Learning Theories 1.

Behaviorist Learning Theory / Stimulus Response Theories Behaviorists view learning as the product of the stimulus conditions (S) and the responses (R) that followtermed the S-R model of learning. a. Classical Conditioning Theory by Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist who studied the salivas role in the digestive tract with his dogs as his subject. UCS UCR NS+UCS UCR (several pairings) NS UCR or CS CR Where: NS = Neutral stimulus UCS = Unconditioned stimulus UCR = Unconditioned response CS = Conditioned stimulus CR = Conditioned response Extinction a process wherein a conditioned response could be eliminated gradually. Spontaneous recovery conditioned responses could reappear after a rest period if the conditioned stimulus was again applied. helps us understand why it is so difficult to completely eliminate unhealthy habits and addictive behaviors such as smoking, alcoholism, or drug abuse. b. Connectionism Theory by Edward Thorndike

Edward Thorndike American educational psychologist who posited the first scientific theory of learning. He focused on the effects of reward and punishment, success and failure, and satisfaction or annoyance on the learner. Basic Principles of the Connectionism Theory: 1. The law of exercise or repetition The more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer will it be retained. 2. The law of effect States the pleasure-pain principle: A response is strengthened if followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure. 3. The law of readiness States that because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to function than other parts of the body system.

Theory of Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Frederic Skinner described the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior as operant conditioning Four types of Operant Conditioning:
c.

a. positive reinforcement - reward or recognition strengthens behavior b. negative reinforcement - removal of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus b1. Escape conditioning: as an aversive stimulus is applied, the organism makes a response that causes the unpleasant stimulus to cease b2. Avoidance conditioning: an aversive stimulus is anticipated by the organism, who makes a response to avoid the unpleasant event c. punishment - weakens a particular behavior through the consequence of experiencing a negative condition d. extinction / nonreinforcement - weakens a particular behavior through the consequence of not experiencing either a positive or a negative condition d. Behaviorism Theory by John Watson Concepts of Behaviorism 1. Behaviorism is naturalistic 2. Man is nothing more than a machine 3. Men are biological machines whose minds do not have any influence on their actions 4. Behaviorism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions. 5. Behaviorism is manipulative e. Contiguity Theory by Edwin Ray Guthrie States that a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tends to be followed by that movement proposes that any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to be associated. One-trial learning means that a stimulus pattern gains its full associative strength o the occasion of its first pairing with a response. 2. Cognitive Theories on Learning

Cognitive Science is the study of how our brains work in the process of perceiving, thinking, remembering, and learning. It is sometimes called information processing. The focus is on the mental processes that are responsible for behavior and its meaning. Learning is an active process in which the learner constructs meaning based on prior knowledge and view of the world. a. Gestalt Perspective - emphasizes the importance of perception of learning by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka Rather than focusing on discrete stimuli, gestalt refers to the configuration or patterned organization of cognitive elements, reflecting the maxim that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.

In other words, the whole (a picture, a car) carried a different and altogether greater meaning than its individual components (paint,canvas,brush;or tire, paint, metal, respectively). In viewing the whole, a cognitive process takes place the mind makes a leap from comprehenending the parts to realizing the whole.
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b. Field Theory by Kurt Lewin Kurt Lewin emphasized the explanation of human behavior in terms of the forces and tension that moved men to action in his field theory. He concluded that individual behavior was always oriented toward a particular goal. Field Theory states that: 1. Behavior must be derived from a totality of coexisting facts. For Kurt Lewin behavior was determined by totality of an individuals situation. In his field theory, a field is defined as the totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent (Lewin 1951: 240). Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which tensions between perceptions of the self and of the environment were worked through. The whole psychological field, or lifespace, within which people acted had to be viewed, in order to understand behavior. Within this individuals and groups could be seen in topological terms (using map-like representations). Individuals participate in a series of life spaces (such as the family, work, school and church), and these were constructed under the influence of various force vectors (Lewin 1952).
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The Zeigarnik Effect Bluma Zeigarnik, Lewins student, carried out an experiment on waiters.

c.
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Discovery Theory by Jerome Brunner An inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory Takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on her own past experiences and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can understand. d. Schema Theory by David Everett Rumelhart a schemata theory is basically a theory about knowledge. It is about how knowledge is represented and how the representation facilitates the use of such knowledge in certain ways. Rumelhart- built a more comprehensive theory of cognitive learning, whose foundation was the concept of schema or schemata. According to him, all knowledge is packaged into units. These units are schemata. Schemata are knowledge structures that are stored in memory. E.g. the process of remembering the route to work and recognizing people. e. Assimilation Theory by David Ausubel David Ausubel a psychologist, focused on presentational methods of teaching in the acquisition of subject matter in the curriculum.

Assimilation theory states that the most meaningful cognitive learning occurs as a result of interaction between new information and the individuals relevant cognitive structures that he or she already possesses or have previously acquired. Knowledge dimension consists of four quadrants: 1. Meaningful reception learning the learner understands, assimilates and practices what was learned 2. Rote reception learning the learner repeats from memory what was learned after constant attention to meaning 3. Meaningful discovery learning the learner perceives the significance of knowledge learned 4. Rote discovery learning the learner discerns new facts, however needs to identify its meaning to present events Types of Meaningful Learning 1. Representational or Vocabulary learning Consists of learning single words or what is represented by them 2. Concept learning Defined as object, events, situations or propert8ies that possess common attributes and are designated by signs or symbols. 2 types of concept acquisition: a. Concept formation develops in young children which occurs from objects seen and heard. b. Concept assimilation develops in school children and adults with empirical listening and logical implications of events leading towards knowledge acquisition and application. 3. Propositional Learning It is not simply the meaning of single words that is learned, but the meaning of sentences that contain composite ideas. 3. Social Theories Social Learning Theory (later renamed to Social Cognitive Theory) by Albert Bandura States that learning involves functionalism, interactionalism, and significant symbolism. Key components: People learn as they are in constant interaction with their environment are in constant interaction with their environment. Most learning occurs as a result of observing other peoples behavior and its consequences (Modeling). Conditions necessary for effective Modeling a. attentional processes determine which modeled behaviors will be learned. Characteristics of the individual, the modeled activities themselves, and the social interactions in which the learner engages determine which behavior attended to.

b. retention processes refer to the ability to retain modeled behaviors in permanent memory. For memory to occur, people must retain a mental image of a modeled behavior or a verbal symbol that is easily recalled. c. Reproduction is the replication of an image including physical capabilities, and self-observation. d. Motivation is the determination to find a reason to learn or imitate.

LEARNING - a permanent change in mental processing, emotional functioning and/or behavior as a result of experience. - a change in behavior (knowledge, skills and attitudes)that can occur at any time or in any place as a result of exposure to environmental stimuli -it is also an action by which knowledge, skills and attitudes are consciously or unconsciously acquired and behavior is altered which can be seen or observed Learning Theories (LT) guidelines/principles that direct an individual to understand the meaning of an event/situation. coherent framework & set of integrated construct & principles that describe, explain or predict how people learn, how learning occurs & what motivates people to learn & change. Principles of Learning a number of principles to help motivate the learner.

1. Use of several senses People retain: 10% what they read 20% hear 30% see/watch 50% see/hear 70% say 90% say/do 2. Active Learner Environment - to actively involve the learner -(student/pt) in the learning process 3. Conducive Learning Environment

- always consider comfort & convenience of learner . 4. Learning Readiness - assess the learners readiness. 5. Relevance of Information - determine its usefulness because anything that is perceived by the learner to be important will be easier to learn and retain. 6. Repeat of Information - continuous repetition of information over a period of time enhances learning. - applying the information to a different situation & let learner apply it too 7. Generalize Information - give examples to illustrate/ concretize the concept. 8. Make Learning a Pleasant Experience - provide/give frequent encouragement/motivation. - recognize accomplishment & give positive feedback. 9. Be Systematic
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begin with what is known & move toward what is unknown.

10. Be Steady - present information at an appropriate rate. - refers to pace of teacher like talking too fast or too slow

Major LT widely used in Patient Education & Health Care Practice A. Behavioral Theories of Learning/ Stimulus Response Theories/ Behavioral Modification Theory I. John Watsons Behaviorism Theory emphasizes the importance of observable behavior in the study of human beings. Behaviorism originates in the field of psychology defines behavior as muscle movement & postulated behavior as a result of a series of conditioned reflexes & all emotion & thought is a result of behavior learned through conditioning.

S-R MODEL/STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY the (S) & (R) so known as Contiguity Theorist.

He & His contemporary Edwin Ray Guthrie emphasized the contiguity of

Behaviorist observe the responses & manipulates the environment to bring about the desired change.

Motivation to change is brought about by the desire to reduce some drive or DRIVE-REDUCTION & the consequence will include satisfaction, complacent. For behavior to be applied/transferred from initial learning situation to other settings= it is made possible through practice or formation of habits. And Behavioral learning is based on Respondents Conditioning & Operant Conditioning procedures

2. Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning Theory or Conditioning

Pavlovian

a process which influences the acquisition of new responses to environment stimuli. emphasizes the importance of stimulus conditions & the associations formed in the learning process. A neutral stimulus (NS) that has no particular value or meaning to learner elicits an unconditional response (UCR) through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). When (NS) is repeated paired with the (UCS) and the (UCR), time will come (NS) even with (UCS) elicits the same (UCR).

3. B.F. Skinners Theory of Operant Conditioning Focuses on the behavior of the organism & the reinforcement that occurs after the response.
Also called REINFORCEMENT theory

Reinforcement- are events that strengthen responses -one of the most powerful tools or procedures used in teaching & is a major condition for most learning to take place

-its beginning are trace back to Thorndikes Law of Effect (1991)

2 ways To Increase the Probability of a Response:

A. Positive Reinforcement-through rewards or recognition strengthens a

behavior. Ways of Employing + Reinforcement 1. Verbal Ways-students sharing their success story 2. Nonverbal Ways- thumbs-up 3. Citing in Class/-publishing in bulletin board exceptional works/outputs

Classification of Educational Reinforcements 1. Recognition 1.a praise, certification of accomplishments 1.b formal acknowledgements- awards, letters of recommendation, testimonials 1.c informal acknowledgements- private conversation "pat on the back 2. Tangible Rewards- grades,foods,prizes
3. Learning Activities- membership in honor class, difficult clinical

assignments 4. School Responsibilities 4.a opportunities for increased self-management & more participation in decision making 4.b acceptance for participation/suggestions-like improvement of curriculum 4.c greater opportunity for selecting own goals for learning experiences 5. Status Indicators- peer tutor, study corner/officer 6. Incentive Feedback- exam/quiz result, acknowledgement for helping others 7. Personal Activities- engagement in special projects/ extra time off

REMEMBER: Reinforcements should be appropriate or link to learning tasks cause indiscriminate use may result to happy students but not productive students (Tosti & Addison,1979)

B. Negative Reinforcement= PUNISHMENT involves the removal of unpleasant stimulus through either escape conditioning or avoidance conditioning & the difference between them relates to TIMING. PUNISHMENT if employed, should be administered immediately after the response with no distractions or means of escape. must be consistent and at the highest reasonable level

Cardinal Rule of Operant Conditioning to punish the behavior, not the person

4. Edward Thordikes Theory

Also Reinforcement Theory

Principles of Connectionism Theory: 1. The Law of Exercise or Repetition the more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer it will be retained 2. The Law of Effect the pleasure pain principles 3. The Law of Readiness age & developmental tasks proceed simultaneously

B. Cognitive Theories of Learning

Cognition is more than knowledge acquisition a mental processes that occur between the stimulus and response involves intelligence which is the ability to solve problems deals with the learners perception, memory, thinking skills & ways of processing & structuring information stresses the importance of what goes on inside the learner

I. David Ausubels Assimilation Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning meaningful learning is thought to occur only if existing cognitive structures are organized and differentiated.

II.Robert Rumelharts Schema Theory Schema or Schemata are knowledge structures that are stored in memory that is packaged into units which is the schemata.
Able to do it because people dont just remember a series of street names

or particular features but they or remember patterns of facts or visual, auditory or tactile cues which Rumelhart called it Schemata.

Delineated 3 Kinds of Learning/Modes of Learning

1) Accretion-the learning of facts

-new information is learned & added to existing schemata (k) & no changes made to existing knowledge. 2.) Tuning-means that existing schemata evolve or are refined throughout the life span as new situations/issues are encountered. 3.) Restructuring- is the development of schemata by copying an old schema and adding new elements that are different enough to warrant anew schema.

III. Gardener Multiple Intelligence Theory states there are various types of talent/ 7 forms of intelligence which may all be fully developed in a gifted person. an average about 3 or 4 types may be developed by an individual *p. 97Castro

IV. Gestalt Perspective emphasizes the importance of perception in learning

refers to the configuration or patterned organization of cognitive elements that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts the principal assumption is that each person perceives, interprets & responds to any situation in his/her own way

Basic Principles of Gestalt

1. Psychological Origin is directed towards simplicity, equilibrium &

regularity.
2. Perception is selective which has has several ramification.

Information Processing- is a cognitive perspective that emphasizes thinking processes: thought, reasoning, the way the information is encountered & stored & memory functioning.

Stages:
1. Memory Process-involves paying attention to environmental stimuli,

attention the n is the key to learning.

2. Information Processed by Senses-important to consider patients preferred

mode of sensory processing- visual, auditory or motor manipulation. Important to assess for sensory deficits.
3. Information is Transformed & incorporated(encoded) briefly into short term

memory after which it is either disregarded or forgotten or stored in long term memory which involves by using guided imagery, association, rehearsal, practice. -the problem if information will be retrieved after awhile.

4. Action or Response that the individual makes on how information was processed and stored.

V. Jean Piaget Cognitive Developmental Theory Best known cognitive developmental theory With his observations of his childrens perception & thought process at different ages have contributed much to our recognition of the unique ways that youngster reason, the changes in their ability to conceptualized & their limitation in understanding, communicating & performing.

4 Sequential Stages of Cognitive Development: 1. Sensorimotor Stages during Infancy Where infants explore their environment & attempt to coordinate sensory information with motor skills. Youngster are mentally able to represent the environmental, regard the world from their own egocentric perspective & come to groups with symbolization. 3. Concrete Operations Stage during Elementary years/School Age/Logical Thinking Children are able to attend to more than one dimension at a time, conceptualize relationships & operate on the environment (awareness of different views rather one single thought. Recognizes individual differences- No 2 single individuals are alike 4. Formal Operations Stage During Adolescence Teenagers begin to think abstractly- able to deal with the future & can see alternatives & criticize. Before making conclusions, things must be tested with logical pieces of evidence in search of truth. RESEARCH- that young childrens learning is often more solitary whereas older children may learn more readily through social interaction.

2. Preoperational Stage during early Childhood/ Abstract Thinking

ADULT LEARNING

1. Although cognitive development develop sequentially, some adults may never reach formal operation stage. These adults may learn better from explicitly concrete approaches

2. Adult Psychologist & Gerontologist have proposed advanced stages of reasoning in adulthood beyond formal operations. 3. Older adults may demonstrate an advance level of reasoning derived from their experiences in life & wisdom or may reflect lower stages of thinking due to lack of education, disease, depression , extraordinary stress or medicine. Whether you are dealing with children or adult- assessing each patients level of cognitive is the 1st step in COMMUNCATING effectively. Behaviorist believes in REWARD for L to take place but for Cognitive Theorist what is important is the learners goals & expectations which create disequilibrium, imbalance & tension that motivate them to act. C. Social Learning Theory 1. Albert Banduras Social Learning Theory Role modeling is the central concept. Based on behaviorist principles, but the self-regulation & control that the individual exhibits in the learning process are Critical & reflect cognitive principles.

4 Phases/Key Components/ Operations 1. Attentional Phrase/Process- determined which modeled behaviors will be learned. Research indicates: role models with high status & competence are more likely to be observed, although learners own characteristics may be more significant determiner of attention. 2. Retentional Phase/Process-involves storage & retrieval of what was observed. Ability to retain modeled behaviors in permanent memory. 3. Motor Reproduction Phase/Process-where the learner copies the observed behavior. Rehearsal-a significant way to strengthen the reproduction of behavior.

4. Motivational & Reinforcement Phase/Process- focus whether the learner is motivated to perform a certain of behavior especially if he sees the valued outcome. Reinforcement/Punishment-for a role models behavior, learning situation affects learners performance.
2001= Bandura has shifted his focus to sociocultural influences, viewing

the learner as the agent through which learning experiences are filtered. Research Findings: Self-efficacy contributes to productive human functioning that implies health care professionals need to find ways to encourage patients feeling of competency & to promote wellness rather than fostering dependency, helplessness & feeling of low self-esteem. D. A Model of Adult Learning 1. Malcolm Knowles(1984) only scholar to theorize about adult learning concepts. Adult education is different from education of children. Adopted the term ANDRAGOGY, which means the science & art of helping children learn.

CONCEPT: 1. Adults motivated to learn information for which they understand the purpose & see practical application. 2. Adults want to take control of their learning process. 3. Adults want their life experiences to be considered in the learning situation & also want to learn from others experience. Table 2-1 page 23-De Young

Types of Learning Gagnes Conditions of Learning Delineated 8 Types of Learning 1. Signal Learning/ Conditioned Response The simplest level where the learner develops a general diffuse reaction to a stimulus.

2. Stimulus Response Learning

Involves a voluntary response to a specific stimulus or combination of stimuli.

3. Chaining Acquisition of series of related conditioned responses or S-R connections.

4. Verbal Association Type of chaining & is recognized in the process of learning medical terminology.

5. Discrimination Learning Learners need to discriminate among the large number of S-R/ verbal chains to learn & retain these large numbers.

6. Concept Learning Learning to classify stimuli into groups represented by a common concepts.

7. Rule of Learning Can be considered a chain of concepts or relationships between concepts. Fairly sophisticated level of learning. If the learner will not truly learn & comprehend a lot of rules in a particular field of study, he will find difficulty with problem solving which is the highest level.

9. Problem Solving Learning The most complex type & highest level of learning

Nurse Educators Role: 1. Helps students define the problem & goal Just state the problem & let students put it into words by verbal coaching Must be certained that the students has already learned the concepts & rules that will be needed to solve the problem

2. Helps students recall the necessary rules by means of questioning, suggestions or demonstrations.