Evolution of Modems Late 1970s, the advent of the PCs: modem use to dial into a remote mainframe computer

r files could be transferred and one PC could connect to another via modems The 1980s, the rise of BBS people would dial in to download free software, participate in discussions on various topics, play on-line games, etc By mid 1990s, the advance of Internet modems became fast, cheap and widely used Modulator & Demodulator is a device that converts the digital signals from input/output devices into appropriate frequencies at a transmission terminal and converts them back into digital signals at a receiving terminal. This device enables computers to communicate through phone lines. Modulates analog carrier signal to encode digital information, Demodulates a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information Types : Dial-Up modem, Cable Modem , Broad Band Modem CHANNELS A channel is through which an information is send from a sender station to a receiver station TYPES : Wired : Cable/ Telephone Line Wireless : air as medium, Wi-Fi, Wi-Max,Wlan. WIRED TECHNOLOGIES Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 100 million bits per second. Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire.

WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

In telecommunication, wireless communication is the transfer of information without the use of wires Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires Some of the wireless equipments in use today include Amateur Radio Cellular telephones and pagers Global Positioning System Cordless computer peripherals Cordless telephone Satellite television Wireless gaming

WI-FI (wireless fidelity) IEEE set of standards for wireless LANs is the 802.11 family, also called as WI - FI There three standards in this family: 802.11a,802.11b and 802.11g. 802.11n is an emerging standard. 802.11a - 54 Mbps 5 GHz 10 to 30 mts. 802.11b - 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz 30 to 50 mts 802.11g - 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 50 to 80 mts 802.11n - this transmits more than 200 Mbps 802.11b was the first wireless standard to be widely adopted wireless LANs and internet access An WI-FI can operate in two different modes infrastructure and ad hoc mode. Infrastructure mode : wireless devices communicate with a wired LAN using access points Ad hoc or peer to peer mode : wireless devices communicate with each other directly and do not use an access points Access point is a box consisting of radio receiver/transmitter and antennas that links op a wired network router or hub Mobile wireless stations often needs an add in card called wireless network interface card (NIC) that has a built in radio and antenna. It is like a credit card size that snaps into the pcs memory card slot or an external adopter that plug into the pcs USB port. Newer laptop pcs come equipped with chips that can receive WI- FI signals.

ADVANTAGES: Internet access any where easily. WI - FI allows the deployment of (LANs) without wires for client devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. As of 2010 manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops Photos can be sent from camera to pc directly through hotspots over internet DISADVANTAGES: Users cant freely roam from hotspots to hotspots if they use different WI FI network service The service is not free, they has to login separate account for each service with its own fees It is weak in security features which makes wireless network vulnerable or intruders it is susceptibility to interferences from nearby system operating same spectrum Ex- Wireless phones, Microwave ovens or other wireless LANS WI MAX World wide intro per ability for micro wave access IEEE steel 802.16 as Air interface for fixed broad band wireless access system FEATURES Wireless access range up to 31 miles and transfer data 75 mbps. The 802.16 specification has robust security and quality of service features to support voice and video. (MAN) technology metropolitan area net work. It reaches up to 110kml speed of 100mbps 13-16km Investment more than $ 3 billion 2-11 GHz radio frequency

ADVANTAGES: It can cover wide area of metropolitan areas and provide internet access to hundred of thousands of households It provides high speed connectivity Download speed is high Easy to access BLUETOOTH Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short wavelength radio transmissions) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area network (PANs) with high levels of security it is popular name for the 802.15 wireless networking standard, which is useful for creating small PANs It links up to eight devices with in 10 mts using low power, radio based communication and can transmit up to 722 kbps in the 2.4 GHz band Wireless phones, pager, computers, printers and computing devices using Bluetooth communicate with each other and even operate each other with out direct user intervention It enables a variety of devices including cell phones, PDAs, wireless keyboard and mice, PCs and printer, to interact wirelessly with each other with in a small 30 foot (10 mts) area

Major Categories of Networks

Local Area Networks (LAN) A network of computers that are in the same general physical location, within a building or a campus. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) Wide Area Networks (WAN) LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LAN) A local area network is a small group of interconnected workstations and associated devices that share the resources within a small geographic area. Usually, a local area network may serve as few as several users or many more. A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings.

FEATURES OF LAN Computer Network: A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a group of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications among users and allows users to share resources. Purpose: Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing. Sharing hardware: In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use hardware resources on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer. Sharing files, data, and information: In a network environment, authorized user may access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks ADVANTAGES OF LAN It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string between walls. More lines can be run through the same wiring ducts. UTP costs less per meter/foot than any other type of LAN cable. DISADVANTAGES OF LAN Twisted pairs susceptibility to electromagnetic interference greatly depends on the pair twisting schemes (usually patented by the manufacturers) staying intact during the installation. In video applications that send information across multiple parallel signal wires, twisted pair cabling can introduce signaling delays known as skew which results in subtle color

defects and ghosting due to the image components not aligning correctly when recombined in the display device. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS (MAN) A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a highcapacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet.

WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WAN) A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries) This is in contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. WANs originally implemented circuit switching and packet switching technologies. Recently, frame relay and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks have been implemented to achieve higher operating and processing speeds for the message. WAN are owned by the common carrier in the U.S. and government in most foreign countries. Interconnected devices, I.e. LANs or Personal Computers (PC) or Workstation or Servers can be (usually are) privately owned by companies.

ADVANTAGES OF WAN WAN provide the facility to communicate in long distance for the purposes of sharing information, i.e internet is good. Covers a large geographical area so long distance businesses can connect on the one network. Shares software and resources with connecting workstations . OTHER TYPES OF NETWORK ARE Campus Area Network a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business campus Storage Area Network connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel. System Area Network links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network. Wireless Local Area Network a LAN based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology NETWORK TOPOLOGIES Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical Physical actual layout of the computer cables and other network devices Logical the way in which the network appears to the devices that use it. DIFFERENT NETWORK TOPOLOGIES Bus topology Star topology Ring topology Tree topology Mesh topology Hybrid topology
1. BUS TOPOLOGY: A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of

clients are connected via a shared communications line, called a bus. Advantages Cheap and easy to implement Require less cable Does not use any specialized network equipment Easy to implement and extend Well - suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds (quick setup), resulting in faster networks Cost effective; only a single cable is used Easy identification of cable faults Reduced weight due to fewer wires

Disadvantages Limited cable length and number of stations. If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network breaks down. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run. Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path). Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to stretch to most distant link). Commonly has a slower data transfer rate than other topologies. Only one packet can remain on the bus during one clock pulse
2. STAR TOPOLOGY: Star networks are one of the most common computer network

topologies In its simplest form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages Thus, the hub and leaf nodes, and the transmission lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star

ADVANTAGES Better performance: The hub can handle very high utilization by one device without affecting others. Isolation of devices: Each device is inherently isolated by the link that connects it to the hub. Simplicity: This topology is easy to understand, establish, and navigate Easy to install and wire. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.

DISADVANTAGES: High dependence of the system on the functioning of the central hub Failure of the central hub renders the network inoperable The performance and scalability of the network depends on the capabilities of the hub Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the hub Other nodes may see a performance drop if traffic to another node occupies a significant portion of the central node's processing capability or throughput. wiring up of the system can be very complex and expensive. 3.RING TOPOLOGY: Similar to a bus network, rings have nodes daisy chained, but the end of the network in a ring topology comes back around to the first node, creating a complete circuit Each node takes a turn sending and receiving information through the use of a token. The token along with any data is sent from the first node to the second node which extracts the data addressed to it and adds any data it wishes to send. Then second node passes the token and data to the third node, etc. until it comes back around to the first node again Only the node with the token is allowed to send data All other nodes must wait for the token to come to them

Advantages of Ring Topology Cable faults are easily located, making troubleshooting easier Ring networks are moderately easy to install Disadvantages of Ring Topology Expansion to the network can cause network disruption A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network. 4. Mesh Topology Each computer connects to every other. High level of redundancy. Rarely used. Wiring is very complicated Cabling cost is high Troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky A variation hybrid mesh create point to point connection between specific network devices, often seen in WAN implementation

ADVANTAGES Provides redundant paths between devices The network can be expanded without disruption to current uses DISADVANTAGES Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies Complicated implementation

5.TREE TOPOLOGY Also known as HIERARCHIAL NETWORK Top Level Node Connected to Second Level Node Second Level Node to Third Level Node and so on Point to Point links between all level and nodes Branching Factor- the number of nodes connected to it at the next lower level branching

6.HYBRID TOPOLOGY Combination of Two or more Topologies in such a way that the resulting topology doesnt exhibit any of the standard topologies Eg : Star Ring Network and Star-Bus Network A Star- Star Network can also be treated as hybrid, where as a Tree- Tree Network still remains as Tree Network Topology

 INTERNET: It is a Global network of computers, (servers or clients) to exchange

information. It is a "network of networks" that includes millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks (local or Global), linked by copper wires, wireless connections, and other technologies. Variety of hardware and software are used to make Internet functional. Modem Device that enables computers to communicate through phone lines. When we start internet the our modem communicates to modem of ISP. Computer In addition to a modem, you need a client capable of handling multiple data types. Software Two types of softwares required to enable your PC as an Internet PC. Communication software to establish connection Client software for browsing, e-mail, news. Applications of Internet Download programs and files E-Mail Voice and Video Conferencing E-Commerce File Sharing Information browsing Search the web addresses for access through search engine Chatting Disadvantages of Internet Theft of personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. Virus threats nothing but a program which disrupts the normal functioning of your system. Spamming refers to receiving unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system. Pornography This is perhaps the biggest threat related to childrens healthy mental life. A very serious issue concerning the Internet. Though, internet can also create havoc, destruction and its misuse can be very fatal, the advantages of it outweigh its disadvantages. INTRANET Internal company network that uses Internet standards (HTML, HTTP & TCP/IP protocols) & software. Accessed only by authorized persons, especially members or employees of the organization Two levels of Security required:

 Internal:- It can be imposed by Public Key Security & Encryption Key. External:Through Firewall.

What is Firewall? Security device located between firms internal network (intranet) & external network (internet). Regulates access into & out of a companys network based on a set of rules. Note : needs to be upgraded from time to time to check latest potential security problems. Applications of Intranet Sharing of company policies/rules & regulations Access employee database Distribution of circulars/Office Orders Access product & customer data Sharing of information of common interest Launching of personal/departmental home pages Submission of reports Corporate telephone directories Disadvantages of Intranet

EXTRANET Extranet is an Intranet for outside authorized users using same internet technology. Inter-organizational information system. enable outsiders to work together with companys employees. open to selected suppliers, customers & other business partners Examples: Dealers/distributors have access to product files such as :1. product specification, 2. pictures,

3.

images, etc. to answer the queries of the customer.

Components of Extranet Some basic infrastructure components such as the internet Including : TCP/IP protocols, E-mail, Web-browsers, External business partners & Tele-commuting employees place order, check status & send E-mail. Benefits of extranet Improved quality. lower travel costs. lower administrative & other overhead costs. reduction in paperwork. delivery of accurate information on time. improved customer service. better communication. overall improvement in business effectiveness. Disadvantages The suppliers & customer who dont have technical knowledge feel problem. Faceless contact. Information can be misused by other competitors. Fraud may be possible. Technical Employees are required. Layered System View.

COMPONENTS OF CPU

The central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out the computer's functions. The central processing unit carries out each instruction of the program in sequence, to perform the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. This term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically , but their fundamental operation remains much the same.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside modern CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) accommodate very powerful and very complex ALUs; a single component may contain a number of ALUs. Input is the term denoting either an entrance or changes which are inserted into a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the modeling, system(s) design and system(s) exploitation. It is usually connected with other terms, e.g., input field, input variable, input parameter, input value, input signal, input port, input device and input file Output devices includes all electronic and electromechanical devices that deliver results of computer processing. Anything that sends a signal out of the computer. Such as a monitor or printer. your keyboard and mouse are the inputs The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance. Memory Unit: A memory management unit (MMU), sometimes called paged memory management unit (PMMU), is a computer hardware component responsible for handling accesses to memory requested by the CPU. Its functions include translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses (i.e., virtual memory management), memory protection, cache control, bus arbitration, and, in simpler computer architectures (especially 8bit systems)