COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

Commercial Fishing Issues: Maintaining a Sustainable Seafood Industry in the Atlantic Ocean Robert Slipkovich The University of South Florida

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES Executive Summary

Commercial fishing is a multi-billion dollar industry that provides seafood to companies and consumers. Specifically in the Atlantic Ocean, scientists are seeing rapid declines in the populations of commercially harvested fish. Policies have been the focal point of government intervention in an attempt to create a sustainable seafood market for the future. However, enforcement of these regulatory policies is a challenge due to the size of oceanic waters. Scientists have estimated that if overfishing continues near the current level, commercially harvested fish will be nearly eradicated by 2048 (Murray, 2009). Technological advancements on fishing boats have exponentially sped up the ability for fishermen to literally sweep ocean floors. Along with the rapid decline of fish stocks, come solutions for the renewal of fish habitats. Policies involving government regulation, fishing quotas, and net sizes have all been viable solutions when attempting to solve the overfishing epidemic. The history of overfishing in the United States comes with the aspirations of profit from boat captains. Since the 1970's, Atlantic waters have become the target of overfishing regulations and policies. The New England coast once was an area riddled by cod, however, in recent times, much of the cod has been caught and never had a chance to replenish (Murray, 2009). The expansive coastal regions of the United State have even warranted international policies which limit other countries from fishing in American waters. Although laws and federal regulations are usually followed by fishermen, poor enforcement has become a problem in the quest to keep fish stocks healthy. In an effort to become combative, stricter regulations are necessary in an effort to eradicate overfishing from American waters. Rebuilding populations of commercial fish can only be facilitated through strict policy and regulation.

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES Introduction Commercial fishing in the United States has been a problem that has plagued our world for

quite some time. Methods of catching fish have typically involved the use of basic fishing equipment (rod, hook, bait etc.). However, technological advances have given fisherman the tools necessary to yield high profits in the smallest amount of time. One may question the technological advances which often lead to the exponential harvest of commercial fish. Trawling, which is a method where a net is literally dragged across the ocean floor, has become an area of concern for sustainable fisheries (Murray, 2009). The literal sweep of the ocean floor and its sea-dwelling inhabitants has been scrutinized as a focal point in understanding modern day overfishing. Policies have been introduced which allow for certain size nets, monthly closure of commonly caught fish, and even the closure of some oceanic waters (Murray, 2009). In any case, science has pointed to empirical evidence to support the notion that commercial fishing has been a detriment to fish stocks. The policies previously mentioned are just a few of the federal governments solutions to the overfishing pandemic. In the United States, a region where fish has been a mainstay of a healthy diet, commercial fishing has become a lucrative profession for many people who make their salary on the water. Policy enforcement and reform, regarding overfishing, is necessary to maintain fisheries for not only food but survival as well. Background The history of overfishing in the Atlantic Ocean has come about as no surprise. Fish have become a profitable profession for many captains and mates. Throughout the history of the United States, coastal waters have been home to plentiful bounties of fish. The New England coast once had cod populations that literally infested the waters (Brander, 2006). Once fisherman exposed and

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

extensively fished these areas, cod populations had declined drastically. Researchers have noted that a 1,000 hook line dropped off the new England coast would almost always catch cod on every hook before the exposure of these fish, however, modern studies using the same technique have yielded only a handful of cod; much less than in decades past (Murray, 2009). Besides the decimation of New England cod, many other types of commercially harvested Atlantic fish are also under the pressures from a high demand seafood market (Big-fish Stocks, 2003). A high demand for sushi (which has spread from Asian countries) has become a detriment to the current seafood market (Murray, 2009). Not only is seafood popular in the media, it has also been scientifically found to be very healthy for consumers. As seafood distributors seek to make a profit off fish, fisherman are often imposed higher quotas to meet, thus leading to overfishing (Murray, 2009) Policies have been enacted since the 1970's throughout the Atlantic to save fish from rapidly declining due to overfishing (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). These policies have targeted commercially caught fish and to some extent, shellfish. Oysters in the North Atlantic have been a popular catch for many fisherman, however recent declines in oysters harvested have warranted more governmental intervention to revive the once thriving oyster population (Ault, Golletquer, Heral, & Rothschild, 1994). The Atlantic coast hosts a variety of fish that have all been affected by commercial fishing practices. In order to find a feasible solution, the history of Atlantic overfishing polices must be analyzed to find what went wrong. Timeline of Major Atlantic Ocean Fishing Policies According to Rosenberg and Wang (1997), the following policies and initiatives have been implemented, chronologically, in regard to Atlantic Ocean overfishing (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997): 1977-1982 Magnuson-Stevens fishing act

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES 1982-1986 1986-Present 1989 1994-1995 1994-Present Interim Groundfish Management Plan Comprehensive Groundfish Management Plan Implementation of Overfishing Guidelines (Amendment 4) Amendment to the Interim Groundfish Management Plan (Amendment 5) Economic Assistance Program Policy Legitimation and Adoption When looking at the history of overfishing in the United States, finding the original policies surrounding this topic have formed precedent for modern fishing regulations. The Magnuson-

Stevens (MS) Fishing act was created to limit fishing activity in federal waters (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Although originally instituted decades ago, amendments have given to this act to allow it to transcend into modern day fishing policy and regulation. Historically, this act was the precedent for much of the United States policy on fishing conservation and renewal, especially regarding minimum size of fish caught as well as net sizes (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Management problems with the original structure of the Magnuson-Stevens fishing act led to an interim fishery management plan (FMP) in the mid 1980s (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997) . This plan led to minimum fish and net sizes that commercial fisherman were able to use (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). In an effort to save juvenile fish, the interim FMP was used as a means of restoring fish populations and allowing juveniles to mature. Smaller fish are noticed to experience less shock and mortality due to the larger gaps within net mesh, thus they would not be easily trapped within larger nets. (Chopin & Arimoto, 1995). After the initial policy, as well as the interim policy, neglected to facilitate a better fishing

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

environment a more directed policy for Atlantic coast fishing was created. In 1986, a comprehensive FMP was devised in order to set proper guidelines for fisherman (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Unlike the previous policies, this comprehensive regulatory policy was under frequent oversight from marine officials. Specifically, this new policy looked at the ability of fish to reproduce over a given period of time (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). By analyzing the reproductive capabilities of fish, researchers and scientists were able to address areas that were frequently fished. Another important aspect of this policy involved putting Atlantic coast biologists on a monitoring board (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). These officials were found to be more qualified than the original overseers due to their vested, non-monetary interest in the future of Atlantic Ocean fishing (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). In order to define overfishing, a set of guidelines was implemented for Atlantic coast fishing to augment the comprehensive fishing plan. In its entirety, 602 guidelines relating to cod, haddock, and flounder were implemented to monitor each fish population (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Rather than focusing on rebuilding fish populations, these guidelines sought to define overfishing in a specific set of commercially harvested fish. A stock rebuilding program was also to be implemented through this program, however, National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) did not go through with the policy implementation (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Amendment 5 to the Interim Groundfish Management Plan instituted a decrease in fishing mortality over the next 5-7 years (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). In order to correct the overfishing problem in Atlantic waters, researchers had to address more types of fish that are often commercially caught. Amendment 5 replaced the weak regulations found in Amendment 4 by creating regulations for nearly every commercially caught Atlantic fish (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Marine biologists and scientists had also addressed the concerns for fishing fishing vessels at sea and bycatch. Commercial fishing boats would experience a 10% reduction in days allowed at sea over the next

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

five years, also, bycatch regulations included continued, stricter regulation of net size (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Bycatch occurs when fish or other marine life becomes entangled in trawling nets. Agardy, Dayton, and Hofman (1995) maintain that porpoise and whale populations, in regard to bycatch, have substantially decreased in number due to net size (Agardy, Dayton & Hofman, 1995). The United States Department of Commerce, a supervising body over the National Marine Fisheries Service, implemented a plan involving both fishermen and fish. A grant totaling $30 million dollars was part of this economic program to develop alternative fisheries and to aid fishermen (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Alternative fisheries typically involve fish farming, a method of raising fish specifically for human consumption. Duda and Sherman (1999) argue that funding alternative fisheries, such as fish farming, can mitigate ecosystem damage and help oceanic fish recover from the effects of overfishing (Duda & Sherman, 1999). Along with funding the future of fishing areas, the United States Department of Commerce had also decided to create a fund for Atlantic fishermen. In an effort to limit the amount of commercial vessels, a $25 million dollar fund was created for Atlantic fisherman to sell their boats to the United States Government (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). This economic plan was initiated to pay fishermen and their crew to retire fishing boats which commercially harvest common Atlantic fish. Unlike other plans that strictly focused on the future of fishing habitats and populations, this stimulus plan was one of the first policies enacted that revolved around the fishermen (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Fishing in the Atlantic has been profitable and has warranted an increase in fishing boats from companies and captains. Davies, Roberts, and Hall-Spencer assert that overfishing has led to the need to find alternative areas for fishing (Davies, Roberts & Hall-Spencer, 2007). By reducing the massive Atlantic fishing fleet, fish would be able to replenish more quickly due to

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES less fishing boats on the water. Policy Identification To truly define the issue of overfishing, one must look at the methodology used to capture fish. Before fishing policies and regulations came into being, commercial fishing had minimal

discretion when it came to catching fish. Originally, policies were very weak and did not sufficiently assess the severity of overfishing (Agnew, Beddington, & Clark, 2007). In recent policies, quotas and net restrictions have been imposed by the officials associated with marine conservation boards in the United States (Jones & Schmitz, 2009). Overfishing has been recognized as a serious problem for the future of the seafood industry and for wildlife. The issue of overfishing is commonly viewed by many as a serious problem that is detrimental toward fish as well as the oceans. Sustainable seafood activists form coalitions and groups to support activism and awareness of seafood practices (Cho, 2010) Most notably, packaged fish is often sold with a label denoting if it has come from a sustainable fishery (Murray, 2009). Murray recognizes fishermen and regulatory agencies as two of the major players in the seafood industry (Murray, 2009). Fisherman harvest fish in Atlantic waters as a source of revenue and profit. Myers and Worm argue that fisherman have taken advantage of their freedom in the Atlantic and have taken illegal quotas of fish in order to make more money (Myers & Worm, 2003). With seafood becoming an ever-popular food to eat, prices have risen substantially in recent times (Cho, 2010). Regulatory agencies, such as the National Marine Fisheries Service, have instituted policies in the Atlantic coastal region in response to scientific findings that fish populations were in decline (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Seafood conservation has also been initiated with stricter government oversight due to failed overfishing policies of the past. MacKenzie finds that original

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

policies and oversight involving commercial fishing have not substantially affected fish populations throughout coastal waters (MacKenzie, 2008). Current government involvement, specifically within the Department of Commerce, in the issue has placed overfishing as a popular topic in regard the the agenda for environmental policy. As fish populations decrease, and market price for fish rises, governmental action has been focused on renewing fisheries to not only lower market prices, but to also maintain revenue for commercial fishing fleets (Murray, 2009). Fisherman use oceanic fish as a means of a profit and creation of a stimulus plan for them has dramatically shifted the policies of the past which, at the most, focused on reviving fish populations. Past policies focused on allocating money to renewing fishing grounds that were commonly fished in an effort to maintain them and make them sustainable (Duda & Sherman, 1999). Focusing governmental money and resources on fisherman has been a combative strategy in an effort to mitigate overfishing. Agnew, Beddington, Pearce, Peatman, Pritchard, and Pramod maintain that commercial fishermen often misinform regulatory bodies about their actual catches in an attempt to sell surplus fish for a profit (Agnew, Beddington, Pearce, Peatman, Pritchard, & Pramod, 2009). Economic reform in fishing has been used a tool to ultimately aid fisherman in their primary goal; making a sustainable living. Policy Implementation Successful implementation of Atlantic fishing policies, specifically from 1977-present, have created guidance in regard to overfishing. The policies enacted were augmented by amendments to further encompass the many management problems in controlling/limiting the problem of Atlantic overfishing. Rosenberg and Wang maintain that the marine regulatory agencies as well as the United States Department of Commerce have been important figures when attributing Atlantic fishing

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES policies/guidelines to a specific group (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). The policies, which tend to supersede one another, have been implemented in regard to poor performance from previous

10

policies. Scientific and research officials have also played a part in assessing the strength and quality of overfishing data (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Policy Evaluation Throughout the process of evaluating the overfishing policies set forth by the U.S. Department of Commerce as well as various governmental marine agencies, problems occurred which led to amendments of original policies. Once overfishing in Atlantic waters was distinguished as a problem, amendments to the original polices were instigated to revise the initial regulations set forth(Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). As noticed in the following data set, Atlantic overfishing has experienced positive and negative change since Atlantic fishing regulations were implemented.

Source: (Agnew et al., 2009)

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

11

Enforcement of policies regarding illegal harvesting in the Northern Atlantic have substantially decreased, however, areas in the Southern Atlantic Ocean have experienced an increase in illegally harvested fish (Agnew et al., 2009). The regulations imposed by the federal government have not substantially changed the illegal capture of commercially harvested fish. However, Balmford., Gravestock, Hockley, McClean, Roberts make claim that policies which target large areas are not enforced to the extent that they should be regulated at (Balmford., Gravestock, Hockley, McClean & Roberts, 2004). Minor changes in the empirical data and evidence from the above model displays a harbinger that instituted overfishing policies have not affected fisherman in a substantial way. Weak policies with minimal sanctions have slowed down the overfishing epidemic, but the profitability of illegally harvested fish far outweigh any government imposed consequences (Agnew, Beddington, & Clark, 2007). Policy Options and Alternatives When analyzing a policy, finding alternative options are often a viable solution to solving a problem within a polices structure. In order to continue the renewal of heavily harvested fishing grounds, suggestions to the current agenda should be made to accompany the current policies and laws. Overfishing needs to be looked at from two points of view: the fishermen and the fish. Robinson and Wang have brought forth Atlantic Ocean fishing policies which have decided to target strictly fishermen or the fish that are harvested (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Fish were often the target of initial policies and fishermen were negated in many policies until the Economic Assistance program was implemented. The initial perspectives of policy makers involved the analysis of

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

12

preliminary data in the 1970's to solve the problem as to why fish populations were dwindling. Areas such as the Chesapeake Bay on the Atlantic coast have been frequently damaged ecologically due to the machines and nets used by fishermen (Ault, Golletquer, Heral, & Rothschild, 1994). Initial reform looked at the fish as being the source of the problem due to habitat destruction due to the methods that fishermen used. The rapid habitat destruction of many Atlantic species of fish has been a primary reason for the decimation of fish populations during the phases of initial Atlantic overfishing policies (Agardy, Dayton, Hofman, & Thrush, 1995). Once ecological aspects of overfishing were looked at, scientists were able to focus on policies in regard to fishermen. The Economic Assistance program that was initiated was one of the first steps in a reducing large fishing fleets in the Atlantic Ocean (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). By instituting a voluntary buy-back program for fishing boats, both government and fisherman were able to benefit from this policy. Offering economic programs to fisherman served as a basic guideline when attempting to eliminate one of major reasons for overfishing; increased profit (Rosenberg & Wang, 1997). Once fisherman and fish were looked at as two dependent variables in the overfishing problem, policies could be administered to benefit both cohorts. More laws and regulations involving both groups are necessary in order to maintain a sustainable seafood industry while not destroying fish habitats. Another important alternative to the current state of affairs in overfishing is the lack of oversight and enforcement of fishing rules. Due to the vast amount of area that oceans span, Myers and Worm believe that an enforcement plan would not be an efficient solution when monitoring overfishing activity (Myers & Worm, 2005). Government agencies do not need to have vessels watching every move of fishermen, but proper oversight once the commercial fishing vessels return to dock and sort fish is a more efficient solution. Pauly, Chirstensen, Guenette, Pitcher, Sumaila, &

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

13

Walters et al. (2002) have assessed the need for oversight on coastal waters and do not find it to be a feasible policy within commercial fishing vessels (Pauly, Chirstensen, Guenette, Pitcher, Sumaila, & Walters et al., 2002). Finding money and appropriating funds to an oversight committee in the Atlantic Ocean is a costly venture. By keeping track of ships that have broken overfishing rules in the past, Murray finds that a cost efficient policy could be initiated to target certain commercial fishing vessels that are at risk for overfishing or illegally reporting quotas (Murray, 2009). Another important policy regarding overfishing relates to the habitat destruction which fishermen indirectly impose on reefs and fish habitats. Fishing populations have substantially decreased over time and current overfishing trends may reduce commercial fish populations by as much as 90% in the next two decades (Weise, 2006). Fish habitats have been viewed as one of the major areas within overfishing that needs addressed. Fishing guidelines have limited the size of nets used and what type of equipment can capture fish, but damage to reefs and other fish habitats is detrimental to population revival (Jones & Schmitz, 2009). Endangering an area where fish spawn directly affects the ability of fish to grow and develop. The use of trawling nets to harvest exponential amounts of fish have severely damaged the fragile marine life and reef habitats in the Atlantic Ocean (Murray, 2009). Strict regulations which correlate with the harvesting tools that fishermen use are necessary to maintain the structure and habitats that reefs provide. A final policy alternative may include finding alternative methods of trawling nets and massive commercial fishing fleets. As noted by Agnew, Beddington, and Clark, fisherman have taken many fish from Atlantic waters and under reported their catch (Agnew, Beddington, & Clark, 2007). By investing in alternative methods such as aquaculture, less fisherman would be liable to overfishing and regulations could be implemented on aquaculture farms. Aquaculture involves businesses raising fish strictly for food, rather than actually having to catch it (Rosenberg & Wang,

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

14

1997). This form of fishing is highly profitable, but requires high volume sales and distribution for companies to make a profit. Alternatives methods to traditional fishing have recently come into being due to the high amount of capital needed to fund these elaborate fish breeding centers (Murray, 2009). With less ships on the water and more aquaculture, natural fisheries would be able to sustain long without the constant threat of fisherman dropping lines over profitable areas. Aquaculture is a newly discovered method of making oceanic fish sustainable and it is still not the most popular medium for raising fish. Fisherman could also be diverted to work with aquiculture and not continue fishing the Atlantic in order to let Atlantic fish naturally replenish. Investments in aquaculture would be necessary to facilitate the program and stimulate interest from seafood buyers and consumers. A strong public interest in a more sustainable and affordable seafood alternative would most likely help aquaculture get onto the marine/environmental agenda. Alternatives to traditional fishing are not always favorable due to the many jobs that could be affected. However, aquaculture policies are a viable solution in ending the overfishing problem. The United States Department of commerce needs to maintain a strict approach in the combative effort against overfishing. To keep fish healthy and sustainable for the future, policy implementation regarding the methods that fishermen use must become more strict. Murray finds that the current regulations have not deterred fishermen from taking excess fish or overfishing area in the Atlantic Ocean where fish are unable to reproduce to meet the needs of fishing fleets (Murray, 2009). Scientists and researchers also need to focus on empirical evidence as a tool for pushing policies through the federal government and fishing regulation committees. Estimates of current commercial fish populations vary and do not bring up substantial evidence to force immediate action on the low incidence of commercial fish (Murray, 2009). Maintenance of fisheries for the future in/directly benefits a wide spectrum of individuals and fish. By using the original Atlantic fishing

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES regulations as a precedent, policymakers, specifically dealing with marine biology, can create modern day policies that will aid both fishermen and fish.

15

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES References Agardy, M. T., Dayton, P. K., Hofman, R. J., & Thrush, S. F. (1995). Environmental effects of marine fishing. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 5, 205-232. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/73980.pdf Agnew, D. J., Beddington, J. R., & Clark, C. W. (2007). Current Problems in the Management of Marine Fisheries. Science/AAAS, 316, 1713-1716. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://www.illegal-fishing.info/uploads/Science-article-220607.pdf Agnew, D. J., Beddington, J. R., Pearce, J., Peatman, T. , Pitcher, J. , & Pramod, G. , et al. (2009). Estimating the Worldwide Extent of Illegal Fishing. PLoS ONE, 4(2), 1-8. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi %2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004570 Ault, J, Golletquer, P., & Heral, M., Rothschild, B. (1994). Decline of the Chesapeake Bay oyster population: a century of habitat destruction and overfishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, III, 29-39. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/1994/publication-3080.pdf Balmford, A., Gravestock, P., Hockley, N., McClean, C. J., & Roberts, C. M. (2004). The worldwide cost of marine protected areas. PNAS, 101(26), 9694-9697. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://www.pnas.org/content/101/26/9694.full Ban, N. C., & Vincent, A. C.J.. (2009). Beyond Marine Reserves: Exploring the Approach of Selecting Areas where Fishing Is Permitted, Rather than Prohibited. PLoS ONE, 4(7), 1-8. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi %2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0006258 Big-Fish Stocks Fall 90 Percent Since 1950, Study Says. (2003, May 15). National Geographic.

16

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES Retrieved September 23, 2010, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0515_030515_fishdecline.html Brander, K. (2006). The role of growth changes in the decline and recovery of North Atlantic cod stocks since 1970. Journal of Marine Science, 64, 211-217. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://icesjms.oxfordjournals.org/content/64/2/211.full.pdf+html

17

Cho, J. (2010, May 10). Northeast Ohio seafood prices rise in advance of tighter supply of Gulf fish. The Plain Dealer. Retrieved September 23, 2010, from http://www.cleveland.com/business/index.ssf/2010/05/cleveland-area_seafood_prices.html Chopin, F. S., & Arimoto, T. (1995). The condition of fish escaping from fishing gears -- a review. Fisheries Research, 21, 315-327. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://www.wgftfb.org/reports_of_interest/Chopin_survival.pdf Davies, A. J., Roberts, J. M., & Hall-Spencer, J. (2007). Preserving deep-sea natural heritage: Emerging issues in offshore conservation and management. Science Direct, 138, 299-312. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://media.eurekalert.org/aaasnewsroom/MCM/FIL_000000001165/Davies%20Roberts %20Hall-Spencer.pdf Duda, A. M., & Sherman, K. (1999). An ecosystem approach to global assessment and management of coastal waters. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 190, 271-298. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/190/m190p271.pdf Jones, H. P., & Schmitz, O. J. (2009). Rapid Recovery of Damaged Ecosystems. PLoS ONE, 1-6. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://www.plosone.org/article/info %2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005653 MacKenzie, D. (2008, September 18). 'Shares' in fish stocks halt commercial free-for-all . New 4(5),

%3Adoi

COMMERCIAL FISHING ISSUES

18

Scientist. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14762guaranteed-fish-quotas-halt-commercial-freeforall.html?feedId=online-news_rss20 Murray, R. (Producer and Director). (2009). The End of the Line [Documentary] United Kingdom: Arcane Pictures. Myers, R. A., & Worm, B. (2005). Extinction, survival or recovery of large predatory fishes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 360(1453), 13-20. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/360/1453/13.full.pdf+html Myers, R. A., & Worm, B. (2003). Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature, 423, 280-283. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://pangea.stanford.edu/research/Oceans/GES205/RapidDepletionPredatoryFish.pdf Pauly, D., Chirstensen, V., Guenette, S., Pitcher, T. J., Sumaila, U. R., & Walters, C. J., et al. (2002). Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature, 418, 689-695. Retrieved September 24, 2010, from http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/full/nature01017.html Rosenberg, A., & Wang, S. (1997). U.S. New England Groundfish Management Under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Marine Resource Economics, 12, 361-366. Retrieved October 28, 2010, from the AgCon Search database. Weise, E. (2006, November 03). Study: 90% of the ocean's edible species may be gone by 2048. USA Today. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2006-11-02-overfishing-threat_x.htm