Definition

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the most common lung diseases. It makes it difficult to breathe. There are two main forms of COPD:
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Chronic bronchitis, defined by a long-term cough with mucus Emphysema, defined by destruction of the lungs over time

Most people with COPD have a combination of both conditions.

Symptoms
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Cough with mucus Shortness of breath (dyspnea) that gets worse with mild activity Fatigue Frequent respiratory infections Wheezing

Since the symptoms of COPD develop slowly, some people may be unaware that they are sick.

Causes & Risk Factors

Smoking is the leading cause of COPD. The more a person smokes, the more likely that person will develop COPD although some people smoke for years and never get COPD. In rare cases, nonsmokers who lack a protein called alpha-1 antitrypsin can develop emphysema. Other risk factors for COPD are:
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Exposure to certain gases or fumes in the workplace Exposure to heavy amounts of secondhand smoke and pollution Frequent use of cooking gas without proper ventilation

Tests & Diagnostics

The best test for COPD is a simple lung function test called spirometry. This involves blowing out as hard as one can into a small machine that tests lung capacity. The test can be interpreted immediately and does not involve exercising, drawing blood, or exposure to radiation. Using a stethoscope to listen to the lungs can also be helpful, although sometimes the lungs sound normal even when COPD is present. Pictures of the lungs (such as X-rays and CT scans) can be helpful but sometimes look normal even when a person has COPD.

Sometimes it is necessary to do a blood test (call a blood gas) to measure the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

Treatments
There is no cure for COPD. However, there are many things you can do to relieve symptoms and keep the disease from getting worse. Persons with COPD must stop smoking. This is the best way to slow down the lung damage. Medications used to treat COPD include:
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Inhalers (bronchodilators) to open the airways, such as ipratropium (Atrovent), tiotropium (Spiriva), salmeterol (Serevent), or formoterol (Foradil) Inhaled steroids to reduce lung inflammation

In severe cases or during flare-ups, you may need to receive steroids by mouth or through a vein (intravenously). Antibiotics are prescribed during symptom flare ups, because infections can make COPD worse. Oxygen therapy at home may be needed if a person has a low level of oxygen in their blood. Pulmonary rehabilitation does not cure the lung disease, but it can teach you to breathe in a different way so you can stay active. Exercise programs such as pulmonary rehabilitation are also important to help maintain muscle strength in the legs so less demand is placed on the lungs when walking. These programs also teach people how to use their medicines most effectively. Things you can do to make it easier for yourself around the home include:
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Avoiding very cold air Making sure no one smokes in your home Reducing air pollution by eliminating fireplace smoke and other irritants

Eat a healthy diet with fish, poultry, or lean meat, as well as fruits and vegetables. If it is hard to keep your weight up, talk to a doctor or dietitian about getting foods with more calories. Surgical treatments may include:
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Surgery to remove parts of the diseased lung, for some patients with emphysema Lung transplant for severe cases

Drugs
Medications frequently prescribed for COPD patients include:

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Bronchodilators. These agents open narrowed airways and offer significant symptomatic relief for many, but not all, people with COPD. There are three types of bronchodilators: Beta2 agonists, anticholinergic agents, and theophylline and its derivatives. Depending on the specific drug, a bronchodilator may be inhaled, injected, or taken orally. Corticosteroids. Corticosteroids, usually inhaled, block inflammation and are most useful for patients with chronic bronchitis with or without emphysema. Steroids are generally not useful in patients who have emphysema. Oxygen replacement. Eventually, patients with low blood oxygen levels may need to rely on supplemental oxygen from portable or stationary tanks. Antibiotics. Antibiotics are frequently given at the first sign of a respiratory infection, such as increased sputum production or a change in color of sputum from clear to yellow or green. Vaccines. To prevent pulmonary infection from viruses and bacteria, people with COPD should be vaccinated against influenza each year at least six weeks before flu season and have a one-time pneumococcal (pneumonia) vaccine. Expectorants. These agents help loosen and expel mucus secretions from the airways. Diuretics. These drugs are given to prevent excess water retention in patients with associated right heart failure. Augmentation therapy (for emphysema due to AAT-deficiency only). Replacement AAT (Prolastin), derived from human blood which has been screened for viruses, is injected weekly or bimonthly for life.

Alternative Therapies
People often can help ease the stress of illness by joining a support group in which members share common experiences and problems. An intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is an X-ray test that provides pictures of the kidneys, the bladder, the ureters, and the urethra (urinary tract ). An IVP can show the size, shape, and position of the urinary tract, and it can evaluate the collecting system inside the kidneys. During IVP, a dye called contrast material is injected into a vein in your arm. A series of X-ray pictures is then taken at timed intervals. IVP is commonly done to identify diseases of the urinary tract, such as kidney stones, tumors, or infection. See a picture of an IVP showing a kidney stone . It is also used to look for problems with the structure of the urinary tract that were present from birth (congenital). An ultrasound or a computed tomography (CT) scan may be combined with an IVP if more details about the urinary tract are needed. A computed tomography intravenous pyelogram (CT/IVP) is usually done to look for the cause of blood in the urine. An IVP is done to:
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Look for problems with the structure of the urinary tract. Find the cause of blood in the urine.

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Find the cause of ongoing back or flank pain. Locate and measure a tumor of the urinary tract. Locate and measure a kidney stone. Find the cause of recurring urinary tract infections. Look for damage to the urinary tract after an injury.

Before having an intravenous pyelogram (IVP), tell your doctor if:

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You are or might be pregnant. You have an intrauterine device (IUD) in place. You are allergic to the iodine dye used as the contrast material for X-ray tests or to anything else that contains iodine. You have ever had a serious allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), such as after being stung by a bee or from eating shellfish. Within the past 4 days, you have had an X-ray test using barium contrast material (such as a barium enema) or have taken a medicine (such as Pepto-Bismol) that contains bismuth. You have had kidney problems in the past or have diabetes, especially if you take metformin (Glucophage) to control your diabetes. The contrast material used during an IVP can cause kidney damage in people who have poor kidney function. If you have had kidney problems in the past, blood tests (creatinine, blood urea nitrogen) may be done before the test to make sure that your kidneys are working properly.

Talk to your doctor about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form (What is a PDF document?) . Do not eat or drink for 8 to 12 hours before the IVP. You may need to take a laxative the evening before the test (and possibly have an enema the morning of the test) to make sure that your bowels are empty. If you are breast-feeding, use formula for 1 to 2 days after the test. An intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is usually done by a radiology technologist. The IVP pictures are interpreted by a doctor who specializes in interpreting imaging tests (radiologist). You will need to remove any jewelry that might interfere with the X-ray picture. You will need to take off all or most of your clothes, and you will be given a cloth or paper covering to use during the test. You will be asked to urinate just before the test begins. You will lie on your back on an X-ray table. An X-ray picture of your belly will be taken and reviewed by the radiologist before the next part of the test begins. The injection site on your arm will be cleaned and the contrast material will be injected into a vein on the inside of your elbow. The dye travels through the bloodstream, is filtered out by the

kidneys, and passes into the urine. The urine then flows into the tubes (ureters) that lead to the bladder. X-ray pictures are taken several minutes apart as the dye goes through the urinary tract. Each picture is developed right away. Sometimes more pictures are taken based on earlier ones. You may be asked to turn from side to side or to hold several different positions so the radiologist can take a complete series of X-rays. During IVP, a compression device may wrapped around your belly to keep the dye in the kidneys. The most common compression device is a wide belt containing two inflated balloons that push in on either side of your belly to block the passage of dye through the ureters. If you have recently had abdominal surgery or have an abdominal disorder, the band will not be used. A special type of X-ray technique called fluoroscopy may also be used during IVP. During fluoroscopy, a continuous X-ray beam is used to display a moving image on a video monitor. IVP usually takes about an hour. After the test is over, you will need to drink plenty of liquids to help flush the contrast material out of your body. You will feel no discomfort from the X-rays. The X-ray table may feel hard and the room may be cool. You may find that the positions you need to hold are uncomfortable. You will feel a brief sting when the needle is inserted into the vein in your arm. When the contrast material is injected, you may feel slight burning in your arm and flushing throughout your body. You may also notice a salty or metallic taste in your mouth. The compression belt may feel tight. If it is painful, tell the technologist and ask that it be readjusted. You may feel slightly weak, nauseated, or lightheaded for a short time after the test. There is always a slight chance of damage to cells or tissue from radiation, including the low levels of radiation used for this test. However, the chance of damage from the X-rays is usually very low compared with the benefits of the test. There is slight risk of having an allergic reaction to the contrast material. The reaction can be mild (itching, rash) or severe (difficulty breathing or sudden shock). Death resulting from an allergic reaction is very rare. Most reactions can be controlled with medicine. Be sure to tell your doctor if you have asthma or allergies of any kind, such as hay fever, iodine allergy, bee stings, or food allergies. People with certain conditions (such as diabetes, multiple myeloma, chronic kidney disease, sickle cell disease, or pheochromocytoma) have increased chances of having sudden kidney failure from IVP. Older adults and people taking medicines that affect the kidney may also have increased chances for problems after an IVP.

An intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is an X-ray test that provides pictures of the kidneys, the bladder, the ureters, and the urethra (urinary tract ). Your doctor may be able to talk to you about some results right away. Complete results are usually ready in 1 to 2 days. Intravenous pyelogram (IVP) The kidneys, ureters, and bladder are normal in position, size, and shape. The contrast material reaches the kidneys in a normal amount of time. Normal: No blockage can be seen in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. In men, the prostate gland looks normal in position, size, and shape. The kidneys, ureters, or bladder may be abnormal in position, size, or shape. A kidney may be absent, or an extra kidney or ureter may be present. The kidneys are too large or too small. The contrast material takes longer than normal to reach a kidney. An abnormal growth (such as a tumor), one or more cysts, an abscess, or Abnormal: a kidney stone is seen. A kidney is swollen with urine from a blockage such as a tumor or kidney stone. Injury to the kidney, ureter, or bladder is seen. The kidney contains scarring. In men, the prostate gland is too large. Reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include:
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Being unable to remain still during the test. Having a large amount of stool (feces) or gas in the large intestine (colon). Having a recent test with barium (such as a barium enema) or bismuth.

An intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is not usually done for a pregnant woman because the X-rays could damage the growing baby. If a view of a pregnant woman's kidneys is needed, an ultrasound test may be done instead.

What To Think About

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A preliminary X-ray picture (KUB) of your abdomen will be taken before the intravenous pyelogram (IVP). This picture is reviewed by the radiologist before the next part of the test begins. An IVP test may not be done if these pictures show a problem. Other tests that may be used instead of an intravenous pyelogram (IVP) include computerized tomography (CT scan), ultrasound, digital subtraction angiography, and, occasionally, MRI. For more information, see the medical tests CT Scan of the Body, Abdominal Ultrasound, Angiogram, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Abdomen. For people who have known kidney problems, diabetes, or who are dehydrated, steps may be taken to prevent kidney damage. Less contrast material may be used and additional fluids may be given before, during, and after the test. If you have had kidney problems in the past, blood tests for creatinine and blood urea nitrogen may be done before the test to make sure that your kidneys are working properly. For more information, see the medical tests Creatinine and Blood Urea Nitrogen. Another test that may be done to look at the urinary tract is retrograde ureteropyelogram. Retrograde ureteropyelogram is done when IVP results do not help identify a problem or when IVP cannot be done because of poor kidney function or an allergy to the iodine contrast material.

Diagnostic Ultrasound of the Abdomen by Editorial Staff and Contributors

Definition | Reasons for Test | Possible Complications | What to Expect | Results | Call Your Doctor

Definition
An ultrasound examines organs or tissue inside the body. Sound waves are used to make an image. If a Doppler ultrasound is done, the doctor can see blood flow in the vessels.

Abdominal Ultrasound

 2011 Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.

Reasons for Test

An ultrasound is used to find problems inside the abdominal cavity. It can show organs and movement. An ultrasound is most often done for the following reasons:
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To diagnose an injury or disease To help determine the cause of abdominal pain To identify gallbladder stones or kidney stones To assess masses in the abdomen To help determine why an internal organ is enlarged To examine the baby and womb in pregnant women To evaluate changes or problems in the blood vessels

Possible Complications
In most cases, there are no complications with this test.

What to Expect

Prior to test
Your doctor may do the following:
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Physical exam Blood or urine tests

In some cases, your doctor may instruct you to:

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Fast for 8-12 hours before the test. This will decrease the amount of gas in your intestines and make your organs easier to see. Have a full bladder before the test. You may need to drink six or more glasses of water without going to the bathroom.

Description of the Test

You will lie on a table. Your doctor will put gel on your stomach. The gel helps the sound waves travel between the machine and your body. The ultrasound machine has a hand-held instrument called a transducer, which looks like a microphone or wand. The transducer is pushed against your skin where the gel has been applied. The transducer sends sound waves into your body. The waves bounce off your internal organs and echo back to the transducer. The echoes are converted into images that are shown on a screen. The doctor examines the images on the screen. He may also make a photograph of them.

You may be asked to change positions or hold your breath during the exam.

After Test
The gel will be cleaned off your abdomen. You will be able to leave after the test is done. You will be able to return to your normal activities.

How Long Will It Take?

30 minutes

Will It Hurt?
No. But, if you have a full bladder during the test, you may feel uncomfortable.

Results
The images are looked at by doctors. A report will be given to your doctor. Based on the results, you and your doctor will talk about more tests and treatment options.

Call Your Doctor

After the test, call your doctor if the symptoms you had before the test become worse.

Blood glucose monitoring

URL of this page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003438.htm

Blood glucose monitoring refers to the ongoing measurement of blood sugar (glucose). Monitoring can be done at any time using a portable device called a glucometer. See also:
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Glucose test - blood Glucose test - urine Glucose tolerance test

How the Test is Performed

The traditional glucose meter comes with test strips, small needles called lancets, and a logbook for recording your numbers. There are many different kinds of these meters, but they all work essentially the same way.

A complete testing kit can be purchased from a pharmacy without a prescription. Your doctor or nurse can help you choose the equipment that's right for you, help you set it up, and teach you how to use it. You will prick your finger with the lancet and place a drop of blood on a special strip. This strip uses a chemical substance to determine the amount of glucose in the blood. (Newer monitors can use blood from other areas of the body besides the fingers, reducing discomfort.) The meter displays your blood sugar results as a number on a digital display.

How to Prepare for the Test

Have all test items within reach before starting -- timing is important. Clean the needle prick area with soap and water or an alcohol swab. Completely dry the skin before pricking.

How the Test Will Feel

There is a sharp prick.

Why the Test is Performed

This test reveals your blood sugar level. If you have diabetes, you can use it to carefully monitor your blood sugar levels at home. Regularly checking your blood sugar level is one of the most important steps you can take in managing the disease. It provides your doctor with important information regarding the control of your blood sugar. When you keep track of your blood sugar you will:
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Start to see patterns that will help you plan meals, activities, and what time of day to take your medications Learn how certain foods affect your blood sugar levels See how exercise can improve your numbers

Testing allows you to respond quickly to high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) or low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). This might include diet adjustments, exercise, and insulin (as instructed by your health care provider). Your doctor may order a blood sugar test to screen for diabetes. For more information, see blood glucose test.

Normal Results
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Before meals: 70 - 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) After meals: Less than 180 mg/dL

Values can vary depending on physical activity, meals, and insulin administration. Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.

What Abnormal Results Mean

Low levels indicate hypoglycemia. Have something to eat. You may need to change the next insulin dose, and possibly future insulin doses as well. If levels are too high, this indicates hyperglycemia. You may need additional insulin.

Risks
There is a slight chance of infection at the puncture site. A small amount of bleeding may occur after the puncture.

Considerations
The correct procedure must be followed or the results will not be accurate.

Alternative Names
Home glucose monitoring; Self monitoring of blood glucose Endoscopy (pronounced / n d sk pi/) means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an endoscope (pronounced / nd sko p/), an instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ. Endoscopy can also refer to using a borescope in technical situations where direct line of-sight observation is not feasible.

Contents
[hide]
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1 Components 2 Uses 3 History o 3.1 Early o 3.2 Wolf and Storz o 3.3 Development of the Gastroscope o 3.4 Fiber Optics o 3.5 Rod-lens Endoscopes o 3.6 Disinfection 4 Risks 5 After the endoscopy 6 Recent developments o 6.1 Disposable endoscopy o 6.2 Capsule endoscopy 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Components
An endoscope can consist of
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a rigid or flexible tube a light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical fiber system a lens system transmitting the image to the viewer from the objective lens to the viewer, typically a relay lens system in the case of rigid endoscopes or a bundle of fiberoptics in the case of a fiberscope an eyepiece an additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments or manipulators

[edit] Uses
Endoscopy can involve
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The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract): o esophagus, stomach and duodenum (esophagogastroduodenoscopy) o small intestine (enteroscopy) o large intestine/colon (colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy) o Magnification endoscopy

bile duct  endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), duodenoscopeassisted cholangiopancreatoscopy, intraoperative cholangioscopy

An anoscope, a proctoscope, and a rectoscope with approximate lengths.

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rectum (rectoscopy) and anus (anoscopy), both also referred to as (proctoscopy) The respiratory tract o The nose (rhinoscopy) o The lower respiratory tract (bronchoscopy) The ear (otoscope) The urinary tract (cystoscopy) The female reproductive system (gynoscopy) o The cervix (colposcopy) o The uterus (hysteroscopy) o The fallopian tubes (falloposcopy) Normally closed body cavities (through a small incision): o The abdominal or pelvic cavity (laparoscopy) o The interior of a joint (arthroscopy) o Organs of the chest (thoracoscopy and mediastinoscopy) During pregnancy o The amnion (amnioscopy) o The fetus (fetoscopy) Plastic Surgery Panendoscopy (or triple endoscopy) o Combines laryngoscopy, esophagoscopy, and bronchoscopy Orthopedic surgery o Hand Surgery, such as endoscopic carpal tunnel release o Epidural space (Epiduroscopy) Non-medical uses for endoscopy o The planning and architectural community have found the endoscope useful for previsualization of scale models of proposed buildings and cities (architectural endoscopy) o Internal inspection of complex technical systems (borescope) o Endoscopes are also a tool helpful in the examination of improvised explosive devices by bomb disposal personnel. o The FBI uses endoscopes for conducting surveillance via tight spaces

. Endoscopy Procedures
X

April Sanders April Sanders has been a professional writer since 1998. She has worked as an educator and now writes academic research content for EBSCO Publishing and elementary reading curriculum for Compass Publishing. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in social psychology from the University of Washington and a master's degree in information sciences and technology in education from Mansfield University. By April Sanders, eHow Contributor ?

Endoscopy Procedures

1. Endoscopes
o

An endoscopy is when a doctor uses an endoscope (a thin, very long and flexible instrument less than 1/2 inch in diameter) to examine the inner parts of the digestive system. In upper endoscopies, the endoscope is inserted into the mouth and the upper part of the digestive system is examined. In lower endoscopies, the instrument is passed into the anus and the colon is examined. Endoscopies are used to identify the possible causes of such symptoms as nausea, pain, bloating or vomiting, as well as identify or rule out ulcers, inflammation and even tumors. The endoscope can also be used to take tiny tissue samples, remove growth, stretch areas and treat bleeding.

2. Upper Endoscopy

You must have an empty stomach before an endoscopy, so you should not eat eight hours before the procedure. You will be given a sedative through an IV into your vein and a pain reliever, as well. You will also be given a spray to numb the back of your throat. Then, a mouthpiece will be put in your mouth, and you will be asked to lie on your left side. A specialist will insert the endoscope through the mouthpiece and down your esophagus, then into your stomach. You will be able to breathe just fine and will remain awake during the procedure, which will take about 20 minutes.

3. Lower Endoscopy
o

In a lower endoscopy, the patient will need to take an enema the day before the procedure, which means the patient should not go to work on that day or the day of the procedure. The doctor will probably also give the patient some dietary restrictions to follow two days before the procedure. Directly before the procedure, the patient will be given a sedative and often a painkiller through an IV. The patient will lie down, and the endoscope is inserted through the anus and into the colon, where the examination will take place. The examination usually takes around 30 minutes. Afterward, the patient will be told to rest for a few hours, although she can eat and drink right away.

Read more: Endoscopy Procedures | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/howdoes_4968981_endoscopy-procedures.html#ixzz1Oa9s9ujo

Nursing Diagnosis and Nursing Intervention Ineffective airway clearance related to the disruption of production increased secretions, retained secretions

Goal : Ventilation / oxygenation to the needs of clients.

Outcome : Maintain a patent airway and breath sounds clean

Intervention
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Review / monitor respiratory frequency, record the ratio of inspiration / expiration. Assess the patient to a comfortable position, such as raising the head of the bed, seat and backrest of the bed. Auscultation for breath sounds, record the sound of breath for example: wheezing, and rhonchi krokels.

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Note the presence disepnea, for example: complaints restlessness, anxiety, respiratory distress Help the abdominal breathing exercises or lip. Observation of the characteristic cough, for example: persistent, hacking cough, wet, auxiliary measures to improve the effectiveness of the airway. Increase fluid intake to 3000 ml / day according to tolerance of the heart. Bronchodilators, eg, -agonists, efinefrin (adrenaline, vavonefrin), albuterol (Proventil, Ventolin), terbutaline (brethine, brethaire), isoeetrain (brokosol, bronkometer).

PREDISPOSING FACTORS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Malnutrition Overcrowding Alcoholism Ingestion of infected cattle Virulence Over fatigue

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Productive Cough yellowish in color Low fever Night sweats Dyspnea Anorexia, general body malaise, weight loss Chest/back pain Hemoptysis

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Goals Needs / Problems Dyspnea or shortness of breath Use the visual analog scale (VAS) to make an objective assessment of dyspnea. The VAS is a 100-mm vertical line with end points of 0

Interventions

Eval

Dyspnea is difficult to quantify and to treat (Potter & Perry, 2004). Interventions need to be individualized for each patient, and more than one therapy is usually

Evaluation of how nur

dyspnea is usually do

underlying cause of d

and 10. zero is equated with no dyspnea and 10 is

implemented. The underlying process that causes or worsens dyspnea

equated with the worst must be treated and brethlessness the client has experienced (Potter & Perry, 2004) stabilized initially. Three additional therapies have to be implemented: pharmacological measures, physical techniques, and psychosocial techniques are then implemented. Coughing up green and yellow sputum The nurse should determine if the cough is a manifestation of any underlying diseases. In addition, other diagnostic tests must be performed. Irregular bowel movement The client has only defecated once since Fluid intake has to be Interventions can be geared towards curing the underlying cause such as chronic bronchitis.

A cough is difficult t

everyone has periods

The client should be a

encouraged, and this should activity. The client has

being admitted for four include appropriate fluids, days. The client has to fruit juice, and water. resume his regular Activity within the limits of

pattern has changed t

achievement of outco

The client's subseque

bowel movements which is every two days.

client's mobility should also be encouraged. Laxative and stool softeners can be provided as ordered. Privacy is also important.

observed for characte

consistency and color

should now be every 2

Abdomen should be s

Crackles in the left lower lobe of the lung with diffuse expiratory wheezing

The nurse has to identify what is the underlying cause of the crackles and wheezing that is revealed in the patient's exams.

Since the generation of crackles depends more on lung volume changes than on airflow, patients should be advised to take slow and deep breaths in order to minimize flow turbulence and thus reduce the intensity of normal breath sounds (Pasterkamp, 2001). Wheezing in Norm Gallagher could just be normal response of his asthma and therefore interventions have to be geared towards his asthma.

Evaluation of nursing

crackles and wheezes

the evaluation of the u

such clinical manifesta

Consolidation in left lower lung

The healthcare team responsible for the

Nursing interventions should be geared towards

care of Norm Gallagher should examine the underlying cause of the consolidated lung.

treatment of the underlying cause, like pneumonia. The participation of other healthcare professionals is usually needed, like the diagnosis of a doctor.