Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Chapter 3

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Project appraisal
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Environment

DESIGN ELEMENTS

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Traffic Subgrade

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Problem Soils Pavement Materials

Pavement DesignNew Roads Pavement Rehabilitation Bituminous Surfacings Gravel Roads

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design Refinement of design, if required

Ministry of Works

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Comments:

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

3.1 Standard Cross Section

The cross section design for a road is normally determined by current geometric standards applied to the project, including technical considerations such as problem soils in the subgrade. Standard cross sections are given by the Ministry of Works for the various road types and are not included in this manual.

Required alterations to standard cross sections for design on problem soils are described in /Chapter 6 - Problem Soils/. /Appendix A4/ outlines various cross section features that give technical benefits to the performance of the pavement.

3.2 Shoulders
3.2.0
Bitumen surfaced shoulders will normally be part of standard cross sections. Gravel surfaced shoulders are in general not recommended for reasons that include: - high demands for maintenance to perform adequately - increased risks of water ingress into the pavement layers - disadvantages to traffic safety, often made worse by a typical development of an edge drop from the surface to the gravel shoulder

Shoulders are particularly important when granular materials are used in the base course, requiring lateral support for the layer. Important functions of paved shoulders are: n provision of lateral support for pavement layers n minimising risks of moisture ingress into load bearing parts of the pavement n reducing changes in moisture contents in pavement layers n improved traffic safety by allowing occasional traffic outside the carriageway Use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent carriageway is the preferred method. The additional costs of using more expensive materials in the shoulders may be offset by simplified construction methods provided the shoulder widths are not excessive.

General

3.2.1

Bearing capacity of the shoulders must be ensured by appropriate selection of materials and layer thickness where shoulders are designed with a different pavement than the carriageway. Site conditions will determine the required strength of the pavement depending on the likelihood of heavy traffic using the shoulder, such as built-up areas or adjacent to climbing lanes. Use of the same pavement structure for the shoulders as for the adjacent carriageway eliminates problems in achieving sufficient bearing capacity of the shoulders.

Bearing capacity of the shoulders

3.2.2 Surface treatments for shoulders

General A durable and water proof type of bituminous surfacing shall be used on paved shoulders. Priming alone is inadequate for treatment of shoulders and shall not be used without being followed by a bituminous seal. Type of surfacing Type of seals with a closed texture shall be the preferred type of surfacing for the shoulder in order to prevent disintegration following loss of aggregate by drying out of the surfacing. Economical types of surfacing that provide a favourable texture and good durability are:

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Ministry of Works

Chapter 3
Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Comments:

n single surface dressing with a sand cover seal n single Otta Seal with a sand cover seal Where a considerable amount of traffic is expected to use the shoulders, e.g. in towns and built up areas consideration shall be given to applying the same type of surfacing on the shoulders as on the adjacent carriageway. Colour and texture of the surface Surface treatments for shoulders should wherever economically possible be designed to give the shoulders a different texture or colour than the adjacent carriageway.

Single surface dressing is not a preferred option as it tends to dry out quickly. /Chapter 10 - Bituminous Surfacings/.

3.2.3 Preventing cracks to develop in the shoulders

Longitudinal cracks Longitudinal cracks in shoulders are normally associated with: n shrinkage in earthworks or pavement layers, often in conjunction with road widening, due to differential changes in moisture contents over the cross section after construction n settlement in earthworks, particularly in conjunction with road widening n expansive soils in the roadbed Favourable cross section details that minimise the movement of moisture over the cross section, thus the risk of cracks developing in the shoulders, are described in /Appendix A4/. Good earthworks techniques for road widening, in accordance with Standard Specifications for Highway Construction minimise the risk of cracks caused by settlement in conjunction with road widening. Design and construction measures to minimise the risk of cracks developing in the shoulders due to expansive soils are set out in /Chapter 6 Problem Soils/. Transversal cracks Transversal crack that develop in shoulders are commonly associated with thermal movements in bituminous layers, but can also be caused by shrinkage in cemented pavement layers or self-cementing properties of natural gravel. There are no particular measures to be taken against this form of cracking than to ensure that normal periodic maintenance by resealing is duly carried out.

Traffic safety benefits can be achieved by selecting aggregates of a different colour for surface treatments of the shoulders than the carriageway, alternatively aggregate with a different size, or a different type of surfacing altogether.

Additional maintenance effort on manual sealing of cracks before the first scheduled reseal is often sufficient to arrest cracks reoccurring once they have emerged. However, expansive soils that produce very active cracks normally require repeated crack repairs if design and construction countermeasures have been insufficient to fully prevent damage.

3.2.4

Shoulder materials shall meet the requirements for gravel wearing course in the event that the shoulders will not receive a bituminous seal for any reason. This cross section requires particular attention to the internal drainage of the pavement layers as suitable gravel for the shoulders is likely to be nearly impermeable thus preventing drainage from the base course /Chapter 11 Gravel Roads/.

Unpaved shoulders

Ministry of Works

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Comments: 75 mm

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Where the base course in the carriageway is made of permeable materials, e.g. crushed stone, the following alternative measures are required:
Pervious material Base course Subbase

Water

Alt.1: Place a 75 mm thick drainage layer of pervious material immediately below the layer of shoulder gravel, see illustration. Alt.2: Install a special drainage facility.

3.3 Drainage
3.3.1
The costs and construction problems involved in ensuring proper internal drainage of the pavement under these circumstances may justify the technically preferred method of extending the base course through the shoulder and applying a bituminous seal.

Drainage of the road surface is ensured by providing sufficient crossfall of the carriageway and shoulder in accordance with the standard cross sections.

Drainage of the road surface

3.3.2

Proper drainage of granular pavement layers is essential for their performance and is ensured by appropriate attention to cross section details. Granular base course Where a granular base course and paved shoulders are used, the base course and subbase layers shall be extended to the full width of the shoulders. Cemented or bituminous base course Where economically possible the base course should be extended to the full width of the shoulders. Boxed-in pavements Boxed-in pavement structures, where water may be trapped in the pavement, shall not be used. Appropriate measures to ensure proper drainage of the pavement layers shall be included in the design where internal drainage of the layers may be impaired for any reason. The following circumstances carry particular risks of attaining a boxed-in structure: n where shoulders are designed with different materials than the carriageway using unfavourable combinations of materials n where kerbstones are extended into granular layers of the pavement n where un-paved shoulders made of near impermeable materials are used

Drainage of the pavement layers

Water

Granular base course Subbase

3.3.3

Drainage of the subgrade

General Provision of sufficiently deep open side drains or alternatively, special drainage facilities such as subsurface drains will ensure proper drainage of the subgrade. Special consideration to design and construction details is required where the occurrence of rock may trap water in the subgrade or pavement structure.
Sufficient depth of open side drains is essential for the proper drainage of the subgrade.

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Ministry of Works

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Comments:

Open side drains - general Open side drains shall at no point be less than 0.5 metres deep, measured from the bottom of the drain up to the formation level. Open side drains in cuttings The general requirement for the depth of open side drains in cuttings is minimum 1.0 metres measured from the bottom of the drain up to the Formation level. This depth can be reduced to 0.5 metres provided cement or lime modification of the subgrade is employed. In such cases the minimum depth of cement or lime modification is 200 mm. The given requirements refer to cuttings in soils. For cuttings in solid rock the required drainage measures depend on site conditions and shall be decided in each individual case. The method for drainage of cuttings shall be specifically described in the detailed design of projects. The need for subsurface drains as an alternative to open side drains in cuttings shall be assessed. Subsurface drains The need for subsurface drains depends on site conditions and requires careful consideration due to the high construction cost of these facilities. Urban areas, occurrence of subsoil wells and cuttings are among typical conditions where use of subsurface drains shall be considered.

General requirement min 0,5 m

Pavement Formation level

Cuttings - general requirement min 1,0 m

Pavement Formation level

Cuttings - lime modified subgrade min 0,5 m

Pavement Formation level

Proper drainage in cuttings is often critical for the performance of the pavement. The traffic safety hazards of deep open side drains may in urban areas prompt the use of subsurface drains in combination with a subsurface storm water system.

Lined drains are often used where the amount and speed of water is high.

Ministry of Works

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Comments:

Cross Section, Shoulders and Drainage

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

References
3-1 3-2 AUSTROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 15 (1994): Subsurface drainage for roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TRH 4 (1997): Structural design of flexible pavements for interurban and rural roads. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. ROAD DESIGN MANUAL (1987). Part III, Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. Ministry of Transport and Comm., Roads Department. Republic of Kenya. SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION COMMISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of Practice for the Design of Road Pavements.CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthorne, for ODA, London, UK.

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Ministry of Works