STATISTICS

Math Holiday Homework

Aditya SinghL Class 10 L Delhi Public School 7 August 2011

Samyak Leekha 10

Class

STATISTICS

More probability density will be found the closer one gets to the expected (mean) value in a normal distribution. Statistics used instandardized testing assessment are shown. The scales includestandard deviations, cumulative percentages, percentile equivalents, Z-scores, T-scores, standard nines, and percentages in standard nines.

Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused with the word statistic, referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data, whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading"). Some consider statistics to be a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and

presentation of data,[5] while others consider it a branch of mathematics concerned with collecting and interpreting data. Because of its empirical roots and its focus on applications, statistics is usually considered to be a distinct mathematical science rather than a branch of mathematics. Statistics is closely related to probability theory, with which it is often grouped; the difference is roughly that in probability theory, one starts from the given parameters of a total population to deduce probabilities pertaining to samples, but statistical inference moves in the opposite direction, inductive inference from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population.

HISTORY
Some scholars pinpoint the origin of statistics to 1663, with the publication of Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality by John Graunt.Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its stat- etymology. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and the natural and social sciences. Its mathematical foundations were laid in the 17th century with the development of probability theory by Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat. Probability theory arose from the study of games of chance. The method of least squares was first described by Carl Friedrich Gauss around 1794. The use of modern computers has expedited large-scale statistical computation, and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. The Word statistics have been derived from Latin word Status or the Italian word Statista, meaning of these words is Political State or a Government.The application of statistics was very limited but rulers and kings needed information about lands, agriculture, commerce, population of their states to assess their military potential, their wealth, taxation and other aspects of government.Gottfried Achenwall used the word statistik at a German University in 1749 which means that political science of different countries. In 1771 W. Hooper (Englishman) used the word statistics in his translation of Elements of Universal Erudition written by Baron B.F Bieford, in his book statistics has been defined as the science that teaches us what is the political arrangement of all the modern states of the known world. There is a big gap between the old statistics and the modern statistics, but old statistics also used as a part of the present statistics.During the 18th century the English writer have used the word statistics in their works, so statistics has

developed gradually during last few centuries. A lot of work has been done in the end of the nineteenth century. At the beginning of the 20th century, William S Gosset was developed the methods for decision making based on small set of data. During the 20th century several statistician are active in developing new methods, theories and application of statistics. Now these days the availability of electronics computers is certainly a major factor in the modern development of statistics. Statistics is concerned with exploring, summarising, and making inferences about the state of complex systems. As summarised in Table 1.1, the development of statistics in Europe was strongly motivated by the need to make sense of the large amount of data collected by population surveys in the emerging nation states. At the same time, the mathematical foundations for statistics advanced significantly due to breakthroughs in probability theory inspired by games of chance (gambling). For more information about the history of statistics refer to the books by Johnson and Kotz (1998) and Kotz and Johnson (1993).

YEAR 1532

EVENT First weekly data on deaths in London

PERSON Sir W. Petty

1539

Start of data collection on baptisms, marriages, and deaths in France

YEAR 1608

EVENT Beginning of parish registry in Sweden

PERSON

1662

First published demographic study based on bills of mortality

J. Graunt

1693

Publ. of An estimate of the degrees of mortality of mankind drawn from curious tables of the births and funerals at the city of Breslaw with an attempt to ascertain the price of annuities upon lives

E. Halley

1713

Publ. of Ars Conjectandi

J. Bernoulli

1714

Publ. of Libellus de Ratiocinus in Ludo Aleae

C. Huygens

YEAR 1714

EVENT Publ. of The Doctrine of Chances

PERSON A. De Moivre

1763

Publ. of An essay towards solving a problem in the Doctrine of Chances

Rev. Bayes

1809

Publ. of Theoria Motus Corporum Coelestium

C.F. Gauss

PURPOSE OF STATISTICS
The purpose of statistics is to develop and apply methodology for extracting useful knowledge from both experiments and data. In addition to its fundamental role in data analysis, statistical reasoning is also extremely useful in data collection (design of experiments and surveys) and also in guiding proper scientific inference (Fisher, 1990). Major activties in statistics involve:

design of experiments and surveys to test hypotheses exploration and visualization of sample data summary description of sample data stochastic modelling of uncertainity (e.g. flipped coin) forecasting based on suitable models hypothesis testing and statistical inference development of new statistical theory and methods

Main purpose of statistics being: 1) Statistics helps in providing a better understanding and exact description of a phenomenon of nature. (2) Statistical helps in proper and efficient planning of a statistical inquiry in any field of study. (3) Statistical helps in collecting an appropriate quantitative data. (4) Statistics helps in presenting complex data in a suitable tabular, diagrammatic and graphic form for an easy and clear comprehension of the data.

(5) Statistics helps in understanding the nature and pattern of variability of a phenomenon through quantitative obersevations. (6) Statistics helps in drawing valid inference, along with a measure of their reliability about the population parameters from the sample data.

Ungrouped Data

Introduction to grouped and ungrouped data: Ungrouped Data:- The data obtained in original form are called raw data or ungrouped data. Example. The marks obtained obtained by 25 students in a class in a certain examination are given below; 25, 8, 37, 16, 45, 40, 29, 12, 42, 25, 14, 16, 16, 20, 10, 36, 33, 24, 25, 35, 11, 30, 45, 48. This ungrouped data. Array:- An arrangement of ungrouped data in ascending or descending order of magnitude is called an array. Arranging the marks of 25 students in ascending order, we get the following array. 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 16, 16, 20, 24, 25, 25, 25, 29, 30, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 40, 42, 45, 45, 48. To Prepare A Frequency Distribution Table For Raw Data Using Tally Marks We take each observation from the data, one at a time, and indicate the To prepare a frequency distribution table for raw data using tally mark We take each observation from the data, one at a time, and indicate the frequency (the number of times the observation has occurred in the data) by small line, called tally marks. For convenience, we write tally marks in bunches of five, the fifth one crossing the fourth diagonally. In the table so formed, the sum of all the frequency is equal to the total number of observations in the given data. Example: The sale of shoes of various sizes at a shop, on a frequency day is given below:

7 8 5 4 9 8 5 7 6 8 9 6 7 9 8 7 9 9 6 5 8 9 4 5 5 8 9 6 The above data is clearly raw data. From this data, we may construct a frequency table, as given below:

Grouped Data
Grouped Data To put the data in a more condensed form, we make groups of suitable size, and mention the frequency of each group. Such a table is called a grouped frequency distribution table. Class-Interval: Each class is bounded by two figures, which are called class limits. The figure on the left side of a class is called its lower limit and that on its right is called its upper limit. Each class is bounded by two figures, which are called class limits. The figure n the left side of a class is called its lower limit and that on its right is called its upper limit.

Types of Grouped Frequency Distribution 1. Exclusive Form (or Continuous Interval Form): A frequency

distribution in which the upper limit of each class is excluded and lower limit is included, is called an exclusive form. Example: Suppose the marks obtained by some students in an examination are given. We may consider the classes 0 10, 10 20 etc. in class 0 10, we in clued 0 and exclude 10. In class 10 20, we include 10 and exclude 10 and exclude 20. 2. Inclusive From (or Discontinuous Interval From): A frequency

distribution in which each upper limit ad well as lower limit is included, is called an inclusive form. Thus, we have classes of the form 0 10, 11 20, 21 30 etc. In 0 10, both 0 and 10 are included.

Example1: Given below are the marks obtained by 40 students in an examination:

3, 25, 48, 23, 17, 13, 11, 9, 46, 41, 37, 45, 10, 19, 39, 36, 34, 5, 17, 21, 39, 33, 28, 25, 12, 3, 8, 17, 48, 34, 15, 19, 32, 32, 19, 21, 28, 32, 20, 23, Arrange the data in ascending order and present it as a grouped data in: (i) Discontinuous Interval form, taking class-intervals 1 10,

11 20, etc. (ii) 20, etc. Solution: Arrange the marks in ascending order, we get: 3, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 17, 17, 19, 19, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 23, 25, 25, 28, 28, 32, 32, 32, 33, 34, 34, 36, 37, 39, 39, 41, 45, 46, 48, 48, We may now classify them into groups as shown below: (i) Discontinuous Interval Form (or Inclusive Form) Continuous Interval form, taking class-intervals 1 10, 10

Note that the class 1 10 means, marks obtained form 1 to 10, including both.

(ii)

Continuous Interval Form (or Exclusive Form)

Here, the class 1 10 means, marks obtained from 1 to 9, i.e., excluding 10.

STATISTICIAN
A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject. A statistician is someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics. The profession exists in both the private and public sectors. The core of that work is to measure, interpret, and describe the world and human activity patterns within it. The field shares much common history with positivist social science, but often with a greater emphasis on advanced mathematical methods. It is common to combine statistical knowledge with expertise in other subjects. The applications are varied. Statisticians apply their knowledge to production, research, finance, medicine, the built and natural environments, insurance and government. They often are employed to support managerial decisions or to supervise quality control in manufacturing. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2008, there were 22,600 jobs classified as statistician in the United States. Of these people, approximately 30 percent worked for governments (federal, state, or local). Additionally, there are substantial numbers of persons who use statistics in their work but have job titles other than statistician. The job of statistician is considered a profession. Most statisticians work in offices and have regular working hours and can therefore be considered white-collar workers. A minority of statisticians are self-employed statistical consultants.Most employment as a statistician requires a minimum of a masters degree in statistics or a related field. Many professional statisticians have a PhD.

Damaraju Raghavarao is an Indian-born statistician, currently the Laura H. Carnell professor of statistics and chair of the department of statistics at Temple University in Philadelphia.

APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICS
Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries. Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics. Business Analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies statistical methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new insights and understanding of business performance & opportunities Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on a chemical system or process to the state of the system via application of mathematical or statistical methods. Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that changes over time or space. Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods to the empirical study of economic theories and relationships. Environmental statistics is the application of statistical methods to environmental science. Weather, climate, air and water quality are included, as are studies of plant and animal populations. Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine.

Geostatistics is a branch of geography that deals with the analysis of data from disciplines such as petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology,oceanography, geochemistry, geography. Operations research (or Operational Research) is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics and formal science that uses methods such as mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex problems. Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment. Quantitative psychology is the science of statistically explaining and changing mental processes and behaviors in humans. Psychometrics is the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Quality control reviews the factors involved in manufacturing and production; it can make use of statistical sampling of product items to aid decisions in process control or in accepting deliveries. Statistical finance, sometimes called econophysics, is an empirical attempt to shift finance from its normative roots to a positivist framework using exemplars from statistical physics with an emphasis on emergent or collective properties of financial markets. Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. Statistical physics is one of the fundamental theories of physics, and uses methods of probability theory in solving physical problems. Statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors of thermodynamic systems using probability theory and provides a molecular level interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as work, heat, free energy, and entropy.