Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 54:821835 DOI 10.

1007/s00170-010-2980-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A cutting force model considering influence of radius of curvature for sculptured surface machining
Qingyuan Cao & Deyi Xue & Jun Zhao & Yueen Li

Received: 1 June 2010 / Accepted: 4 October 2010 / Published online: 15 October 2010 # Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010

Abstract A new cutting force model considering influence of radius of curvature is introduced in this research for sculptured surface machining with ball-end mill. In this model, first the whole cutting region near the cutter contact (CC) point on the sculptured surface is approximated by a spherical surface, and the radius of this spherical surface is used as the radius of curvature at the CC point. Then equations to estimate the cutting forces at a differential element on the cutting edge are established. By obtaining the cutter-workpiece contact areas based on geometries of the cutter and the sculptured surface, the mathematical model for estimating the total cutting forces in different directions is then developed. Experiments have also been conducted to measure the cutting forces considering different radii of curvatures on the sculptured surfaces. The analytically estimated cutting forces match well with the actual cutting forces obtained through experiments. Keywords Ball-end milling . Cutting forces . Sculptured surface . CNC machining . Radius of curvature Nomenclature R 0

Nf 8j 8p 8 hj fz ae ap R db ds

Radius of ball-end mill Radius of curvature Helix angle at meeting point of flute and shank

Kte, Kre, Kae Ktc, Krc, Kac min, max 8st, 8ex

Q. Cao : J. Zhao : Y. Li School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China Q. Cao (*) : D. Xue Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary T2N 1N4, Canada e-mail: qingcaoyuan@hotmail.com

st, ex (X, Y, Z) (X0, Y0, Z0) (XC, YC, ZC) dFt, dFr, dFa

Lag angle of a point on the cutting edge Number of flutes Angular position of a point on the jth cutting edge, j=1,...,Nf Angle between two adjacent cutting edges, 8p =2/Nf Position angle of a point on the cutting edge Rotation angle of the tool, 8=2nt/60, n spindle speed (rpm), t time (s) Undeformed chip thickness at a point on the jth cutting edge Feedrate (feed per tooth) Cutting width in radial direction Cutting depth in axial direction Effective radius of cutter actually in cutting Inclination angle of cutter Chip width for each differential element on the cutting edge Length of each differential element on the cutting edge Edge-specific cutting force coefficients Shear-specific cutting force coefficients Boundaries of the contact areas between the cutter and the workpiece Start and exit radial immersion angles in cutting Limit axial position angles considering a cutting edge Machine tool coordinate system Workpiece coordinate system Cutting tool coordinate system Differential cutting forces in tangential, radial, and axial directions

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1 Introduction Sculptured surfaces have been widely used in automotive, die/mold, and aerospace industries. Due to the complex geometry of the sculptured surfaces, CNC milling centers with 4- and 5-axis are usually used to achieve the required design quality while maintaining machining efficiency. Many computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems have also been developed to create the CNC machining tool paths based on the designed sculptured surfaces which are usually modeled using computer-aided design systems. Ball-end mills are usually employed for machining sculptured surfaces, particularly in finish machining. Despite the progress, cutting forces in the machining process often cause deflection and wear of cutting tools, thus resulting in poor quality to satisfy the design requirements. Therefore modeling of cutting forces and creation of the machining tool paths considering the influence of cutting forces have to be conducted to manufacture the surfaces with the required quality. Although many cutting force models have been developed and many methods have been introduced to compensate the cutting forces for reducing the machining errors, most of the developed models and methods focus on machining of simple geometry under simple cutting conditions. For sculptured surface machining, due to the complexity of the surface geometry and involvement of multi-axis CNC machining, sophisticated models need to be introduced to satisfy design requirements. Many cutting force estimation models have been developed in the past decades considering different shapes of tools, geometry of workpieces, and machining conditions. Hosoi [7] developed initial models to describe the cutting behaviors of the ball-end mill with spiral edges. Lee and Altintas [14] introduced a systematic approach on modeling of the cutting forces of ball-end mills. In their work, the helical flutes were divided into small differential cutting edge segments. By building the cutting model for each cutting edge segment, the total cutting forces in different directions considering the whole cutting areas can then be obtained through integral calculation. The theoretical cutting force estimation model was also evaluated by experiments considering different cutting speeds and feedrates. In this research area, Lee and Lin [15] developed a cutting force model to machine sculptured surfaces using flat-end mills. Li et al. [16] employed the merchant oblique cutting theory in the development of a general dynamic force model for ball-end milling. Fussell et al. [4] developed an extended Z-buffer model to describe cutting geometry and forces for sculptured surface machining. Lazoglu [13], Guzel and Lazoglu [6] developed a method to calculate the workpiece/cutter intersection domain automatically based on tool paths, cutter geometry and

workpiece geometry. Kim and Chu [10] developed a method to predict mean cutting forces in ball-end milling of sculptured surfaces. The cutter contact area was described by a set of grids on the cutter plane orthogonal to the cutter using the Z-map method. Liu et al. [17] developed a dynamic cutting force model for ball-end milling based on the geometric analysis of ball-end mill and oblique cutting principle. In addition, the influence of cutter orientations or surface orientations on cutting forces in multi-axis CNC machining has also been studied [8, 11, 20]. When the cutter is not perpendicular to the workpiece surface, the contact area between the cutter and the workpiece needs to be first obtained. Two methods are often used to calculate the contact areas: the Z-map method [4, 11] and analytical method [2, 3, 12, 19]. In the Z-map method, the workpiece and cutting tool are meshed into small square elements to automatically identify the engagement area through extensive computing. Compared with the Z-map method, the analytical method can be used to obtain the engagement area based on geometries of the workpiece surface and cutting tool, and the relative position between the workpiece and the tool efficiently. Despite the progress, the major problem in cutting force modeling for sculptured surface machining lies on identification of the contact region between the cutter and the workpiece. Although the Z-map method is effective considering complex shapes such as sculptured surfaces, it takes considerable computation effort to achieve the contact region. In the analytical method, sculptured surfaces are simplified as simple shapes such as planar surfaces. Therefore development of accurate and efficient force models for sculptured surface machining is required. Our research is based on the assumption that the different curvatures of surfaces can lead to different magnitudes of the cutting forces in ball-end milling. The research was started by cutting cylindrical surfaces with different radii and examining the changes of cutting forces in different directions. Since the contact regions between cutter and workpiece in sculptured surface machining are usually in the shapes of convex and concave surfaces rather than planar surfaces, spherical surfaces, instead of planar surfaces, are employed to approximate the contact regions for improving accuracy in cutting force estimation models. In the method developed in this research, the cutting region near a cutting point on the sculptured surface is approximated by a spherical surface, and the radius of the spherical surface is defined as the radius of curvature of the cutting point on the sculptured surface. Firstly, the shapes around the cutting points are classified into three categories: concave, convex and planar regions. Then the cutting forces at a point on the cutting edge are estimated based on the method introduced by Lee and Altintas [14]. The contact

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823

areas between the cutter and the workpiece are then calculated considering different types and magnitudes of radii of curvatures. The mathematical model for estimating cutting forces in different directions is subsequently developed. Experiments have also been carried out to measure the cutting forces considering different radii of curvatures on the sculptured surfaces. Our results show the cutting forces estimated using the analytical model match well with the cutting forces obtained through the experiments.

(2)

2 Radius of curvature and its influence on cutting forces Our study was started by the initial experiment to machine surfaces with different radii of curvatures using a ball-end mill as shown in Fig. 1. In this experiment, a ball-end mill with diameter of 10 mm was used. Three cylindrical surfaces with radii of 7.5 mm, 10 mm, and 15 mm were used for the machining process. The cutter was fed along the direction of generatrix at the top of the cylindrical surface (Fig. 1a), and the cutting forces (FX0 , FY0 and FZ0 ) were measured by a Kistler 3-component dynamometer (Model 9257B). By plotting the maximum cutting forces in the three directions considering different radii of cylindrical surfaces as shown in Fig. 1b, we found that with the increase of radius of cylindrical surface, the magnitudes of the cutting forces in the three directions were also increased. Since the different radii of curvatures can result in different magnitudes of cutting forces, study on the relations between radius of curvature and cutting forces becomes necessary in sculptured surface machining. Our study on sculptured surface machining is limited to the following conditions. (1) Only finish surface machining is considered since the quality of the surface is primarily determined by the finish machining. After the rough machining to remove the major materials, the thickness of the
Fig. 1 Machining processes with different radii of curvatures and their cutting forces

(3)

(4)

(5)

material left for finish machining in the normal direction or Z direction of any point on the surface is considered as a constant. The tool paths in the form of cutter location (CL) points for finish machining are created automatically by a CAM system using parallel, zigzag, or spiral pattern. Distance between two adjacent tool paths viewing from top (i.e., Z direction) is approximated as a constant. Depending on the number of available axes of the CNC machine, the cutter is either in Z direction, with an inclination angle on the drive plane (i.e., the plane formed by the feed direction and the Z direction), or in the normal direction. The tool tip or center of the ball is usually used as the reference point of the CL data. For each CL point, a cutter contact (CC) point on the sculptured surface can be identified. At a CC point, the normal vector of the sculptured surface passes through the center of the ball-end cutter. The cutting region near a CC point is approximated by a spherical surface, and the radius of the spherical surface is defined as the radius of curvature at CC on the sculptured surface. For concave region of a surface, radius of curvature at the cutting point on the sculptured surface is large than the radius of the cutter to avoid gouging.

The radius of workpiece surface curvature at a CC point on the sculptured surface is calculated from the CL data which are described by a sequence of 3D points with X, Y, and Z values as shown in Fig. 2a. In ball-end milling of sculptured surface, tip of the mill or center of the ball is usually used as the reference point of the CL data. In this work the center of the ball is used as the reference point of the CL data. In the machining process, the CC points where the spherical surface of the ball-end mill touches with the sculptured surface of the workpiece are calculated from the CL points.

FZ0 FY0 FX0

Tool path

(a). Experimental Machining process.

(b). Measured maximum cutting forces.

824 Fig. 2 CL points, CC points, and approximation of CC points

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 54:821835

Driving Plane Tool Paths CL Data CL Data Offset Surface after Rough Machining Workpiece O A P B O Offset Surface after Rough Machining ap

Workpiece

(a). Three CL points on a tool path.

To improve the accuracy while maintaining good computation efficiency, the CC points in the cutting region on the sculptured surface are approximated through a spherical surface in this research. Radius of this spherical surface is defined as the radius of curvature for the selected contact point. Figure 2b shows the approximation of the CC points in the feed direction using an arc. In this figure, P is the CC point currently being considered, A and B are two CC points near the boundaries of the cutting region, and O is the center of the arc APB. The radius of curvature at a CC point P on the sculptured surface is calculated in the following three steps. Step 1: Identification of the possible CC points in the cutting region The cutting region is primarily determined by the radius of the cutter and axial cutting depth. Suppose P is the CC point being considered as shown in Fig. 3a, create a plane that passes through this point and is perpendicular to OP. Create another plane that is parallel to the first plane with a distance of ap which is the radial cutting depth. Intersection of the second plane with the spherical surface of the ball-end mill forms a circle with radius of R. When viewing from the OP direction, the CC points in the cutting paths are shown in Fig. 3b.
Fig. 3 Calculation of radius of curvature using CC points

(b). Approximation of CC points near P.

Step 2: Identification of the possible boundary CC points in the cutting region From the current cutting path modeled by CC points, the possible boundary CC points in the cutting region, A and B, are identified as shown in Fig. 3b. In the same way, the boundary CC points perpendicular to the feed direction, C and D, can be identified on other cutting paths. Step 3: Calculation of the radius of curvature at the CC point P On the OAPB plane shown in Fig. 3c, select A and B as the midpoints of AP and PB. From A, draw a line perpendicular to AP and obtain its intersection with PO as OA. Then AOA is the radius of the arc AP. In the same way, draw a line from B perpendicular to PB and obtain its intersection with PO as OB. Then BOB is the radius of the arc PB. The midpoint OAOB is defined as O, and the OP is used as the radius of the approximated arc of APB in the feed direction 1. In the same way, the radius of curvature in the direction perpendicular to the feed direction considering the approximated arc of CPD can be obtained as 2. The radius of curvature is selected with a positive value for a convex arc, while the radius of curvature is selected with a negative value for a concave arc.

C O

OA B R A A P B B (c). Curvature in feed direction. O OB O

R R P

ap (a). Possible cutting region.

D (b). Boundary CC points.

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825

The average radius of curvature at the CC point P considering the whole cutting region is then approximated by r r1 r1 2 1

This average radius of curvature at the CC point P also represents the radius of the spherical surface which is used to approximate the contact region between the cutter and the workpiece. In this research, the shapes of the contact regions on the sculptured surface are limited to concave shapes, convex shapes, and planar shapes. The saddle shapes with opposite signs of 1 and 2 in Eq. 1 are not considered. In the rest of this paper, only the spherical cutting contact surface is discussed to build the cutting force model for sculptured surface machining.

3 Estimation of cutting forces The cutting forces are estimated in the following four steps. First geometry of the cutting edge is studied. Then the differential cutting force model at a differential area on the cutting edge is established. Subsequently the contact region between the cutter and the workpiece in the machining process is obtained based on geometry and orientation of the cutter, geometry of the workpiece, and machining conditions. The total cutting forces in the different directions are finally achieved by adding all the cutting forces in the contact areas through integral calculation. 3.1 Cutting edge geometry of a ball-end mill A ball-end mill in the machine tool coordinate system (X, Y, Z) is given in Fig. 4. A ball-end mill has several cutting edges called flutes. Figure 4 shows a ball-end mill with three flutes. A cutting edge is formed as a helix curve on

the surface of the hemisphere with a constant helix lead in the Z direction. The helix angle of a point on the cutting edge, , can be calculated from the Z value of this point. The helix angle at the point of intersection between the cutting edge and the cylindrical shank is a constant 0. The cutting tool coordinate system (XC, YC, ZC) is defined by rotating its three axes in the (X, Y, Z) about the z-axis to align the xC-axis along the tangent direction of the flute on the tip of the cutter. Cutting edge geometry has direct influence on the cutting performance and the resulting cutting forces [21]. Suppose P is a point on the cutting edge and C is the center of the hemisphere of the cutter as shown in Fig. 4, the angle between PC and z-axis, , is defined as the position angle of the point P. When XC is in the tangent direction of the flute on the tip of the cutter as shown in Fig. 4b, the angle between XC and OP on the XOY plane, , is defined as the lag angle of point P. When radius of the cutting tool is described by R, ZC of P can be calculated by [12]: ZC Rm R1 cos q tan b0 2

From Eq. 2, the lag angle of P can be obtained by: m tan b0 1 cos q 3

When the point P in the cutting tool coordinate system is defined by (XC, YC, ZC), the coordinates of the P can then be calculated by: 2 3 2 3 XC R sin q cos m 6 7 6 7 4 4 YC 5 4 R sin q sin m 5 ZC R1 cos q In Eq. 4, since R is a constant and is a function of , the coordinates of XC, YC, ZC are then the functions of . The position angle changes from 0 to /2, when the point P moves from the tool tip to the tool shank.

Fig. 4 Cutting edges of a ball-end mill

C
dFa dFt dFr

Z,ZC

X P O,OC Y XC

O,OC

(a). Isometric view of cutter.

YC Y (b). Top view of cutter.

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When the point P is on the jth cutting edge, its angular position 8j measured positively from the y-axis can be defined by: j j q; j 1p tan b0 1 cos q 5

where 8p is the angle between two adjacent cutting edges calculated by 8p =2/Nf, Nf is the number of flutes, 8 is the rotation angle of the milling cutter calculated by 8=2nt/60, n is the spindle rotational speed (rpm), and t is the time (seconds). 3.2 Cutting forces for a differential element In order to determine the differential cutting forces at any cutter point in the engagement domain, the first step is to identify the infinitesimal chip load for a differential element (Fig. 5) [11]. Since the eccentricity of cutting edge also influences the formation of the chip [18], based on the method introduced by Lamikiz et al. [12], the thickness of the instantaneous undeformed chip thickness, hj, can be calculated by: 6 hj hj q; fz ej ej1 sin j sin q where fz is the feedrate in the unit of feed per tooth, ej is the eccentricity of the jth cutting edge, and ej-1 is the eccentricity of the preceding cutting edge. The eccentricity of a cutting edge is defined by the difference between the distance from a point on the cutting edge to the axis of spindle and the distance from this point to the axis of cutter. From Fig. 5 and Eq. 4, the chip width in each cutting edge differential element, db, can be defined as: db dz Rdq sin q 7

Most of the existing cutting force models were developed considering the shear and ploughing cutting force components, based on the cutting force model introduced by Lee and Altintas [14]. The differential forces at each edge point are calculated by: 8 0 > dFt j; q; Kte ds Ktc hj q; db > < 0 9 dFr j; q; Kre ds Krc hj q; db > 0 > : dFa j; q; Kae ds Kac hj q; db where dFt, dFr, dFa (in N) are the tangential, radial, and axial force components; Kte, Kre, Kae (in N/mm) are the edgespecific coefficients; and Ktc, Krc, and Kac (in N/mm2) are the shear-specific coefficients. The edge-specific coefficients and shear-specific coefficients can be identified experimentally [5, 9] based on the workpiece material, tool material, and tool geometry. The methods to obtain the coefficients used in the experiments of this research will be introduced in Section 4.2. By replacing the hj, db, and ds in Eq. 9 using Eqs. 6, 7, and 8, the force model for the differential element is then achieved as:
q 8 0 2 0 2 0 2 > dF 0 j; q; Kte > t XC YC ZC dq Ktc hj q; Rdq > > < q 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 XC YC ZC dq Krc hj q; Rdq > dFr j; q; Kre > q > > 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 : XC YC ZC dq Kac hj q; Rdq dFa j; q; Kae

10 3.3 Contact areas between cutter and workpiece 3.3.1 Engagement of cutting edge in cutting From Eq. 10, we know that the key to calculate the cutting forces considering the whole contact areas between the cutter and the workpiece is to achieve the two boundaries of the position angles min and max. The different cases of cutter-workpiece contact areas for machining a sculptured surface with a ball-end mill are shown in Fig. 6. In this

From Eq. 4, the length of each differential element of the cutting edge ds can be calculated by:   q 0 2 0 2 0 2 ds dPXC ; YC ; ZC T  XC YC ZC dq 8 where XC, YC, and ZC are derivatives with respect to .
Fig. 5 Undeformed chip and its thickness

(fz+ej-ej-1)sin

hj dz P
db
dz hj (fz+ej-ej-1)sin
j

db

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 54:821835 Fig. 6 Different cases of the engagement of the cutting edges

827

ZC ZC-ex(ex)

ZC-max(max)

ZC-min(min)

3
ZC-st(st)

6 4 5

O
st ex

figure, 8st and 8ex are the start and exit radial immersion angles based on the relative location between the cutter and the workpiece, and st and ex are the limit axial position angles related to the cutting edge. For a ball-end milling with the surface of the workpiece perpendicular to the axis of cutter, st is selected as 0 corresponding to the position angle of the tool tip, and ex is the position angle corresponding to the ZC of the cutting depth ap. The ZC value corresponding to a can be calculated using Eq. 2. The dark area in Fig. 6 represents the possible cutting zone within the boundaries between 8st and 8ex in the angular direction, and the boundaries between ZC-st(st) and ZC-ex(ex) in the ZC direction. The helical cutting edges of the ball-end mill can be engaged in the cutting process in six different ways [1] as shown in Fig. 6. In this figure, a line represents a cutting edge. Since a cutting edge is a helix curve on the hemispheric surface with a constant helix lead in the ZC direction, each cutting edge in the 8j-ZC coordinate system is described by a line. In other words, when a point on the
Fig. 7 Cross-sectional views of ball-end milling

cutting edge of the ball-end mill rotates about zC-axis along the cutting edge with a constant angular speed, the velocity of the point in the ZC direction is also a constant. When the cutting edge has intersection with the possible cutting zone, the boundaries of the contact areas in the ZC direction, ZC-max, and ZC-min, can then be obtained. 3.3.2 Start and exit radial immersion angle 8st and 8ex The start and exit radial immersion angles, 8st and 8ex, in Fig. 6 can be explained using a three-flute ball-end mill as shown in Fig. 7. In this figure, ae is the cutting width representing the distance between two adjacent parallel tool paths, R is radius of the cutter on the selected section of the cutter representing the effective radius of the cutter for the machining, and O is the center of the ball-end mill. The start and exit radial immersion angles are calculated based on two types of milling processes, up milling and down milling, considering the different rotational motions of the ball-end mill and the feed directions of the

vf
A st=0 O ex A B

vf
B

ae

R ex=

ae
O

st C

(a). Up milling.

(b). Down milling.

828 Fig. 8 Calculation of effective radius considering different types of sculptured surfaces

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 54:821835

Surface before Machining

Z1 (Surface Normal) CL path Surface after Machining R ap R

ex st

2R

(a). Effective radius of ball-end milling.

(b). Milling of a planar surface.

O --ap O R P ex R st P

O R P +ap R ex P st O ap

ap

(c). Milling of a convex surface.

workpiece. For the up milling as shown in Fig. 7a, A is the position for a cutting edge to start the cutting process while B is the position to end the cutting process. The start and exit radial immersion angles are defined with OA as the initial position with clockwise as the positive direction. The start radial immersion angle, st, is always selected as zero. The start and exit radial immersion angles for up milling can be calculated by: 8 < st 0 0 11 : arcsin ae R p ex 0 2 R For the down milling as shown in Fig. 7b, A is the position for a cutting edge to start the cutting process while
Table 1 Boundaries of cutting areas for the six cases Case 1 2 3 4 5 6 Conditions 8j >8ex and j  b0 1 cosa q 0 >  tan ex 8j >8ex and  st < j tan b0 1 cosa q 0 < ex  8j >8ex and j tan b0 1 cosa q 0 < st   8st <8j <8ex and  st < j tan b0 1 cosa q 0 < ex  8st <8j <8ex  and j tan b0 1 cosa q 0 < st  8j <8st and j tan b0 1 cosa q 0 < st Cutting

(d). Milling of a concave surface.

B is the position to end the cutting process. C is the intersection point between BO and cutting edge. The start and exit radial immersion angles are defined with OC as the initial position with clockwise as the positive direction. The end radial immersion angle, ex, is always selected as . The start and exit radial immersion angles for down milling can be calculated by: 8 0 < arccos ae R st 12 R0 : ex p The effective radius of cutter, R, is calculated considering three different shapes of the sculptured surfaces: planar surface, convex surface, and concave surface as shown in

ZC-min 0
R tan b0 R tan b0
ZC-st ZC-st

ZC-max 0
ZC-ex

No Yes Yes Yes Yes No

  j ex   j ex

R tan b0 R tan b0

j st j st

 

ZC-ex

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 54:821835

829 Table 2 Average cutting forces with different feedrates (n = 10,000 rpm, ap =0.5 mm) fz (mm/tool)
X0

XYZ: Machine tool coordinate system X0Y0Z0: workpiece coordinate system B: the rotation angle about B-axis C: the rotation angle about Z-axis
Z B C H Y

Z0

Y0

F X0 (N)
8.71 11.93 15.01

F Y0 (N)
14.68 17.43 18.93

F Z0 (N)
10.27 12.24 16.08

O0(X0,Y0,Z0)

0.1 0.2 0.3

O
45

X O

Workpiece Dynamometer

Fig. 9 Mapping from the machining tool coordinate system to the workpiece coordinate system

3.3.3 Limit axial position angles st and ex of the cutting edge As shown in Fig. 8bd, the limit axial position angles st and ex in the cutting edge can be derived from the following equations: & qst a 0 q ex a arcsin R R 16

Fig. 8. Suppose is the radius of curvature at the cutting point on the workpiece surface, is the angle of the ballend mill related to the effective cutting radius R, from Fig. 8, the effective radius of cutting can be calculated by: R R sin q
0 0

13

(1) For a planar surface as shown in Fig. 8b, the is calculated by: q 0 arccos R ap R 14

where is the inclination angle between the direction of the surface normal at the cutting point and the axis of the cutter. Based on Eq. 2, the two boundaries in the ZC direction are calculated by: & ZCst ZCst q st R1 cos a 0 ZCex ZCex qex R 1 cos a arcsin R R 17

where ap is the axial cutting depth. (2) For a convex surface as shown in Fig. 8c or a concave surface as shown in Fig. 8d, the is calculated by: R2 r R2 r ap 2 2Rr R

3.3.4 Boundaries of the contact areas on the cutting edge Along the cutting edge defined by the boundaries of st and ex, only portion of this cutting edge is actually engaged in cutting as shown in Fig. 6. The different cases of the engagement of cutting edge are classified into 6 categories as shown in Fig. 6. From this figure, the ZC-max and ZC-min for these six cases can be calculated as summarized in

q0 arccos

15

where is the radius of curvature at the cutting point. For a convex surface is positive, while for a concave surface is negative.
Fig. 10 Settings of experiments

convex surfaces
=15 mm =10 mm =15 mm =10 mm

concave surfaces

=7.5 mm

5
=7.5 mm

Z0

Y0 X 0
(b). 11 tool paths.

(a). A workpiece with 6 cylindrical surfaces.

830 Table 3 Cutting coefficients for this experiment Edge-specific coefficients Ktc (N/mm2) Krc (N/mm2) Kac (N/mm2) Shear-specific coefficients Kte (N/mm) Kre (N/mm) Kae (N/mm)

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 54:821835

2,233.72 81.90 31.37 122.80 59.34 59.02

coordinate system (X, Y, Z), as shown in Fig. 4, is conducted. The mapping between these two coordinate systems is described by: 2 3 2 03 dFX dFt 4 dFY 5 T1 4 dF 0 5 18 r 0 dFZ dFa The mapping matrix [T1] in Eq. 18 is obtained by first p rotating 2 q angle about the dFt-axis to make z-axis parallel to dFa-axis, then rotating8j angle about the dFaaxis to make x-axis parallel to dFt axis. The mapping matrix is calculated as: 2 3 sin q sin j cos q sin j cos j T1 4 sin j sin q cos j cos q cos j 5 19 0 cos q sin q In the second step, mapping from the machine tool coordinate (X, Y, Z) to the workpiece coordinate system (X0, Y0, Z0) is carried out as shown in Fig. 9 using: 2 3 2 3 dFX0 dFX 4 dFY0 5 T2 4 dFY 5 20 dFZ0 dFZ When a 3-axis CNC machine is used, since the three axes in the machine tool coordinate (X, Y, Z) are in the same directions as the three axes in the workpiece coordinate system (X0, Y0, Z0), the [T2] is described by an identity matrix. When a 4- or 5-axis CNC machine is selected, rotations of the machining table that holds the workpiece also need to be considered to calculate the mapping matrix

Table 1. Using Eq. 2, the corresponding min and max can then be achieved. 3.4 Calculation of the total cutting forces considering all the contact areas From the previous sections, we have built the force model for the differential element on the cutting edge and achieved the boundaries of the effective cutting areas. The total cutting forces can be obtained by integral calculation. Since the force model for the differential element, described in Eq. 10, is in the local cutting force coordinate system (t, r, a) with the P as the origin, while the cutting forces are measured in the workpiece coordinate system (X0, Y0, Z0), mapping from the local cutting force coordinate system to the workpiece coordinate system is then required. The mapping is conducted by two major steps. In the first step, the mapping from the differential element coordinate system (t, r, a) to the machine tool
Fig. 11 Predicted and measured cutting forces (=7.5 mm, =10)

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831 0.465 0.015 0.051 0.367 0.358 0.475 Radius (mm) 15 10 7.5 7.5 10 15 Direction 0.547 0.585 0.408 0.266 0.189 0.263 0.303 0.851 0.943 0.492 0.576 0.588 0.420 0.860 0.957 0.703 0.693 0.618 0.499 0.456 0.288 0.169 0.031 0.107 0.087 0.703 0.856 0.363 0.367 0.448 0.246 0.818 0.88 0.518 0.535 0.525 0.017 0.404 0.175 0.011 0.224 0.010 0.483 0.521 0.740 0.069 0.057 0.123 0.119 0.505 0.860 0.102 0.382 0.359 0.628 0.156 0.109 0.039 0.031 0.123 0.245 0.196 0.630 0.004 0.059 0.043 0.213 0.122 0.702 0.098 0.247 0.363 0.999 0.251 0.145 0.105 0.771 0.284 0.129 0.860 0.297 0.246 0.294 0.250 0.258 0.391 0.402 0.021 0.019 0.237 0.061 0.077 0.311 0.188 0.362 0.247 0.365 0.317 0.034 0.517 0.044 0.018

[T2]. For the machine tool DMU-70V used in this research, the two rotation angles are B and C about b- and z-axis. The b-axis is on YOZ plane, and the angle between b-axis and Z is 45. O is a point on both the b- and z-axis, and distance OO is defined as H (H=155 mm). The origin O0 of the (X0, Y0, Z0) coordinate system is defined as (X0, Y0, Z0) in the (X, Y, Z) coordinate system. In other words, when the coordinate system (X, Y, Z) is translated by (X0, Y0, Z0), rotated B angle about b-axis and rotated C angle about zaxis, this (X, Y, Z) coordinate system is then aligned with the (X0, Y0, Z0) coordinate system. The mapping matrix [T2] in Eq. 20 is calculated by: (1) translating O0 to O by (X0, Y0, Z0) with matrix [M1], (2) rotating C angle about z-axis with matrix [RZ1], (3) translating O to O by (0, 0, H) with matrix [M2], rotating 45 about x-axis with matrix [RX1] to align b-axis with z-axis, (4) rotating B angle about z-axis with matrix [RZ2], (5) rotating 45 about x-axis with matrix [RX1], and (6) translating O back to the previous position by (0, 0, H) with matrix [M2]. The mapping matrix [T2] in Eq. 20 is obtained by: h 0 ih 0 i T2 M2 RX 1 RZ2 RX 1 M2 RZ1 M1 21 The [T2] is first calculated by 4 4 homogeneous matrices and then the result is converted into a 33 matrix. By combining Eqs. 18 and 20, the mapping from the local cutting force coordinate system (t, r, a) to the workpiece coordinate system (X0, Y0, Z0) is defined by: 2 3 2 03 2 03 dFX0 dFt dFt 0 4 dFY0 5 T2 T1 4 dF 5 T 4 dF 0 5 22 r r 0 0 dFZ0 dFa dFa From Eq. 9, dFa, dFt, and dFr are defined as functions of j, , and 8. Using Eq. 22, dFX0 , dFY0 , and dFZ0 can also be defined as functions of j, and 8: 8 < dFX0 FX0 ; j q; dq dFY0 FY0 ; j q; dq 23 : dFZ0 FZ0 ; j q; dq By obtain the integrals of the equations in Eq. 23 considering the boundaries of : max and min, the total forces in the directions of X0, Y0, and Z0 can be calculated by: 8 Nf > > FX FX P R qmax; j FX ; j q; dq > > 0 0 0 qmin; j > > j1 > > < Nf P R qmax; j 24 FY0 FY0 qmin; j FY0 ; j q; dq > j1 > > > Nf > > > F F P R qmax; j F q; dq > Z0 : Z0 Z0 ; j qmin; j
j1

25 20 15 10 Table 4 The average errors between predicted and measured cutting forces 5 Inclination angle () 0

When the Kistler 3-component dynamometer (Model 9257B) is installed below the workpiece as shown in Fig. 9,

X0

Y0

Z0

X0

Y0

Z0

X0

Y0

Z0

X0

Y0

Z0

X0

Y0

Z0

X0

Y0

Z0

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Fig. 12 Influence of inclination angles on average measured cutting forces (=10 mm)

the measured forces in the workpiece coordinate system (X0, Y0, Z0) should match with the estimated forces calculated using Eq. 24.

material was selected as AISI/P20. The veneer kellering ball-end mill with two flutes and 10 mm in diameter was selected as the cutter. The workpiece had three convex cylindrical surfaces with radii of 7.5, 10, and 15 mm, and three concave cylindrical surfaces with radii of 7.5, 10, and 15 mm as shown in Fig. 10a. For each of the six cylindrical surfaces, a total of 11 tool paths were measured along the axial directions as shown in Fig. 10b. Since the cutter is always in the vertical direction, the angle between the normal direction of the cutting point and axis of the cutter is the inclination angle given in Fig. 8. Inclination angle is changed from 25 to 25 with interval of 5. The rotation speed of the spindle was selected as 10,000 rpm. Feedrate in the axial direction was selected as 0.1 mm per tool. The cutting depth in the Z direction was selected as 0.5 mm. The eccentricities of two cutting edges e0 and e1 are 0 and 0.01 mm, respectively. Semi-dry cutting condition was employed. 4.2 Calculation of cutting coefficients To calculate the forces in the workpiece coordinate system, the edge-specific coefficients and the shear-specific coefficients in Eq. 9 need to be obtained beforehand. These coefficients are determined by the workpiece material, tool material, and tool geometry. Bases on the research by Gradisek et al. [5], these coefficients were obtained from the experiments using the planar surfaces. According to

4 Experimental results and validation 4.1 Settings of experiments The experiments were carried out using DMU-70V vertical machining center at Shandong University. The workpiece
Fig. 13 Influence of inclination angles on predicted cutting forces (=10 mm)

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833

Gradisek et al. [5], the six coefficients can be calculated by: 8 > Ktc 2p C3 F xc C2 C1 F yc > Nf A 1 > C3 2 C2 C1 2 > ! > > > A2 C2 C1 F xc C3 F yc >K 2p > rc A3 F zc > C5 C3 2 C2 C1 2 > Nf A2 2 A3 2 > > ! > > A3 C2 C1 F xc C3 F yc > 2p > Kac A2 F zc < C5 C3 2 C2 C1 2 Nf A2 2 A3 2 > K 2p C4 F xe C5 F ye > > te Nf B1 C4 2 C5 2 > ! > > > B2 C5 F xe C4 F ye >K 2p 3F > re B2C1ze > C4 2 C5 2 > Nf B2 2 B3 3 > > ! > > B3 C5 F xe C4 F ye > 2p 2F > Kae B2C1ze : C4 2 C5 2 Nf B2 2 B3 2

where
R qmax R qmax A1 qmin R sin qdq; A21 qmin Rsin2 qdq; R qmax A3 qmin R sin q cos qdq; R qmax R qmax R qmax B1 qmin dsq ; B21 qmin sin qdsq ; B3 qmin cos qdsq ; C1 1 jex ; C2 1 sin 2jex ; C3 1 cos 2jex ; st st st 2 4 4 C4 sinjex ; C5 cosjex st st

25

Many values of feedrate fz were selected, and the obtained average cutting forces in the three directions are given in Table 2. From F q F qc fz F qe (q=X0, Y0, Z0), a total of nine equations are established with six cutting force variables Fqc and Fqe (q=X0, Y0, Z0). By solving these equations through linear regression, the values of the six variables,

Fig. 14 Influence of radius of curvature on predicted cutting forces and average absolute values of measured cutting forces (=10o)

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Fqc and Fqe (q=X0, Y0, Z0), can then be obtained. The coefficients in Eq. 25 can subsequently be achieved. These coefficients are provided in Table 3. 4.3 Comparison between the estimated cutting forces and the measured cutting forces The predicted forces calculated using the theoretical model and the measured forces obtained from the experiments are shown in Fig. 11. The estimated force curves basically match with the measured force curves. The difference between these two curves is primarily caused by the errors of the measurement since the predicted forces are static in nature while the measured forces are dynamic. Other causes of errors include geometric errors, cutter deflection, and thermal deformation. The average relative errors between predicted and measured cutting forces are shown in Table 4. The relative error at each rotational angle is calculated by: h jFestimated Fmeasured j 100% Fmeasured 26

5 Conclusions In this research, a new cutting force estimation model has been developed considering influence of radius of curvature for sculptured surface machining. This research aims at improving the accuracy of cutting force estimation while maintaining efficiency of computing by approximating the cutting region of the sculptured surface using a spherical surface. The cutting force model is built through the following steps. Firstly, the cutting forces for a differential element on the cutting edge are calculated. Then the boundaries of the cutter-workpiece contact areas on the cutting edge are obtained. The total cutting forces are obtained by the integral calculation. Experiments have also been conducted to measure the cutting forces and compare them with the theoretically estimated forces. In addition, the influences of radius of curvature and inclination angle on the magnitudes of the cutting forces have also been studied. This study serves as the basis to estimate the cutting forces and compensate the cutting errors caused by the cutting forces to improve the quality of sculptured surface machining. Advantages of this developed cutting force model are summarized as follows. 1. Compared with the existing cutting force estimation models, the influence of the radius of curvature on the cutting forces is studied quantitatively for the first time. Radius of curvature is an important feature to model the characteristics of the cutting point on the sculptured surface based on the approximation of the cutting region using a spherical surface. 2. Together with the radius of curvature, the influence of inclination angle on the cutting forces has also been modeled and studied quantitatively.
Acknowledgements This research is supported by the Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (No.: NCET-06-0588), the 973 Program (No.: 2009CB724402) and the Science and Technology Development Program of Shandong Province (No.: 2007GG20004003). Research support from the Chinese Scholarship Council for Ph.D. Study in Foreign Countries is also acknowledged.

4.4 Influence of inclination angle on the cutting forces The influence of inclination angle on the average measured cutting forces and the predicted cutting forces is shown in Figs. 12 and 13, respectively. In this study, only convex surfaces are selected. From both average measured and predicted cutting forces, it can be seen that the values of cutting forces FY0 and FZ0 increase with an increase in inclination angle, while the value of cutting force FX0 decreases with the increase in inclination angle. Although the error of the average cutting force is significant due to the small magnitude of force, the trends of the cutting force changes in these directions are the same. From this study, we reach the conclusion that the inclination angle is an important influence factor on the cutting forces. 4.5 Influence of radius of curvature on the cutting forces The influence of radius of curvature on the predicted cutting forces and measured cutting forces is shown in Fig. 14. It can be seen that for the predicted cutting forces, the absolute values of cutting force components FX0 , FY0 and FZ0 increase with an increase in the radius of curvature , because the contact areas are increased with the increase in the radius of curvature . The similar influence can be found for the measured cutting forces. So the radius of curvature of the sculptured surface is another important influencing factor on the cutting force.

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