and on the port side of the heading marker. The disadvantage of un-stabilised display is that if there is a change in the direction of the observing vessel's heading, the entire picture (besides the heading marker) will rotate by an equal amount but in the opposite direction. The land echoes get smeared across the screen during this period and obscure the small fixed targets or floating objects for some time till the vessel is steady on the new course. The bearings taken on the fixed scale are relative bearings. In North-up stabilised display, the heading marker is aligned with the fixed scale 000" which indicates the true north (i.e. the outer azimuth 000" is aligned with fixed scale 000') outer azimuth ring is stabilised to maintain the true north display. When the observing vessel alters course or yaws the compass stabilisation signal is used to produce simultaneously a rotation of picture in the same direction as the change of heading. As a result, there is no rotation of picture on the screen. Only heading marker rotates to the new heading. The true north remains coincident with 000" on the fixed scale.The azimuthstabilising signal is invariably from a gyrocompass. 54
The north-up stabilised display overcomes the disadvantages of head-up by removing the angular smearing of picture associated with any change in heading. It also allows reading off true bearings directly and quickly from the fixed hearing scale. This feature is of importance in navigation as well as for collision avoidance. As there is no angular disruption of the tracks of targets and as their echoes move on the screen, the systematic observation of targets for collision avoidance is greatly facilitated in the stabilized north-up display.
Navigation by ARPA
045
X.,
Figure 4.3: North up Stabilised Display
In Figure 4.3, before the alteration vessel was steering 000')(T), and after alteration vessel was steering 045 (T). Hence the echo which was moving along from X to X' before alteration, move along X' V after alteration. In north-up stabilised display the picture as seen on the radar screen compares directly with chart hence is greatly used for coastal navigation position fixing. Them main disadvantage of this type of display is that while approaching a port if the observer views the radar screen and looks outside the wheel house window, he finds it difficult to compare the radar picture with the visual view, particularly while on a southerly course. Because visually he sees the land ahead whereas on the radar BPI the heading marker is on 180' which is Eastern and the land echoes also seen to be astern (this is awkward). In a course-up (stabilised) display the heading marker is aligned to 000 on the fixed scale at an instant at which vessel is right on the course. Due to azimuth stabilisation, changes in the vessels course doesn't change the heading marker and maintains the ship's course aligned to the zero of the fixed bearing scale. The angular wander of echoes associated is also eliminated. This type of display combines the feature of both previous displays (Head up-un-stabilised and North-up stabilised). eliminates It eliminates the angular wander of the picture due to yaw while maintaining the heading marker in the ship's head up position. In some radar sets, a large alternation of course may require the observer to realign the heading marker to the zero of the fixed scale by pressing a button and following the process of realignment. In the course-up (stabilised display), the bearings are true bearings, if read-off on the outer azimuth ring and relative bearing, if read-off on the inner fixed bearing scale. For navigation and collision avoidance, course-up (stabilised) display is preferred. Only in specialised pilotage areas, ship's head-up display mode is used. In True motion display, the echo movement of all targets is shown independent of the motion of the observing vessel. This is achieved by causing the origin of the picture to track across the screen in a direction and at the rate of motion of the observing Then the question arises that whether we should measure the observing vessel's course and speed with respect to the sea or with respect to land, i.e. course and speed made
Z~
55
Navigational-System and Equipment
good. As we are measuring our .courseandtistance Rude go6d*e,should, be, in the, 6 p*Warison mode. m
(4,
)Fl ?i ei
A,ni,
1 , 4
C : Centre of PPI E: Present position of origin EH : Heading Marker CA = CB = about 75% of radius of P A : Limiting point of this run B: Jump back point of this run EF : Electronic bearing line Circles around E are range rings
z
Figure 4.4
2
The principle of true motion is better illustrated with the -help of the following figure,
1
3! 11
1
1 E e. I 19fY",,
0b .1., k
$~ , -1 1. Thi7if"I
rl')
V
`09
Figure 4.5'
If the course and speed is measured with respect to observing v speed through the I S., ia fl -e ss 6n ' ~W vesse c !, , water, the ttUld'sffi6tion display N' e- d d 61, ta s 4~f`)5-li A W ''ase'the H" is obtained A 14 If the course and speed is mead with respect to what the own ship is making good over the ground taking into account the effect of current then the true motion display is_ called ground - stabilised. In which case, along with observingvesse courses a n d speed n g" c e p s d n a r u ) W '"
I
the direction of current and a stabilised W Hence, in a true motion sea-stabilised display the move in the _A r -Of tie' direction of the current.
6 ate
gets stationary ,tarwill ~1 T Df," lo~ n
Whereas in a true motion ground stabilised display the stationary targets will be stationary as the effect of current is already taken into account by, fiovf,~, I - I ~,'b A l 1 feeding the data al on
4
i, , r " b ) '6 B w I n J o l i v S x
43 -COLLISION AVOIDANCE
In order. to. use radar information, for collision avoidance,we have to monitor. movement of the echoes, i.e. the rate of change of its range & bearing Radar :is capable of displaying the immediate and bearing ofan echo. To interpretimmediate range for t e his t o ry of h bor: Aw i l l have to do the plotting the history
A 1 (j,
3 f : b
56
movement manually on paper, or by the reflection plotter or by using the plotting aids provided (ARPA). To come to any conclusion two levels of information is required. (a) (b) When the risk of collision is indicated by the relative track we have to determine the action to be taken, and Determine the true motion of the target to decide the choice of action to be taken.
Navigation by ARPA
All of this information may be displayed on the radar and the relative motion is tracked by simply recording the positions of the echo at equal time intervals. Using the basic plotting triangle or OAW triangle allows us to obtain additional information and to analyse the movement of the echo. In the diagram you see, the relative motion of the target has been tracked by several plots taken at equal intervals of time (say at 12-min interval).
C : Position of own ship OA : Target's apparent motion WO : Own ship's course and speed WA : Target's true course and speed OA' Predicted apparent path of the target if neither vessel alters course or speed. CA' Closest point of approach (CPA) OA'/ OA: Time to CPA (TCPA) -'BAC : Aspect or angle between target ships heading and the bearing of own ship from target ship CD : Distance the target will pass ahead of own ship OW : The target if stationary will move along this line.
Figure 4.6
First bearing at 0800 hrs 015 (T) x 101. Second bearing 0812 hrs 007 (T) x 8' and Third bearing at 0824 hrs 358 x 6'. To draw the OA W triangle plot the three bearings and distances. First bearing and distance is "O' and the second bearing and distance is 'A'. Join OA and extends to A', Draw own ship's course in reverse direction from and cut out own ship's speed for 12 min which is W. Join WO and WA. Then: C is the position of own ship, OA is apparent path of target, and OW is own ships course and speed reversed. True motion information is found during the plotting interval. When the relative track is plotted, the vector resolved shows the course of the target relative to own course and the proportional speed. Exact speed can be found by simple calculations. If the closest point of approach (CPA) is zero, the target is on collision course. From the OAW triangle, you can find the time at which collision will occur by calculating on the targets apparent motion track.
57
In case, risk of collision exists either the target vessel or owns ship has to take avoiding action as per Rules (Collision Regulations).
4.4 RADAR PLOTTING PROBLEMS WITH ACTION TO TAKE

Plotting of Manoeuvres These examples assume no delay between the time of the last plot and the completion of any planned manoeuvre. In practice there will be a time delay in taking bearing, plotting, etc. which should be accounted for by projecting the last plotted position (A) by the time interval required. Exercise 4.1 To find the new CPA by alteration of course by a pre-determined amount The course to be altered is an estimated one and should be a large alteration to make it effective.
Figure 4.7
(a) (b) (c)
Make Basic radar plot (OAW triangle). Determine the amount you are going to alter your course. WO represents the course you are presently steering. Let us assume you are going to alter 30' to starboard. Draw a line from W to represent the new course (30' to Stbd).
I
(d) (e) (f) (g) (h) Exercise 4.2
With a divider/compasses measure WO and draw an arc cutting the new line at 01 (since there is no change in own vessel's speed). This is your new course line (W01). From 01 draw a line through A and well past the centre. Make a new CPA (CNI). By dropping a perpendicular from the centre onto the 01A line. Measure new CPA (CN1) and the time taken to reach this point.
To determine the course to be altered to pass at the required CPA Here the CPA may be determined as standard practice or may be dependent on the ships in the vicinity. Here again the CPA should be with a good margin to allow for eventualities. (a) 58 Make the basic plot (OAW triangle).
(b) With C as centre, draw an arc with the CPA you desire (all distances to be measured off the same distance scale).
Navigatign by ARPA
Required CPA Required Alteration
Figure 4.8
Ensure you are complying with Collision Regulations when deciding any manoeuvre. (c) (d) (e) (f) Exercise 4.3 To determine the effect of the alteration of speed by a pre-determined amount Such alteration shall be consistent with the concept of safe speed and the circumstances of the case. Draw a tangent from the arc through point A, and extend it well beyond the WO line. From W cut off the distance WO onto this tangent. Name the point of intersection as 01. Join W and 01. The angle OWO1, is the amount of course alteration required to achieve the CPA required.
Figure 4.9
(a) Make the basic plot (OAW triangle).

iQ
(b) (c) (d) (e) Exercise 4.4
From W measure the distance for the same time interval (new speed/time interval). Name this point as 01. From O1 extend line through A. Drop a perpendicular from C to this new line at N1. The new CPA is now indicated by the distance CN1.
To determine the alteration of speed that would need to be made to make a required CPA. As alteration of speed takes some time, it is advantageous to assume that the speed would be effective, say, after 2-3 minutes depending on the ships characteristics. The solved problem assumes immediate alteration for brevity but obviously it is not practical.
Figure 4.10
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Make basic plot (OAW triangle). Draw an arc with the CPA you desire. (All distances to be measured off the same distance scale.) Draw a tangent from the arc through point A, and extend it well beyond the WO line. Mark the point of intersection of this line with the WO line as 01 Measure WO, this is the speed required to make the desired CPA.
Projected Position As stated earlier, all the previous examples assume no delay in the alterations that may be made. However, practically there will be some time will be taken to note down the range and bearings of the target and then to make the radar plot, and subsequently in planning and executing the manoeuvre. During this time, both the target and own vessel have travelled along their respective courses and this must be allowed for in the plot.. In other words: Plan the manoeuvre in a fixed time amount say to be carried out after 6 minutes. Calculate the distance travelled by the target ship in this time interval (6 minutes) and plot this point P along the original OA line extended. 60
Calculate own ship's distance travelled in the same time interval (6 minutes) and plot this point W, along the original OW line extended.
Navigation by ARPA
Figure 4.11
Now consider the 4 examples given above. Alteration of Course by a Pre-determined Amount Steps 1 to 5 No change ln step 6 Draw a line from 01 through P well past the centre In step 7 Make a new CPA by dropping a perpendicular from the centre onto the OIP line. Alteration of Course to Make a Required CPA Steps 1 and 2 No change. In step 3 Draw a tangent from the arc through point P, and extend it well beyond the W10 line. In step 4 From W1 cut off the distance W1O on to this tangent. Name the point of intersection as 01. In step 5 Join W1 and 01. In step 6 The angle OW101 is the amount of course alteration required to achieve the CPA required.
Alteration of
p
Speed by a Pre-determined Amount
i,: , I to 5 No change.In step 6 From W1 measure the distance for the same time interval (new speed/time interval). In step 7 Name this point as O1. In step 8 -- From 01 extend line through P. In step 9 Drop a perpendicular from C to this new line at N. The new CPA is now indicated by the distance CN. Alteration of Speed to Make a Required CPA Steps 1 to 5 No change. In step 6 -- Draw a tangent from the arc through point P, and extend it well beyond the W1O line. In step 7 - Mark the point of intersection of this line with the W1O line as 0,
61
In step 8 -- Measure W 101 this is the speed required to make the desired CPA. Draw a tangent from the arc you just drew, and extend it well beyond the W101 line. Examples Relative Plotting Action Taken by Target Example 4.1 Own course 340 (T) at 12 knots.
Table 4.1 Ship's Time 0500 0503 0506 Bearing (T) 285 285 1/20 286
Range (M)
7.0 6.15 5.3
Report the target at 0506. If subsequent observations were as follows, state what action, if any, has been taken by the target and thence the new CPA range and time:
Table 4.2
Ship's Time 0509 0512 0515 0518
Bearing (T) 285 1/20 280 1/2 272 253
Range (M) 4.4 3.5 2.5 1.6
Solution Report at 0506 : Crossing vessel bearing 286 (T) drawing forward, range 5.3 M decreasing, CPA range 0.4 M at 0525, target's course and speed 058 (T) 15 knots, aspect green 48. Targets new course 088 (T), i.e. altered 30.' to starboard soon after 0506. New CPA range 1.15 M at 0521. Example 4.2 Own course 090 (T) at 8 knots.
Table 4.3 Ship's Time 0930 0933 0936 Bearing (T) 015 015 015 Range (M) 8.0 7.25 6.50
Report the target at 0936. If subsequent observations were as follows, state what action, if any, has been taken by target and also the new CPA range and time.
Table 4.4 Ship's Time 0939 0942 0945 0948 0951 Bearing (T) 014 1/ 2 013 011 1/20 009 0061/20 Range (M) 5.8 5.4 4.9 4.4 3.85
Solution Report at 0936: Crossing vessel bearing 015 (T) constant, range 6.5 M decreasing, collision at 1002, target's course and speed 164 (T) 15 knots, aspect 62
green 31. Target's new speed 10 knots, i.e. reduced speed by 5 knots soon after 0936. New CPA range 1.4 M at 1011.
Example 4.3
Navigation by ARPA
Whilst steering 130 (T) at 15 knots, the following observations of a target were made on the radar screen:
Table 4.5 Ship's Time 0200 0206 0212 0218 0224 0230 Bearing (T) 100 099 097 093 1/ 2 ' 088 065 Range (M) 14.0 11.0 8.0 5.6 3.5 1.6
State what action, if any, has been taken by the target and the CPA range and time.
Solution
0200 to 0212: Target's course 262 (T) speed 18 knots. 0218 onwards: Target's course 244 (T) speed 10 knots. Sometimes between 0212 and 0218, target has altered course 18 to port and reduced speed by 8 knots. CPA range 1.0 M remains unaffected but time of CPA changes from 0228 to 0234.
Example 4.4
Whilst on a course of 103 (T) at 10 knots, the following observations, of a target, were made on the radar screen:
Table 4.6
Ship's Time 1630 1636 1642
Bearing (T) 228 '/2 0 228 227 '/2 0
Range (M) 7.0 5.75
5.0
Solution
Report at 1642: Overtaking vessel bearing 227 1/2' (T) drawing forward, range 5 M decreasing, nearest approach 0.4 M at 1722, target's course and speed 081 (T) 16 knots, aspect red 33.5. New CPA range 1.5 M at 1711.
Example 4.5
Whilst steering 182 (T) at 16 knots, the following observations, of a target, were made on the PPI:
Table 4.7 Ship's Time 2040 2046 2052 Bearing (T) 348 349 350 Range (M) 14.0 11.3 8.6 63
Report the target at 2052.
If at 2055, the target altered course to starboard by 35, find the range and time at the new CPA. Solution Report at 2052 : Crossing vessel bearing 172 (T) drawing forward., range 8.6 M decreasing, nearest approach 0.8 M at 2111, target's course and speed 327 (T) 12.5 knots, aspect green 25. New CPA range 1.1 M at 2110. Example 4.6 Whilst steering 129 (T) at 6 knots, the following observations of a target were made on the radar screen:
Table 4.8 Ship's Time 0200 0212 Bearing (T) 050 Range (M) 6.0 4.2
050
Report the target at 0212. If at 0220, the target reduced speed to 6 knots, find the new CPA range and time. Solution Report at 0212 : Crossing vessel bearing 050 (T) constant, ran e 4.2 M decreasing, collision at 0240, target's course and speed 193' (T) 10 knots, aspect green 37.
g
Example 4.7 Own course 005 (T) at 12 knots.

Table 4.9
Ship's Time
Bearing (T) 285 285

1
Range (M) 7.0
0100
0106
/2
5.5
Report the target at 0106. If at 0116 the target reduced speed to 10 knots, find the new range and time at CPA. Solution Report at 0106 : Crossing vessel bearing 290'/2 (T) drawing forward, range 5.5 M decreasing, CPA range 0.25 M at 0128, target's course and speed 065' (T) 17 knots, aspect green 45 1/2'. New CPA 1.1 M at 0131. Example 4.8 Own course 018 (T) at 10 knots.
Table 4.10
Ship's Time
Bearing (T)
Range (M) 6.5
1100
1112
143 '/2
142 V2
5.0
Find (a) CPA range and time. 64
(b) Course and speed of target. If at 1122, the target altered course to port by 20, find (c) the new CPA range and time. If at 1137, the target resumed her original course and speed, find (d) the new CPA range and time. In each case, (a) (c) and (d), state on which side, of own vessel, the target would pass. Solution (a) (b) (c) (d) Example 4.9 Own course 060 (T) at 6 knots.
Table 4.11 Ship's Time Bearing (T) Range (M)
Navigation by ARPA
CPA 0.4 M at 1152 (on starboard bow). Course 356 (T) at 15.75 knots. CPA 1.5 M at 1141 (on port quarter). CPA 0.95 M at 1148 (on port quarter).
0340 0352
3410 3410
6.0 4.2
Find (a) (b) CPA range and time. Course and speed of target.
If at 0400 the target reduced speed to 6 knots, find (c) the new CPA range and time. If at 0416 the target resumed its original speed, find (d) the new CPA range and time. Solution (a) (b) (c) (d) Collision at 0420. Course 124 (T) speed 10 knots. CPA 1.0 M at 0427. CPA 0.6 M at 0425.
Example 4.10 Whilst steering 080 (T) at 40 knots the following observations were made on the radar screen:
Table 4.12
Ship's Time
Bearing (T)
Range (M)
0610 0622
010 013
14.0 11.0
Find (a) (b) CPA range and time. Course and speed of target. 65
If at 0625, the target reduced speed to 12 knots, find (c) the new CPA range and time.
If at 0640, the target altered course to starboard by 30, find (d) the new CPA range and time. Solution (a) (b) (c) (d) SAQ 1 From your radar, take bearing and distance of a target at 3 minutes interval. Do the radar plotting and write target's data on the plotting sheet. Also plot the alteration of course speed and its effect on the plot. Do five such plotting as tasks. CPA 2.6 M at 0703, Course 143'(T) speed 17 knots. Collision at 0717. CPA 2.3 M at 0705.
4.5 RADAR FOR POSITION FIXING

Navigators use the capability of the radar of reflecting echoes off land and other ships or buoys etc. Position fixing becomes possible as radar gives bearing and range of the object detected. However, there is a problem that even if you detect a land object recognising it is not easy unless it is isolated like an island or prominent point of land. Interpretation, therefore, comes from experience. Navigators learn to observe the land objects on the Radar in good visibility so that the picture becomes clearer. When interpreting some good practices should be followed. They are: Having taking radar bearing of a land object measure the range of the A, closest land line provided it has sufficient height and, therefore, likely to be a good target. Buoys are good targets if they are not too far and clutter is under control. However, remember that the position of the buoys is dependent on the weather conditions and buoys are likely to drift from their position. In today's navigation,GPS provides a good check and if it is used the interpretation of the radar picture becomes easier. It is recommended that navigators should practice fixing position by radar even if GPS is available. RACON is an aid, which indicates the range, and bearing of the racon beacon and allows-good position fixing provided the racon is identified correctly.
4.6 AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS

A
Objectives
0
Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) is an important collision avoidance and navigation aid for automatic plotting of targets. Remember, ARPA is basic radar with ability to track targets and provide vectored information. Understandingg the concept of relative and true motion is also essential in interpreting what you see on Radar as well as ARPA. Before becoming totally relavant on the ARPA we recommend you practice plotting the targets on radar plotting sheets. This is very important, as only
66
when you have carried out a lot of plotting the picture on the screen shall give you some meaning. Using the radar plotting sheet plot at least ten targets that you observe on the Radar. The best way to do this is to note the bearing and range in a notebook and plot the readings as you are keeping a watch. You can verify the results as you go along. With a little practice you shall be able to work out the CPA in almost no time.
Navigation by ARPA
Introduction ARPA provides a number of facilities such as: Detection, Acquisition, Tracking, Display, Operational warnings, Data process and selection, and Trial manoeuvres as simulators.
The only way to get familiarised with the facilities is to study the equipment manual and learn with hands-on experience. You should request a senior officer to acquaint you with the controls for the first few learning lessons. Some ARPAs have a learning module also. Use it. To make use of the facilities provided on ARPA,'it is essential first of all, to ensure that the RADAR system supplying the raw data to ARPA tracker is correctly set up. Basically ARPA is radar with a facility, which automatically plots the target, takes into account own ship's course and speed and calculates the target's course and speed. You should pay attention to: The pulse length (PL) selection, Tuning of the Radar set, and The controls affecting receiver gain (e.g. rain clutter, sea clutter controls).
Failure to correctly set the Pulse length, tuning and gain and anti-clutter controls on the Radar system will reduce the ability of the system to detect the targets and therefore, the tracking ability of the ARPA. In some ARPAs, the automatic signal-processing unit feeds the signals to the ARPA tracker continuously. When first using an ARPA, with which you are not familiar, you should establish the gain controls that affect the input to the tracker. This can be done by acquiring a target and then adjusting each of the relevant controls, turn by turn, to achieves the maximum efficiency and to reduce the loss of tracking, if any. When the signals are being automatically processed independent of the controls., the adjustment of the controls shall have no deteriorating effect and the ARPA shall continue to track the target even after adjustment of the above controls on the Radar system. Once the radar system is correctly set, ARPA computer is switched on. After switching on the computer, it may be necessary to wait for a short time (normally not more than a minute) for the computer to carry out a self-checking program.
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When the computer becomes active, ARPA automatically switches off all the facilities except the basic facilities. This is to ensure that the user is not confused about the status of different controls provided the facilities are then provided by ARPA when requested by the user. Analogue controls, however, remain as set by the last user. Care must be exercised to identify them and change them if necessary, when using these. You should check that correct heading and speed information is being fed to the computer, if not, necessary adjustment should be made. ARPA brilliance control should be adjusted to get the correct level of brilliance of vectors and other graphics used for displaying the ARPA, it is best to leave the brilliance at mid-level and to adjust the setting when tracking has commenced. The vector time control is the time interval, which the computer uses for plotting purposes. In critical situations the interval could be small but should be set to preferably in the range of 6-12 minutes during initial setting of ARPA. Vector mode should be selected while switching on ARPA. Some system automatically select relative vector mode, while others select true vector mode depending on the radar picture presentation you should consult the operating manual and find out what options are available. You should feed in suitable safe limits in terms of CPA and TCPA for collision avoidance. Safe limits are the least distance and the time at which you would like to be warned of an impending danger. You should spend some time in getting familiarised with the joystick (or tracker ball), the acquire button and the cancel button. You can practice on this. You can use live targets or the synthetic targets provided in the training programme supplied with most ARPAs. Once the ARPA is in operation and there are targets on the screen, the computer will commence storing positions, obtaining updated co-ordinates each time the aerial sweeps across the target (i.e. every 3-5 second). During the first minute of tracking, the target will normally display only a symbol to indicate that it is being tracked. The vector (or other graphical indication of target moment) will be suppressed until sufficient observations have been obtained to produce the indication of the targets motion trend. Some ARPAs are designed to display vectors within a few seconds of acquisition. That should not be seen as a sign of instant accuracy. Accuracy demands a number of successive observations and at least one minute of tracking of each target should be allowed to obtain correct vector readings. After one minute the tracker will be able to acquire about 12-20 observations and produce data to the lower of the two accuracy levels set out in performance standards. In some ARPAs, a graphical symbol on the target indicates that the data is based on observations of more than I minute but less than 3 minutes of observation. When the tracking period is 3 min, the processor will smooth out some 36-60 observations and reach higher accuracy level. Thereafter as each new plot is added, the oldest plot is discarded. Most of the ARPA systems have two smoothing periods, a short period of about one-minute and a long period of about 3-min. If the target response is not detected in the location forecasted by the rate aiding, the target is assumed to have manoeuvred. The processor then opens out the tracking gate and if the target is detected, tracking will continue.
68
If the departure from the 3 min track is not significant, the processor will conclude that the departure was due to weather and will continue to smooth the track over a period of 3 min. If the departure is significant, the processor will conclude the situation as a target manoeuvre and will reduce the smoothing period to I min. The smoothing is done either on relative tracks of a target or on the true tracks of a target. The instantaneous input course and speed are called relative vector when tracker smoothens and stores the relative track of a target to produce directly the relative motion data and thence calculates the true motion data. However, when the tracker smoothens and stores the true track of target to produce directly the smoothed true motion data and then reconstitutes the relative motion data the instantaneous course and speed input it is called true vector. Self Assessment Pxacticals (a) Using the radar plotting sheet plot, at least ten targets that you observe on the Radar. The best way to do this is to note the bearing and range in a notebook and plot the readings as you are keeping a watch. You can verify the results as you go along. With a little practice, you shall be able to work out the CPA in almost no time. Enclose the radar-plotting sheet to the journal. Explain the process of putting on the ARPA on board your ship and the checks that you would make to ensure its correct working. What alarms are provided on the equipment on the ship and how do you test them? What CPA and TCPA do you consider safe and under what conditions? Switch on the radar and carry out the following tasks : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Set in North-up stabilised display and fix the position. Set in true motion Sea-stabilised mode and track. Set in true motion ground stabilised mode. Plot targets on PPI and construct OAW triangle while approaching an anchorage.
Navigation by ARPA
(b) (c) (d) (e)
Find out the set and drift while approaching a port using True motion. Find course and speed of target vessel from the OAW triangle. Find CPA, TCPA and Aspect. Find the time target vessel will pass ahead or astern.
4.7 SUMMARY
This Unit provides details on the advanced use of radar and ARPA techniques on collision avoidance and the important aspects of its limitation. You must get used to the use of ARPA. They must remember that every navaid is Just an aid and it should not be relied on totally. The examples sighted on Radar assisted collisions have actually taken place may continue to happen, if sufficient attention is not paid to the limitation of the Radar. As suggested in the previous module the best radar and ARPA can be by practicing plotting manually and then checking the same so that its use can be relied on within its limitation. 69
UNIT 5 ELECTRONIC AIDS

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Application of the Convention 5.3 Organisations and Systems Related to Safety of Navigation
5.3.1 Meteorological Organisation 5 .3 .2 Ice P atro l Services 5.3.3 Search and Rescue Services 5 .3 .4 Li fe Sa vin g Sign als 5 .3.5 Hyd ro graph ic Services 5.3.6 Ships' Routing 5.3.7 Ship Reporting System 5.3.8 Vessel Traffic Services 5.3.9 Establishment and Operation of Aids to Navigation 5.3.10 Manning of Ships 5.3.11 Principles Relating to Bridge Design 5.3.12 Maintenance of Equipment
5.4 Requirement of Navigation Equipment and Systems on Board 5.5 Summar y 5.6 Answers to SAQs
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Unit 5 of the SLOLAS Convention deals with application of the connection, carriage of navigational equipment and other statutory requirements to make navigation safer.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to describe the requirement of navigational equipment and systems on board ship's, and identify meteorological organizations and systems related to the safety of navigation.
5.2 APPLICATION OF THE CONVENTION

The provisions relating to navigational equipment are to be complied by all ships of more than 500 gross tons engaged on International voyages unless specifically excluded. Most IMO conventions define an existing ship and for this chapter Ships constructed before 1 July 2002 are considered existing ships and all ships built after that, are new ships. The administration, however, may apply the requirements in their waters or may exempt ships not propelled by machinery or when plying in protected waters.
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5.3 ORGANISATIONS AND SYSTEMS RELATED TO SAFETY OF NAVIGATION

5.3.1. Meteorological Organisation
Met organisations wherever established shall (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) warn ships of gales and storms etc. issue twice daily weather bulletins, provide publications and daily weather charts, provide to ships tested marine met instruments, encourage ships to transmit weather reports, and such reports shall be free of charge require ships to transmit weather reports frequently when in the vicinity of severe weather or such severe conditions.
5.3.2 Ice Patrol Services

The Ice Patrol contributes to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation and protection of the marine environment in the North Atlantic. The contracting governments provide this service and in particular, the US government has agreed to administer the patrol. The regulation states the process through which collaboration would be given.
5.3.3 Search and Rescue Services

Administration to undertake provisions of SAR services including establishing, operation and maintenance of such services. Passenger ships to have on board a plan for cooperation and SAR Services.
5.3.4 Life Saving Signals

Requires contracting governments to use life saving signals agreed by IMO, implement the provisions of IAMSAR and encourage the use of radar transponders for SAR operations and the SAR homing capability.
5.3.5 Hydrographic Services

Administrations are to collect, compile, disseminate and keep up-to-date hydrographic data and publications. In particular, they should (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) carry out hydrographic surveys, prepare nautical charts and publications, issue notices to mariners, achieve uniformity in such preparation of charts and publications, and coordinate the activities to ensure that such information is available on worldrwide scale in a timely and reliable manner.
In this connection, the nautical chart or nautical publication is a special-purpose map or book, or a specially compiled database from which such a map or book is derived, that is issued officially by or on the authority of Government such as, authorized Hydrographic Office or other relevant government institution and is designed to meet the requirements of marine navigation.
5.3.6 Ships' Routeing

Ships' routeing systems contribute to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation, and/or protection of the marine environment. The regulation and IMO recommendations specify the process for the government to establish such routeing measures and require that the measures should be brought into effect only after the process has been followed. 72
5.3.7 Ship Reporting System

Ship reporting systems contribute to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation, and protection of the marine environment. Ships are encouraged to report to such systems and the IMO approves the system meeting the requirements of the specified criteria.
Electronic Aids
5.3.8 Vessel Traffic Services

Vessel traffic services (VTS) contribute to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation and protection of the marine environment, adjacent shore areas, work sites and offshore installations from possible adverse effects of maritime traffic. Regulation requires that such VTS shall comply with the laid down standards and be operated by trained personnel. VTS is mandatory only in territorial waters.
5.3.9 Establishment and Operation of Aids to Navigation

Governments shall provide such aids as deemed practical. It requires that they shall be uniform in nature and follow the recommendations of IALA.
5.3.10 Manning of Ships

Governments shall ensure that, (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) From the point of view of safety of life at sea, all ships shall be sufficiently and efficiently manned. Be provided with a safe manning document. Establish a working language and record the same in the ships log book. Provide instructions in such working language or its translation if the official language is different than the working language. Use English only for the bridge to bridge and bridge to shore safety communications.
5.3.11 Principles Relating to Bridge Design

Design and arrangement of navigational systems and equipment and bridge procedures shall be considered with the aim of allowing : (a) (b) (c) (d) (f) Bridge team and the pilot in making full appraisal of the situation,
g Effective and safe bridge resource manaA,ement,
Bridge team and the pilot to have convenient and continuous access to essential information, Indicating the operational status of automated functions and integrated components, systems or sub-systems, Allowing for expeditious, continuous and effective information processing and decision-making by the bridge team and the pilot, and decision-making Minimizing the risk of human error.
(g)
5.3.12 Maintenance of Equipment

Administration shall ensure that equipment specified in this chapter is maintained in accordance to IMO recommendations. Navigational systems and equipment required to meet the requirements of this chapter shall be of a type approved by the Administration and shall meet the performance standards.
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5.4 REQUIREMENT OF NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS ON BOARD

All ships shall carry (a) (b) (c) (d) properly adjusted magnetic compass or other means to display ship's heading at the main steering, pelorus or compass bearing device to take bearings over an arc of the horizon of 360, means of correcting heading and bearings to true at all times, nautical charts and nautical publications, Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) may be accepted as meeting the chart carriage requirements of this subparagraph; Back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of nautical charts if this function is partly or fully fulfilled by electronic means, a receiver for a global navigation satellite system or a terrestrial radio navigation system, or other means for updating position automatically, if less than 150 gross tonnage and if practicable, a radar reflector, or other means, to enable detection by ships navigating by radar at both 9 and 3 GHz, when the ship's bridge is totally enclosed, a sound reception system, or other means, to enable the officer in charge of the navigational watch to hear sound signals and determine their direction, a telephone, or other means, to communicate heading information to the emergency steering position. on ships > 150grt and all passenger ships a spare magnetic compass interchangeable with magnetic compass, a signal lamp or other means to communicate by light during day and night using electrical power not solely dependent upon the ship's power Supply, (k) ships > 300 grt and all passenger ships an echo sounding device, or other electronic means, to measure and display the available depth of water,
(e) (f) (g)
(h) (i)
(1) a 9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range and bearing of radar transponders and of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision avoidances, (m) (n) (o) (p) an electronic plotting aid, or other means, to plot electronically the range and bearing of targets to determine collision risk, speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance through the water,
Z:7
a properly adjusted transinitting heading device, or other means to transmit heading information for input to the equipment radar, plotting aid and AIS. ships > 300 GT on international voyages, ships > 500 grt non-international
voyages and all passenger ships shall be fitted with Automatic Identification System (AIS), AIS shall provide appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft information, automatically to include the ship's identity,type, position, course, speed, navigational status and other safetyrelated information, (r) ships > 500 grt shall be fitted with a gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their heading by shipborne non-magnetic means and to transmit heading information for input to other equipment. A gyro compass heading repeater, or other means, to supply heading information
74
visually at the emergency steering position if provided. However ships less than 1,600 gross tonnage shall be fitted with such means as far as possible, (r) rudder, propeller, thrust, pitch and operational mode indicators, or other means to determine and display rudder angle, propeller revolutions, the force and direction of thrust and, if applicable, the force and direction of lateral thrust and the pitch and operational mode, all to be readable from the conning position, an automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of other targets to determine collision risk, [Note : Redundancy : On all ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, failure of one piece of equipment should not reduce the ship's ability to meet the requirements of other essential equipment. (t) RADAR a 3 GHz radar or where considered appropriate by the Administration a second 9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range and bearing of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision avoidance, which are functionally independent of those referred to in Section 2.3.2, a second automatic tracking aid or other means to plot automatically the range and bearing of other targets to determine collision risk which are functionally independent, all ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of a radar, shall carry an automatic radar plotting aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of at least 20 other targets, connected to a device to indicate speed and distance through the water, to determine collision risks and simulate a trial manoeuvre; and a heading or track control system, or other means, to automatically control and keep to a heading and/or straight track, all ships of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall carry a rate of turn indicator, or other means, to determine and display the rate of turn; and speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance over the ground in the forward and athwartships direction. [Note : When "other means" are permitted under this regulation, Such means must be approved by Administration. The navigational equipment and systems referred to in this regulation shall be:] (x) so installed, tested and maintained as to minimize malfunntion.
Electronic Aids
(s)
(u)
(v)
(w)
when offering alternative modes of operation shall indicate the actual mode of use. integrated bridge systems,
The following aspects are dealt with when determining and designing the arrangement of an integrated bridge : (a) Fields of Vision (b) Control of Vessel
The relevant workstations are to be designed and positioned so that navigational and traffic surveillance/manoeuvring, docking and other tasks may be performed by the officer of the watch in cooperation with other persons manning individual workstations. Workstations used for navigating and traffic surveillance/manoeuvring, manual steering, voyage planning and communication are not to cover a working area with an axis longer than 15 m (49 ft 3 in.). Further, where workstations are widely separated, talkback facilities are to be provided so that unhampered communications between workstations can be achieved under all operating conditions. 75
Conning Position
An
adequate canning position is to be provided immediately adjacent to the forward Centre window ndow and is to be so arranged to enable the navigator(s) to watch the area immediately in front of the bridge superstructure and observe all relevant information required to maintain the safe course and speed of the vessel in narrow waters, harbour areas and during final passages without interfering with the tasks of the bridge personnel. The rudder, propeller, thrust, pitch and operational mode indicators, or other means to determine and display rudder angle, propeller revolutions, direction of thrust and, if applicable, the force and direction of lateral thrust and the pitch and operational mode, are all to be readable from the conning position(s). However, if the view in the centre-line is obstructed by large masts, cranes, etc., two additional conning positions giving a clear view ahead are to be provided, one on the port side and one on the starboard side of the centre-line, no more than 5 m (16 ft 5 in.) apart from each other.
Navigation and Traffic Surveillance/Manoeuvring Workstation The navigation and traffic surveillance/manoeuvring workstation is to be arranged to enable the officer of the watch to carry out the required tasks and to provide him with all necessary information so that he can carry out his functions from a seated or standing working position but without being restricted to a specific location. In addition, this workstation is to be designed, arranged and located within an area having sufficient space for not less than two operators, but which would allow the workstation to be operated efficiently by one. Route Planning Workstation (Chart Table) The route planning workstation is to enable the navigator to plan the intended voyage without interfering with the actual navigation or manoeuvring of the vessel. Monitoring Workstation From the monitoring workstation, it is to be possible to see and hear the persons at the navigation and traffic survelilance/manoeuvring workstation and steering workstations. Manual Steering Workstation The workstation for manual steering is preferably to be located on the vessel's centre-line. If the workstation for manual steering is located off the centreline, special steering references are to be provided, e.g. sighting marks forward. If the view ahead is obstructed by large masts, cranes, etc., the steering workstation is to be located a distance to starboard of the centre-line, sufficient to obtain a clear view ahead. Docking Workstations The workstations for docking of the vessel are to enable the navigator, together with a pilot, to observe all relevant external and internal operations which will affect the safe docking of the vessel. Talkback facilities are to be provided between the docking workstations and the wheelhouse when the distance from the wing extremity to the wheelhouse centre-line is greater than 10 m (32 ft 10 in.). Routes and Working Clearances Across Wheelhouse A clear route across the wheelhouse from bridge wing to bridge wing is to be provided and its width is to be at least 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in.). From Lower Decks There are to be no obstructions between the points of entry to the bridge wings and wheelhouse from lower decks and the clear route across the wheel house. 76
Between Workstations The distance be adjacent workstations is to be sufficient to allow passage. To this end, the free passageway is to be at least 0.7 m (2 ft 4 in.) in width. The workstation operating area is to be part of the workstation and not of the passageway. Front Passages The distance from the front bulkhead or from any workstation and installations placed against the front bulkhead, to any workstation or installations placed away from the bridge front is to be sufficient for two persons to pass each other. This distance is preferably to be I m (3 ft 3 in.) but in no case less than 0.8 m (2 ft 7 in.). Clear Height The clear ceiling height in the wheelhouse is to be designed with regard to the installation of overhead panels and instruments. To this end, the clear height between the bridge deck surface covering and the underside of the deck head beams is to be at least 2.25 m (7 ft 5 in.). The lower edge of deck head mounted equipment is to be at least 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in.) above the deck in open areas, passageways and at standing workstations. Workstations General Instruments providing visual information to more than one person on duty are to be located for easy viewing by all users concurrently, or if this is not possible, the instruments are to be duplicated. Instruments displaying information to more than one workstation may be located above the front windows if dimensions allow; such instruments are: vessel's heading, wind, water depth, speed, rate of turn, rudder angle, propeller revolutions (r/min), propeller pitch and time. Instruments and Controls General : Instruments and controls are to be grouped according to their main functions: these are: navigating and traffic surveillance/manoeuvring, and communication. Line of Sight : Each instrument and control is to be placed with its face ator's line of sight, or to the mean value if the normal to the navigzn navigator's line of sight varies through an angle. Glare : To avoid glare, all instruments and controls are to be positioned relative to the operator considering the surrounding light sources. Transparent Covers : Transparent covers fitted over instrument(s) are to minimize reflections. Symbols/Labels : The purpose of each control is to be clearly illustrated by symbols where standard symbols have been internationally adopted, or indicated by a label in English. (Y) Voyage Data Recorders (VDR) These assists in casualty investigations, ships. The voyage data recorder (VDR) system, including all sensors, shall be subjected to an annual performance test. The test shall be conducted by an approved testing or servicing facility to verify the accuracy, duration and recoverability of the recorded data. In addition, tests and inspections shall be conducted to determine the serviceability of all protective enclosures and devices fitted to aid location. A copy of a certificate of compliance issued by the testing facility stating the date of compliance and the applicable performance standards, shall be retained on board the ship.
Electronic Aids
77
(z)
International Code of Signals All ships shall Carry the International Code of Signals as may be amended
by the Organization.
Navigation Bridge Visibility
Ships of not less than 45 m in length shall meet the following requirements: (a) The view of the sea surface from the conning position shall not be obscured by more than two ship lengths, or 500 m, whichever is the less, forward of the bow to 10 on either side under all conditions of draft. trim and deck cargo; No blind sector caused by cargo, cargo gear or other obstructions outside of the wheelhouse forward of the beam which obstructs the view of the sea surface as seen from the conning position, shall exceed 10. The total arc of blind sectors shall not exceed 20. The clear sectors between blind sectors shall be at least 5. However, in the view described in para (a), each individual blind sector shall not exceed 5'. The horizontal field of vision from the conning position shall extend over an arc of not less than 225', that is from right ahead to not less than 22.5', abaft the beam on either side of the ship; From each bridge wing the horizontal field of vision shall extend over an arc at least 225, that is from at least 45" on the opposite bow through right ahead and then from right ahead to right astern through 180' on the same side of the ship; From the main steering position the horizontal field of vision ,Iml I extend over an arc from right ahead to at least 60 on each side of the ,hips The ship's side shall be visible from the bridge wing; The height of the lower edge of the navigation bridge front windows above the bridge deck shall be kept as low as possible. In no case shall the lower edge present an obstruction to the forward view as described in this regulation; The upper edge of the navigation bridge front windows shall allow a forward view of the horizon, for a person with a height of eye of 1,800 mm above the bridge deck at the conning position, when the ship is pitching in heavy seas. The Administration, if satisfied that a 1,800 mm height 'of eye is unreasonable and impractical, may allow reduction of the height of eye but not less than 1,600 mm; Windows shall meet the following requirements: To help avoid reflections, the bridge front windows shall be inclined from the vertical plane top out, at an angle of not less than 10 and not more than 25. Framing between navigation bridge windows shall be kept to a minimum and not be installed immediately forward of any work station. Polarized and tinted windows shall not be fitted. A clear view through at least two of the navigation bridge front windows and, depending on the bridge configuration, an additional number of clear-view windows shall be provided at all times, regardless of weather conditions.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (f) (g)
(h)
(i)
Ships constructed before I July 1998 ships of unconventional design shall, where practicable, meet the above requirements of paragraphs a and b above. However, structural alterations or additional equipment need not be required. However, they 78
shall be provided to achieve a level of visibility that is as near as practical to those prescribed in this regulation. Pilot Transfer Arrangements Ships engaged on voyages in the course of which pilots are likely to be employed shall be provided with pilot transfer arrangements complying with the following General All arrangements used for pilot transfer shall efficiently fulfil their purpose of enabling pilots to embark and disembark safely. The appliances shall be kept clean, properly maintained and stowed and shall be regularly inspected to ensure that they are safe to use. They shall be used solely for the embarkation and disembarkation of personnel. The rigging of the pilot transfer arrangements and the embarkation of a pilot shall be supervised by a responsible officer having means of communication with the navigation bridge who shall also arrange for the escort of the pilot by a safe route to and from the navigation bridge. Personnel engaged in rigging and operating any mechanical equipment shall be instructed in the safe procedures to be adopted and the equipment shall be tested prior to use. Transfer Arrangements Arrangements shall be provided to enable the pilot to embark and disembark safely on either side of the ship. In all ships where the distance from sea level to the point of access to, or egress from, the ship exceeds 9 in, and when it is intended to embark and disembark pilots by means of the accommodation ladder, or by means of mechanical pilot hoists or other equally safe and convenient means in conjunction with a pilot ladder, the ship shall carry such equipment on each side, unless the equipment is capable of being transferred for use on either side. Safe and convenient access to, and egress from, the ship shall be provided by either a pilot ladder requiring a climb of not less than 1.5 m and not more than 9 m above the surface of the water so positioned and secured that it is clear of any possible discharges from the ship. it is within the parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship half length of the ship.
t)
Electronic Aids
each step rests firmly against the ship's side; where constructional features, such as rubbing bands, would prevent the implementation of this provision, special arrangements shall, to the satisfaction of the Administration, be made to ensure that persons are able to embark and disembark safely. the single length of pilot ladder is capable of reaching the water from the point of access to, or egress from, the ship and due allowance is made for all conditions of loading and trim of the ship, and for an adverse list of 15; the securing strong point, shackles and securing ropes shall be at least as strong as the side ropes; Or An accommodation ladder in conjunction with the pilot ladder, or other equally safe and convenient means, whenever the distance from the surface of the water to the point of access to the ship is more than 9 m. The accommodation ladder shall be sited leading aft. When in use, the lower end of the accommodation ladder shall rest firmly against the ship's side within the parallel body length of the ship and,
79
as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship half length and clear of all discharges. Or A mechanical pilot hoist so located that it is within the parallel body length of the ship and, as far as is practicable, within the mid-ship half length of the ship and clear of all discharges. Access to the Ships Deck Means shall be provided to ensure safe, convenient and unobstructed passage for any person embarking on, or disembarking from, the ship disembarking between the head of the pilot ladder, or of any accommodation ladder or other appliance, and the ship's deck. Where such passage is by means of: A gateway in the rails or bulwark, adequate handholds shall be provided. Bulwark ladder, two handhold stanchions rigidly secures to the ship's structure at or near their bases and at higher points shall be fitted. The bulwark ladder shall be securely attached to the ship to prevent overturning. Shipside doors used for pilot transfer shall not open
outwards. Mechanical Pilot Hoists (a) The mechanical pilot hoist and its ancillary equipment shall be of a type approved by the Administration. The pilot hoist shall be designed to operate as a moving ladder to lift and lower one person on the side of the ship. or as a platform to lift and lower one or more persons on the side of the ship. It shall be of such design and construction as to ensure that the pilot can be embarked and disembarked in a safe manner. including a safe access from the hoist to the deck and vice versa. Such access shall be gained di ctly by a platform securely guarded by handrails. (b) Efficient hand gear shall be provided to lower or recover the person or persons carried, and kept ready for use in the event of power failure. (c) The hoist shall be securely attached to the structure of the ship. Attachment shall not be solely by means of the ship's side rails. Proper and strong attachment points shall be provided for hoists of the portable type on each side of the ship. (d) If belting is fitted in the way of the hoist position, such belting shall be cut back sufficiently to allow the hoist to operate against the ship's side. (e) A pilot ladder shall be rigged adjacent to the hoist and available for immediate use so that access to it is available from the hoist at any point of its travel. The pilot ladder shall be capable of reaching the sea level from its own point of access to the ship. (f) The position on the ship's side where the hoist will be lowered shall be indicated. (g) An adequate protected stowage position shall be provided for the portable hoist. In very cold weather, to avoid the danger of ice formation. the portable hoist shall not be rigged until its use is imminent. Associated Equipment The following associated equipment shall be kept at hand ready for immediate use when persons are being transferred. 80
Two man-ropes of not less than 28 mm in diameter properly secured to the ship if required by the pilot; A lifebuoy equipped with a self-igniting light; A heaving line; Where required stanchions and bulwark ladders shall be provided; Adequate lighting shall be provided to illuminate the transfer arrangements overside, the position on deck where a person embarks or disembarks and the controls of the mechanical pilot hoist.
Electronic Aids
Track and Control Systems Use of heading and/or track control systems In areas of high traffic density, in conditions of restricted visibility and in all other hazardous navigational situations where heading and/or track control systems are in use, it shall be possible to establish manual control of the ship's steering immediately. In circumstances as above, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall have available immediately the service of a qualified helmsperson who shall be ready at all times to take over steering control. (a) (b) The change-over from automatic to manual steering and vice-versa shall be made by or under the supervision of a responsible officer. The manual steering shall be tested after prolonged use of heading and/or track control systems, and before entering areas where navigation demands special caution.
Operation of Main Source of Electrical Power and Steering Gear In areas where navigation demands special caution, ships shall have more than one steering gear power unit in operation when such units are capable of simultaneous operation. Steering Gear: Testing and Drills Within 12 hours before departure, the ship's steering gear shall be checked and tested by the ship's crew. The test procedure shall include, where applicable, the operation of the following (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) the main steering gear; the auxiliary steering gear; the remote steering gear control systems; the steering positions located on the navigation bridge; the emergency power supply; the rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the rudder; the remote steering gear control system power failure alarms the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and Automatic isolating arrangements and other automatic equipment.
The Checks and Tests shall include (a) (b) The full movement of the rudder according to the required capabilities of the steering gear. A visual inspection for the steering gear and its connecting linkage.
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(c) The operation of the means of communication between the Navigation Bridge and steering gear compartment. (d) Simple operating instruction with a block diagram showing the change-over procedures for remote steering gear control systems and steering gear power units shall be permanently displayed on the navigation bridge and in the steering compartment. All ships' officers concerned with the operation or maintenance of steering gear shall be familiar with the operation of the steering systems fitted on the ship and with the procedures for changing from one system to another. In addition to the routine checks and test prescribed in paragraphs and 2, emergency steering drills shall take place at least once every three months in order to practise emergency steering procedures. These drills shall include direct control within the steering gear compartment, the communications procedure with the navigation bridge and,where applicable the operation of alternative power supplies. The Administration may waive the requirements to carry out the checks and tests prescribed in paragraphs I and 2 for ships which regularly engage on voyages of short duration. Such ships shall carry out these checks and tests at least once every week.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h) The date upon which the checks and tests prescribed in paragraphs I and 2 are carried out and the date and details of emergency steering I drills carried out under paragraph 4, shall be recorded. Records of Navigational Activities Guidelines for the Recording of Events Related to Navigation All ships engaged on international voyages to keep on board a record of navigational activities and incidents which are of importance to safety of navigation and which must contain sufficient detail to restore a complete record of the voyage, taking into account the following guidelines. Recording of Information Related to Navigation In addition to national requirements, it is recommended that the following events and items, as appropriate, be among those recorded: Before Commencing the Voyage Details of all data relating to the general condition of the ship should be acknowledged and recorded, such as manning and provisioning, cargo aboard, draught, result of stability/stress checks when conducted, inspections of controls, the steering gear and navigational and radiocommunication equipment. During the Voyage Details related to the voyage should be recorded, such as courses steered and distances sailed, position fixings, weather and sea conditions, changes to the voyage plan, details of pilots' embarkation/disembarkation. entry into areas covered by, and compliance with, routeing schemes or reporting systems. On Special Events
Details on special events should he recorded, such as death and injuries among crew and passengers. malfunctions of shipboard equipment and aids to navigation, potentially hazardous situations, emergencies and distress messages received.
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When the Ship is at Anchor or in a Port Details on operational or administrative matters and details related to the safety and security of the ship should be recorded. Methods of Recording SOLAS regulation V/28 requires that, if the records of navigational activities are not maintained in the ship's log-book, they should be maintained in another form approved by the Administration. Methods of recording should be permanent and may be handwritten, electronical or mechanical. Non-duplication In general, information on the events and items, which are adequately recorded in a special-purpose log, need not be duplicated in the ship's log book. Preservation of Records In order to be able to restore a complete record of the voyage, records should be maintained as follows: (a) each page of the ship's log-book should have a page number printed on it and handwritten records, which need correction, should not be erased or removed but should be rewritten after crossing out the incorrect version; the times used in automatic and permanent recording facilities should be synchronized by using a common clock; electronically or mechanically input records should be protected by means to prevent them from being deleted, destroyed or overwritten; and irrespective of the method of recording, ships should keep records for as long as the Administration concerned requires, provided the fixed period is not less than one year.
Electronic Aids
(b) (c)
(d)
Guidance Notes Navigational Records The following notes give guidance on recording navigational activities based on the requirements of investigation authorities in following up an incident: (a) Paper Navigation Charts : Providing sufficient information relating to a ship's position, course and speed has been recorded elsewhere to enable an accurate reconstruction of her passage, there is no requirement to retain such information annotated on paper charts. Following a navigational accident or incident however, the paper charts in use must be retained, and the information shown must not be altered or erased. ECDIS : The record of the previous 12 hours and of the voyage track to be preserved following a navigational accident or incident. ECS/AIS/ARPA : Voyage recording information to be preserved for as long as the system in use allows; it should not be manually deleted. Following a navigational accident or incident, every effort should be made to preserve and copy the recorded voyage data. Bridge Deck Log : To contain sufficient navigational information to reconstruct a voyage including : the recording of position at regular intervals alterations of course and speed 83
(b) (c)
(d)
(e)
weather and sea conditions precautions taken in restricted visibility or heavy seas significant navigational events to be retained either onboard or ashore for at least 7 years
Engine Movement Record Book (Bell Book) : To be retained for the duration of the voyage and preserved following a navigational accident or incident. Automatic Engine/Propeller Pitch/Bow Thruster Movement Record : To be retained for the duration of the voyage and preserved following a navigational accident or incident. Automatic Course Record : To be retained for the duration of the voyage and preserved following a navigational accident or incident. 9 Navtex Messages : To be retained for the duration of the voyage and preserved following a navigational accident or incident. Passage Plan : To be preserved following a navigational accident or incident, Echo Sounder Trace : To be preserved following a navigational accident or incident.
(f)
(g) (h) (i)
(k) GMDSS Log Book : Retained onboard until completed then dispatched to MCA Southampton Marine Office. (1) (m) (n) Chart Correction Log : To be preserved following a navigational accident or incident. Pre-sailing Check Lists , To be retained for duration of the passage. VDR : Data in accordance with Navigational Systems and Equipment, Block I Unit 1. 1 L.
Life-saving Signals to be used by Ships, Aircraft or Persons in Distress An illustrated table describing the life-saving signals shall be readily available to the officer of the watch of every ship to which this chapter applies. The signals shall be used by ships or persons in distress when communicating with life-saving stations, maritime rescue units and aircraft engaged in search and rescue operations. Operational Limitations A list of all limitations on the operation of a passenger ship including exemptions from any of these regulations, restrictions in operating areas, weather restrictions, sea state restrictions, restrictions in permissible loads, trim, speed and any other limitations, whether imposed by the Administration or established during the design or the building stages, shall be compiled before the passenger ship is put in service. The list, together with any necessary explanations, shall be documented in a form acceptable to the Administration, which shall be kept on board readily available to the master. The list shall be kept updated. If the language used is not English or French, the list shall be provided in one of the two languages. Danger Messages The master of every ship which meets with dangerous ice, a dangerous derelict, or any other direct danger to navigation, or a tropical storm, pr encounters subfreezing air temperatures associated with gale force winds causing severe ice accretion on superstructures, or winds of force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale for which no storm warning has been received, is bound to communicate the information by all means at his disposal to ships in the vicinity, and also to the
84
competent authorities. The form in which the information is sent is not obligatory. It may be transmitted either in plain language (preferably English) or by means of the International Code of Signals. Each Contracting Government will take all steps necessary to ensure that when intelligence of any of the dangers specified above is received, it will be promptly brought to the knowledge of those concerned and communicated to other interested Governments.
Electronic Aids
The transmission of messages respecting the dangers specified is free of cost to the ships concerned. All radio messages issued in this connection shall be preceded by the safety signal, using the procedure as prescribed by the Radio Regulations as defined in regulation IV/2. Information Required in Danger messages Ice, derelicts and other direct dangers to navigation The kind of ice, derelict or danger observed. The position of the ice, derelict or danger when last observed. The time and date (Universal Co-ordinated Time) when danger last observed. Tropical Cyclones (Storms) (a) A statement that a tropical cyclone has been encountered. This obligation should be interpreted in a broad spirit, and information transmitted whenever the master has good reason to believe that a tropical cyclone is developing or exists in the neighbourhood. Time, date (Universal Co-ordinated Time) and position of ship when the observation was taken. As much of the following information as is practicable should be included in the message. Barometric pressure. (The standard international unit for barometric pressure is the hecto Pascal (hpa) which is numerically equivalent to the millibar (mbar)). Preferabl y corrected (stating millibars, millimetres, or inches, and whether corrected or uncorrected). Barometric tendency (the cham-,c in barometric pressure during the past three hours); (f) true wind direction; wind force (Beaufort scale); state of the sea (smooth, moderate, rough, high);
(b) (c) (d)
(e)
Swell (slight, moderate, heavy) and the true direction fr6m, which it comes. Period or length of swell (short, average, long) would also be of value. True course and speed of ship.
Subsequent Observations When a master has reported a tropical cyclone or other dangerous storm, it is desirable but not obligatory, that further observations be made and transmitted hourly, if practicable, but in any case at intervals of not more than 3 hours, so long as the ship remains under the influence of the storm. (a) Winds of force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale for which no storm warning has been received. This is intended to deal with storms other than the tropical cyclones referred to in paragraph 2; when such a storm is encountered, the message
85
should contain similar information to that listed under the paragraph but excluding the details concerning sea and swell. (b) Sub-freezing air temperatures associated with gale force winds causing severe ice accretion on superstructures : (a) Time and date (Universal Co-ordinated Time). Air temperature. Sea temperature (if practicable). Wind force and direction.
Distress Messages: Obligations and procedures The master of a ship at sea which is in a position to be able to provide assistance on receiving a signal from any source that persons are in distress at sea, is bound to proceed with all speed to their assistance, if possible informing them or the search and rescue service that the ship is doing so. If the ship receiving the distress alert is unable or, in the special circumstances of the case, considers it unreasonable or unnecessary to proceed to their assistance, the master must enter in the log-book the reason for failing to proceed to the assistance of the persons in distress and taking into account the recommendation of the organization to inform the appropriate search and rescue service accordingly. The master of a ship in distress or the search and rescue service concerned, after consultation, so far as may be possible, with the masters of ships which answer the distress alert, has the right to requisition one or more of those ships as the master of the ship in distress or the search and rescue service considers best able to render assistance, and it shall be the duty of the master or masters of the ship or ships requisitioned to comply with the requisition by continuing to proceed with all speed to the assistance of persons in distress. Masters of ships shall be released from the obligation imposed by paragraph 1 on learning that their ships have not been requisitioned and that one or more other ships have been requisitioned and are complying with the requisition. This decision shall, if possible be communicated to the other requisitioned ships and to the search and rescue service. The master of a ship shall be released from the obligation imposed by paragraph (a) and, if his ship has been requisitioned, from the obligation imposed by paragraph (b) on being informed by the persons in distress or by the search and rescue service or by the master of another ship which has reached such persons that assistance is no longer necessary. The provisions of this regulation do not prejudice the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law Relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea, signed at Brussels on 23 September 1910, particularly the obligation to render assistance imposed by article 11 of that Convention. Prior to proceeding to sea, the master shall ensure that the intended voyage has been planned using the appropriate nautical charts and nautical publications for the area concerned, taking into account the guidelines and recommendations developed by the Organization. The voyage plan shall identify a route which takes into account any relevant ships' routeing systems; ensures sufficient sea room for the safe passage of the ship throughout the voyage;
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Safe Navigation and Avoidance of Dangerous Situations (a)
(b)
86
anticipates all known navigational hazards and adverse weather conditions; and Takes into account the marine environmental protection measures that apply, and avoids as far as possible actions and activities which could cause damage to the environment. (c) The owner, charterer, or manager of a ship or any other person, shall not prevent or restrict the master of the ship from taking or executing any decision which, in the master's professional judgement, is necessary for safe navigation and protection of the marine environment. Misuse of Distress Signals The use of an international distress signal, except for the purpose of indicating that a person or persons are in distress, and the -use of any signal which may be confused with an international distress signal, are prohibited. Assignments (a) Prepare a tabular format and identify the work done by each of the organisations mentioned above which helps safety of navigation.
Electronic Aids
(b) Similarly identify the equipment that your ship need to carry under SOLAS and its function. SAQ 1 (a) (b) (c) What is meant by redundancy and how can it be satisfied? What is meant by integrated bridge systems? Check the navigation bridge visibility on your ship in light condition and in loaded condition and find out by graphical plotting the minimum distance at which a ship right ahead can be seen over the bow. What are the obligations of the master upon receiving the distress message? Enumerate the requirements for the steering gear testing and drill? The deck is rendered slippery because of the dust from the previous cargo explain how the pilot can be provided a safe passage to the ladder.
(d) (e) (f)
5.5 SUMMARY
This Unit explains the requirements of the Chapter V of SOLAS convention which was recently updated. The Unit explains the regulation application which provide various facilities for safety of navigation and it also explains the statutory requirements relating to the equipment the regulations require. Each of the equipment must be kept in readiness at all times. Some of the equipment have been explained in detail in previous Units and some shall be explained in the later Units. You should note the procedures required prior to sailing with respect to steering gear and emergency power requirements.
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5.6 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ I
(a) Redundancy means that on all ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, failure of one piece of equipment should not reduce the ship's ability to meet the requirements of other essential equipment. (b) Integrated bridge systems as explained integrates the navigational equipment in a central position and makes it easier for the bridge team to observe the progress of the ship without running from workstation to station bringing about better control. Calculate the trim and using geometry ascertain the clear visibility over the bow in loaded condition and in light condition. The master of a ship at sea which is in a position to be able to provide assistance on receiving a signal from any source that persons are in distress at sea, is bound to proceed with all, speed to their assistance, if possible informing them or the search and rescue service that the ship is doing so. If the ship receiving the distress alert is unable or, in the special circumstances of the case, considers it unreasonable or unnecessary to proceed to their assistance, the master must enter in the log-book the reason for failing to proceed to the assistance of the persons in distress and taking into account the recommendation of the organization to inform the appropriate search and rescue service accordingly. Within 12 hours before departure, the ship's steering gear shall be checked and tested by the ship's crew. The test procedure shall include, where applicable. the operation of the following (i) (ii) (iii) the main steering gear; the auxiliary steering gear; the remote steering gear control systems; gea the steering positions located on the navigation bridge; (v) (vi) the emergency power supply; the rudder angle indicators in relation to the actual position of the rudder;
(c) (d)
(e)
(vii) the remote steering gear control system power failure alarms; (viii) the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and (ix) (f) automatic isolating arrangements and other automatic equipment.
Safety of the pilot when he is disembarking is the responsibility of the ship. The dust cannot be washed overboard as it shall infringe the MA ROPL Convention. It is, therefore, advisable to sweep the dust on the deck and mop the same but to ensure that the deck is not slippery. Provide lifeline if necessary so that the pilot can hold onto it for safety. Ensure the deck is lighted adequately and he is escorted to the ladder. If he is carrying heavy bag, let somebody on the ship carry and deliver it to the boat after he disembarks. Accidents of this nature have occurred and have cost millions to the shipping company.
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IMU Navigational System and Equipment

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BNA - 041 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT

NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT

UNIT I AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

1.2 Description of AIS 1.3 Carriage Rule Requirement 1A Components

1,6 Contents of Data Sent by VTS 1.7 Integrity Checks

1,9 Operation of AIS on Board 1.9 Inherent Limitations of AIS

1,10 Additional and Future Applications 1.11 Voyage Data Recorders

1.11.10 Simplified Voyage Data Recorders

1,12 Summary 1.13 Answers to SAQs

Navigational System and Equipment

1.2 DESCRIPTION OF AIS

Automatic Identification System

Figure .11 , AIS System Overview

1.3 CARRIAGE RULE REQUIREMENT

Navigational System and Equipment

rut soon:::: 00100"Was

Automatic Identification System

1.5 AIS INFORMATION - SHIP'S DATA CONTENT

Figure 1.3 : Information Shown by AIS

Automatic Identification System

1.6 CONTENTS OF DATA SENT BY VTS

1.7 INTEGRITY CHECKS

Navigational System and Equipment

1.8 OPERATION OF AIS ON BOARD

Automatic Identification System

Display of AIS Data

Navigational System and Equipment

Automatic Identification System

Figure 1.4 : AIS and ARPA Targets on Typical Radar -Display

1.9 INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF AIS

Navigational System and Equipment

1.10 ADDITIONAL AND FUTURE APPLICATIONS

1.11 VOYAGE DATA RECORDERS

Automatic Identification System

Navigational System and Equipment

Navigational System and Equipment

Automatic Identification System

ones with 3 line feeds!

Typical VDR Schematic diagram

1.11.5 Operational Requirements

Navigational System and Equipment

1.11.6 Data Selection and Security

1.11.7 Performance Tests

1.11.8 Process of Dealing with Data

1.11.9 Data Items to be Recorded

Navigational System and Equipment

Automatic Identification System

1.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Navigational System and Equipment

UNIT 2 SPEED MEASUREMENT AT SHIP

2.2 History of Speed Measuring Instruments on Ships

2 .3 S u mma r y 2.4 Answers to SAQ's

Navigational System and Equipment

2.2 HISTORY OF SPEED MEASURING INSTRUMENTS ON SHIPS

2.2.1 The Dutchmen's Log

2.2.2 The Common Log or Ship's Log

2.2.3 The Taffrail Log

Speed Measurement at Ship

2.2.6 The Patent Log

Navigational System and Equipment

2.2.8 The Electromagnetic Log