JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA Vol.78, August 2011, pp.

131-146

Seismic Clusters and their Characteristics at the Arabian Sea Triple Junction: Supportive Evidences for Plate Margin Deformations
BASAB MUKHOPADHYAY1, MANOJ MUKHOPADHYAY2 and SUJIT DASGUPTA3
1

Geological Survey of India, Central Headquarters, 27, J.L. Nehru Road, Kolkata - 700 016, India 2 Department of Geology and Geophysics, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 3 Deputy Director General (Retd.), Geological Survey of India, Central Headquarters, Kolkata Email: basabmukhopadhyay@yahoo.com

Abstract: The plate margin features defining the Arabian Sea Triple Junction (ASTJ) are: the Aden Ridge (AR), Sheba Ridge (SR) with their intervening Alula-Fartak Transform (AFT), Carlsberg Ridge (CR) and Owen Fracture Zone (OFZ). Exact nature of ASTJ is presently debated: whether it is RRF (ridge-ridge-fault) or RRR (ridge-ridge-ridge) type. A revised seismicity map for ASTJ is given here using data for a period little more than a century. Point density spatial statistical criterion is applied to short-listed 742 earthquakes (mb 4.3), 10 numbers of spatio-temporal seismic clusters are identified for ASTJ and its arms. Relocated hypocentres help better constraining the cluster identification wherever such data exist. Seismic clusters actually diagnose the most intense zones of strain accumulation due to far field as well as the local stress operating at ASTJ. An earthquake swarm emanating from a prominent seismic cluster below SR provides an opportunity to investigate the pore pressure diffusion process (due to the active source) by means of r-t plot. Stress and faulting pattern in the active zones are deduced from 43 CMT solutions. While normal or lateral faulting is characteristic for these arms, an anomalous thrust earthquake occurs in the triangular Wheatley Deep deformation zone proximal to ASTJ. The latter appears to have formed due to a shift of the deformational front from OFZ towards a transform that offsets SR. Though ASTJ is still in the process of evolution, available data favour that this RRF triple junction may eventually be converted to a more stable RRR type. Keywords: Revised seismicity map, Foreshock-mainshock-aftershock sequence, Aspect ratio and b-values, Seismic clusters, CMT solutions, r-t plot, RRR plate margin kinematics.

INTRODUCTION

The ASTJ covers an area of 1,20,000 sq km in western Arabian Sea, where, its constituent ridges and transforms define the western margin of the Indian plate against the Somalia plate to the southwest and the Arabian plate due west (Fig.1). The spreading ridges delineate the plate margin, namely; the CR, SR and AR or their connecting transforms - OFZ and AFT. Here our objective is to investigate the present kinematics of the ASTJ, so that, the nature of the plate margin below the Arabian Sea can be better understood. This is achieved by adopting the following approach: (a) By preparing a revised seismicity map using the available earthquake catalogues maintained by ISS, ISC and NEIC (USGS) corresponding to a period little more than a century (1904-2009); the cut-off magnitude selected in creating the map is mb 3.3. (b) Diagnose the seismic clusters, wherever present, surrounding the ASTJ, out to a radial distance of about

500 km. In absence of any better alternative, this cutoff distance is somewhat subjective, yet it is retained for the basic reason of not to lose sight of ASTJ by moving too far away from it. For identification of clusters, point density spatial function technique is applied to the seismic data to constrain the extent of the clusters. Such identified clusters are shown on a map view. The salient features of these clusters in terms of seismicity, seismotectonics and local seabed morphology are also summarised in text. (c) To investigate the correlation between the major seismic clusters and their underlying crustal sections derived from geophysical modelling. For this, we use both the Bathymetric Shaded Relief (BSR) map and the relocated seismic events using EHB technique (courtesy: Dr. E.R. Engdahl, pers. comm.). Available CMT solutions for earthquakes (www.seismology.harvard.edu) in such well defined seismic zones are next utilised to draw

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BASAB MUKHOPADHYAY AND OTHERS

inferences on the prevailing stress and faulting pattern underlying the seismic clusters found across the study area. (d) The role of pore pressure caused by magmatic dyke intrusion from mantle along rift axis to generate earthquake swarms within clusters is investigated by r-t plot. Seismotectonic status in correspondence to crustal structure for tectonic features proximal to ASTJ is also evaluated. (e) Stress and faulting pattern in the active zones are deduced from 43 CMT solutions. These help studying the Neotectonics for ASTJ and its arms. Finally these results are used to infer on the evolutionary status for ASTJ between RRF and RRR types.
SEISMIC CLUSTER ANALYSIS

Spatial clusters form by close occurrence of similar point events in space; moderate to large magnitude earthquakes often occur in spatial seismic clusters (McGuire, 2004). A seismic cluster is suspected in a region if it consists of multiple events with magnitude greater than a threshold value originating within an acceptable time period. The earthquake catalogue used in the present study (source: ISS, ISC and NEIC- USGS) consists of a total of 862 earthquake records for the period of 1904-2009 covering a rather wide range of

magnitude (mb = 3.3 to 7.0) with shallow focal depths. Earthquakes enlisted in the catalogue are plotted on bathymetric DEM with gravity data layer draped on it (Fig.2). It is known that non-uniform status of seismic monitoring in an area introduce factors of inconsistency and incompleteness in any earthquake catalog, resulting into inherent uncertainty in the search for long-term earthquake clustering (Kagan and Jackson, 1991). Further, any statistical treatment for cluster analysis essentially depends on the completeness of the earthquake catalogue (Ansari et al. 2009). For this purpose, suitable magnitude for catalogue completeness has been carried out as per the GutenbergRichter relationship. Log N mb curve illustrates that for mb 4.3, the curve is smooth and follows a straight-line (inset in Fig. 2), thereby implying that all earthquakes of mb 4.3 in the region were detected and the catalogue is by and large complete above this cut-off magnitude. The seismicity plot (Fig.2) exhibits zones where earthquakes are visibly clusters. Point density estimate is applied to constrain the extent of such seismic clusters as it successfully identifies the areas of concentration of data points or vice versa. To calculate the point density, distance between the adjacent earthquakes is measured on the earthquake distribution map (Fig. 2) by a spatial technique called the near analysis. From the distance data, a mean distance between the earthquake

Fig.1. Generalized plate configuration map in the Arabian Sea and the Triple Junction formed by the Indian, Arabian and Somalia plates at the intersection of the Sheba Ridge and Owen Fracture Zone (after Fournier et al. 2001). Magnetic anomalies and fracture zones are adopted from Royer et al. (2002).
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Fig.2. Revised seismicity map of the study area based on events during 1906-2009 (source: ISS, ISC & NEIC/USGS global earthquake catalogue), superposed shaded bathymetric relief with gravity data. Topographic data are taken from 1-minute global topography (Smith and Sandwell, 2007) and gravity data (Sandwell and Smith, 2009). The distribution suggests highly active neotectonism in plate margins below the Arabian Sea. Frequency magnitude relationships for 862 events of mb 3.3 suggest that the catalogue is largely complete above magnitude 4.3.

points is calculated, which is nearly 6 km in the present case. The mean distance is then taken as the radius of the circular neighbourhood for point density calculation. Point density is next calculated as the total number of earthquake epicentral points that fall within the chosen circular neighbourhood with radius of 6 km divided by the area (= *62) of the neighbourhood as a process of normalisation. The measurement is then carried out on an overlapping grid pattern where the centre of the circle has moved across the map, both along latitude and longitude, by a sliding distance equivalent to search radius (6 km). The calculated point density value is stored at a grid point placed at the centre of the circle. Resulting point values obtained by this sliding grid process are interpolated to generate a continuous grid. This grid has a mean (m) 0.035 and standard deviation (sd) 0.088. The areas with anomalous point density [value > (m + 2 sd) = 0.211] are marked as zones of spatial clusters. The process identifies 10 such spatio-temporal seismic clusters of variable sizes representing both ridge and transform segments for ASTJ with numbers A to J (shown by closed dark polygons on Fig.3). The clusters
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contain foreshock-mainshock-aftershock (FMA) sequences or their combination, standalone independent earthquakes as well as the swarm sequences of short temporal duration (Table 1 for the temporal sequences and their salient characteristics).
SEISMIC CLUSTERS ASSOCIATED WITH THE RIDGES AND TRANSFORMS AT ASTJ Aden Ridge

The AR separating the Somalia and Arabian plates is associated with seismic cluster, A. It trends E-W, elliptical in shape, of length 113 km and breadth 29 km (aspect ratio, length/breadth = 3.89) (Fig.3). This cluster contains 73 earthquakes, with mb ranging from 3.8 to 5.6 and focal depth varying from 2 to 33.2 km. The b-value calculated by maximum likelihood method (Aki, 1965) is 1.08. Earthquake sequences within this cluster contain three swarm sequences of short temporal durations, whose characteristics are summarised in Table 1. North of the cluster A, Cenozoic sediments in the Masila basin in mainland Yemen, exhibit

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Table 1. Major characters of seismic clusters for the Arabian Sea Triple Junction and their correspondence to CMT Solutions Cluster No of Earthquakes Magnitude range Depth range (km) CMT Solutions Length (L) Breadth (B) (km) Aspect Ratio (A R) = (length/ breath) L = 113 km B = 29 km A R = 3.89 b-value by maximum likelihood method (Aki, 1965) 1.08 Type of Segment Characteristics of temporal sequences of earthquakes in Clusters

73

3.8 - 5.6

2 - 33.2

6 nos (Normal Solutions on low to moderate dipping fault planes)

Aden Ridge

3 nos of swarm sequences (a) 1.11.2003 (11:38:4.5) to 2.11.2003 (15:11:30.10) 4 Earthquakes (4.1-4.7mb) (b) 3.2. 2008 (8:19:53.98 to 25.02.2008(23:22:21.49 7 Earthquakes (3.8 4.5mb) (c) 2.11.2008 (0:16:56.08) to 16.11.2008 (2:52:53.96) 5 Earthquakes (3.9 4.9mb) Isolated 2 nos of floating events without foreand aftershocks (a) 21.07.1975 (13:27:44.9) mb 5.9 (b) 15.06.2001 (16:19:7.61) mb 6.0 2 nos of swarm sequences (a) 25.12.1966 (5:42:1) to 25.12.1966 (5:49:58) 3 Earthquakes (4.5-4.9 mb) (b) 25.03.2001 (7:14:9.58) to 25.03.2001 (17:6:22.23) 4 Earthquakes (4.8-5.1mb) 2 nos of FMA (Foreshock-Mainshock-Aftershock sequence) (a) 14.05.1982 (14:42:57.23) mb 5.2 as mainshock with 2 foreshocks in the same day (b) 1.02.2008 (1:32:27.82) mb 5.0 as mainshock with 6 aftershocks One swarm sequence (a) 13.05.2002 (8:24:44.4) to 21.05.2002 (9:41:55.7) 9 Earthquakes (3.9 5.2 mb) One FMA sequence (a) 27.01.1987 (0:36:27.35) mb 5.0 as main-shock with 2 foreshocks and 1 aftershock 4 nos of swarm sequences (a) 6.08.1972 (15.37:0.2) to 20.09.1972(20.52:37) 5 Earthquakes (4.6-5.0 mb) (b) 19.04.1975 (13:45:50.1) to 25.05.1975 (20:30:11.1) 56 Earthquakes (4.1 5.4 mb) (c) 7.12.1995 (17.48:16.53) to 8.12.1995 (18:19:25.45) 5 Earthquakes (4 5.3 mb) (d) 18.06.2000 (20:45:20.07) to 15.08.2000 (20:17:7.2) 4 Earthquakes (3.7 5.2 mb)

44

3.9 - 6.0

9.9 32.8

6 nos (Strike-slip Solutions on steep dipping fault planes) 1 no (Normal Solution on low dipping fault plane)

L = 89 km B = 35 km A R = 2.54 L = 77 km B = 42 km A R = 1.83

0.62

Alula Fartak Transform

BASAB MUKHOPADHYAY AND OTHERS

47

3.7 - 5.7

4.1 32.2

0.72

Sheba Ridge

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46

3.9 5.3

4.5 35

2 nos (Normal Solutions on low to moderate dipping fault planes)

L = 122 km B = 38 km A R = 3.21

1.08

Sheba Ridge

157

3.4 5.8

0.5 31.6

9 nos (Normal Solutions on low to moderate dipping fault planes)

L = 138 km B = 57 km A R = 2.42

0.72

Sheba Ridge

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Table 1 Contd... Cluster No of Earthquakes Magnitude range Depth range (km) CMT Solutions Length (L) Breadth (B) (km) Aspect Ratio (A R) = (length/ breath) b-value by maximum likelihood method (Aki, 1965) Type of Segment Characteristics of temporal sequences of earthquakes in Clusters

SEISMIC CLUSTERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AT THE ARABIAN SEA TRIPLE JUNCTION

3 nos of FMA sequences (a) 13.08.2002 (8:37:22.77) mb 5.8 with 1 foreshocks and 10 aftershocks (b) 03.03.2008 (18:1:40.75) mb 5.4 with 1 foreshocks and 3 aftershocks (c) 21.04.2009 (19:45:3.79) mb 5.4 with 1 foreshocks and 3 aftershocks F 48 3.7 5.5 6.2 29.1 3 nos (Normal Solutions on low to moderate dipping fault planes) L = 141 km B = 50 km A R = 2.82 1.08 Sheba Ridge One swarm sequence (a) 02.03.2000 (4:24:18.86) to 24.05.2000 (13.03.5.15) 4 Earthquakes (4.3 4.7 mb) One FMA sequence (a) 03.03.2007 (18:08:53.29) mb 5.3 with 1 foreshocks and 1 aftershock 2 nos of FMA sequences (a) 20.04.1980 (2:37:49.30) mb 6.2 with 2 aftershocks (b) 26.02.1992 (3:45:19.78) mb 6.0 with 2 aftershocks Isolated 2 nos of floating events without fore and aftershocks (a) 28.03.1996 (7:28:28.12) mb 6.1 (b) 1.10.1996 (15:50:23.66) mb 6.4 H 31 3.7 6.4 7.9 34.4 3 nos (Strike-slip Solutions on steep dipping fault planes) 4 nos (Normal Solutions on low to moderate dipping fault planes) L = 99 km B = 36 km A R = 2.75 L = 105 km B = 51 km A R = 2.05 0.62 Owen Fracture Zone Carlsberg Ridge One FMA sequence (a) 07.07.1986 (16:26:56.61) mb 6.4 with 5 aftershocks One FMA sequence (a) 18.02.1989 (13:13:34.08) mb 5.2 with 1 aftershock Isolated 2 nos of floating events without fore and aftershocks (a) 03.11.1973 (08:29:35.30) mb 5.4 (b) 16.06.2000 (21:33:13.25) mb 5.3 J 36 4.1 5.9 9.1 33.1 5 nos (Normal Solutions on low dipping fault planes) L = 134 km B = 45 km A R = 2.97 0.73 Carlsberg Ridge 2 nos of FMA sequences (a) 14.12.1969 (18:37:9) mb 5.9 with 1 foreshock (b) 10.08.1983 (02:02:36.18) mb 5.1 with 1 foreshock

30

3.9 6.5

9 35

4 nos (Strike-slip Solutions on steep dipping fault planes)

L = 113 km B = 26 km A R = 4.34

0.54

Owen Fracture Zone

32

4.1 5.5

3.5 32.1

0.72

135

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Fig.3. Seismic clusters, A through J, for the study area illustrated on Fig. 2. Crustal sections (black dash lines) taken across the seismic clusters are illustrated together with the relocated hypocenters and Free-air anomalies in their respective areas in Fig. 4. Relocated hypocenters help better defining the seismic zones. Interpreted CMT solutions belonging to the seismic zones are depicted with usual symbols.

two extensional phases: NNE (N20E) around 18 Ma and NNW (N160E) around 16 Ma (Al Kotbah, 1996, 2000; Huchon and Khanbari, 2003) (Fig.3). Similar extensional domain has also been identified from the tectonic analysis in the Qamar basin (Huchon and Khanbari, 2003). The Oligo Miocene stretching of Arabia Somalia plates caused a reactivation of previous structures of these Mesozoic basins without influencing the direction of propagation of rift towards west southwest from the CR in the Indian Ocean into the Afar region in east Africa (Huchon and Khanbari, 2003). Similar tectonics is operating even today as indicated by the stress axes obtained from six CMT solutions. CMT solutions indicate gravity movement along E-W striking low to moderate dipping fault planes (Table 2). Notice that the solutions are dominated by high plunging compression axis and NNE-SSW trending sub-horizontal tensional axis. Thus, the movement direction along NNE is unaltered from the Miocene till date.
Sheba Ridge

The SR defines the rift-ridge segment between Somalia, Arabian and Indian plates located to the immediate west of

ASTJ. It has spawned four seismic clusters, C through F (Fig. 3). All four clusters are elliptical in shape, with aspect ratio varying from 1.83 to 3.21 and b-value between 0.72 and 1.08. Seismicity is most intense here compared to the other ridges in the study area. This is reflected by earthquake occurrences, varying from numbers 46 to 157, highest occurrence registered for cluster E (Table 1). The earthquakes are of low to moderate magnitudes with shallow crustal focal depths. The earthquakes within these clusters show short duration temporal sequences in the form of earthquake swarm as well as FMA sequences, characteristics of which are given in Table 1. The largest swarm sequence with 56 numbers of earthquakes between April 19 May 25, 1975 that has been registered in cluster E seismically the most active segment of the SR (refer below for the r-t plot and its analysis for this earthquake swarm). Fault plane solutions of earthquakes within these clusters show typical normal motion on ESE-WNW oriented low to moderate dipping fault planes (Table 2). Compression axis plunges high with variable orientations, whereas, tensional axis is stable plunging sub-horizontally along NNE-SSW direction. On either side of SR, the tectonics in onshore and
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offshore Oman along the north and passive margins in the south along Socotra is worked out (Fournier et al. 2007). They have pointed out that the asymmetry of the conjugate margins on either side of the gulf is due to presence of oceanward dipping normal faults in the Socotra whereas the Oman margin is dominated by horst and graben structure. The structures at the margin of the Gulf and the seismic clusters C through F reported here are the product of the rifting of continental lithosphere and top crust; followed by seafloor spreading across SR. The spreading was initiated at 18 Ma ago in the early Miocene at the eastern part of the Gulf (Leroy et al. 2004) and continued with current full spreading rate 22 mm/yr in N25E direction (Fournier et al. 2001). The direction of opening of the Gulf of Aden is thus nearly ~ 40 from orthogonal to its overall N75E trend (Cochran, 1981; Fournier and Petit, 2006).
Carlsberg Ridge

due to strain accumulation caused by segmentation of the ridge axis by AFT, the latter is formed by oblique openning of the Gulf (Manighetti et al. 1997).
Owen Fracture Zone

Two elliptical seismic clusters J and I are noticed for this NW-SE trending ridge-rift segment present between Somalia and Indian plates south of ASTJ. The aspect ratio varies from 2.05 to 2.97 and its calculated b-value is 0.72. The ridge associated seismicity is somewhat lower as compared to those with the other Clusters; number of earthquakes constituting the clusters varies from 32 to 36 in the magnitude range 4.1 - 5.9. The earthquakes are of shallow crustal depths. Both clusters are characterized by occurrence of FMA sequences and isolated floating events (Table 1), but earthquake swarms are typically absent here. Earthquakes are produced by gravity motion along NW-SE trending low to moderate dipping fault planes parallel to the trend of the ridge segment (Table 2). The extensional axis is sub-horizontal, dips in NNE-SSW direction, but the compression axis plunges rather steeply with variable orientations.
AlulaFartak Transform

The OFZ morphology is best described by a ridge comprising of a steep easterly facing scarp and a gentler western scarp (Edwards et al. 2000) as it forms part of the western margin of the Indian plate. This seismically active fracture zone is described as submarine fault scarp system running for over 800 km from Sheba ridge to Makran coast in Pakistan (Fournier et al. 2011). The southern part of this fracture zone is shown in the Figs.2 and 3. The fracture zone is defined as series of clearly delineated strike slip fault segments separated by several releasing and restraining bends with a strike slip displacement of 10 - 12 km for last 3 6 Ma (Fournier et al. 2011). This NNE-SSW oriented transform present between the Arabian and Indian plates has two elliptical spatial seismic clusters, G and H (Fig. 3), with aspect ratio 4.34 and 2.75 respectively. The b-value in these clusters ranges from 0.54 to 0.62. The temporal sequences within these clusters either have FMA sequences or isolated moderate size earthquake events (Table 1). The CMT solutions show dextral strike slip motion along steeply dipping fault planes. Here the tensile axis is low plunging ENE-WSW and the compression axis is also low plunging NW-SE (Table 2). Focal mechanisms given earlier suggest right-lateral slip along the active segment of the OFZ (also refer Quittmeyer and Kafka, 1984; Gordon and DeMets, 1989). The OFZ represents a plate boundary that moves 3 4 mm/year (Reilinger et al. 2006) implying that Arabia is currently moving northward more rapidly than India with respect to Eurasia (Fournier et al. 2008). This differential motion on either side of OFZ causes the strain accumulation in its active segments and promotes the clustering of earthquakes.
REVIEW ON CRUSTAL STRUCTURE

This NNE-SSW trending transform transects the AR and SR, has only one elliptical cluster B, with aspect ratio 2.54 (Fig. 3). The cluster contains 44 earthquakes in the magnitude range of 3.9 to 6.0 with shallow crustal focal depths. Its corresponding b-value is 0.62. Isolated floating events of moderate magnitude characterise the temporal sequence in the cluster but with typical absence of the swarm sequences. Six fault plane solutions (Table 2) within this cluster are suggestive of sinistral strike-slip motion along NNE-SSW oriented steep dipping fault planes. The tensional axis is sub-horizontal, oriented along NW-SE direction, whereas, compressional axis is again sub-horizontal along ENE-WSW direction. The cluster B is apparently formed
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The global marine gravity data compiled from Geosat and ERS-1 altimetry by Sandwell and Smith (2009) has been used in this study. The data have an error limit to 2 - 4 mgal in comparison to the shipboard gravity data. With such a lower error limit, this data can be used to interpret mantle anomalies in relation to structure for regional tectonic interpretation. Free-air anomalies are draped on the bathymetric DEM as base (Figs. 2 and 3) to merely inspect their correlation to seabed morphology and underlying crustal configuration. The bathymetric DEM is constructed from 1-minute global topography data compiled by Smith

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Table 2. Fault plane solution data for earthquake events corresponding to seismic clusters A to J. Fault plane NO Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 21-05-1992 27-01-2006 29-07-2006 29-07-2006 07-08-2006 30-04-2008 22-12-1979 28-01-1984 15-06-2001 03-04-2004 15-12-2006 26-04-2008 01-02-2008 27-05-2004 08-11-2006 18-02-1994 07-12-1995 13-08-2002 08-01-2004 26-04-2006 24-06-2006 24-06-2006 06-10-2006 09-01-2007 10-07-1988 13-02-2004 03-03-2007 20-04-1980 28-03-1996 01-10-1996 13-02-2005 29-07-1983 17-09-1986 06-12-1992 18-02-1989 20-03-1993 01-10-2007 30-11-2007 190-3-1994 17-05-1997 30-06-2002 24-08-2008 02-09-2008 H:M:S 4:13:18.60 8:25:37.50 1:36:55.30 2:3:18.80 12:15:53.20 6:16:12.70 15:43:34.20 22:47:58.50 16:19:11.90 10:10:3.20 13:19:9.30 12:39:1.60 1:32:29.30 3:52:8.00 17:13:5.40 16:19:43.00 17:48:16.50 8:37:24.20 8:45:2.20 10:51:20.90 16:52:18.10 16:57:37.50 7:18:18.50 20:52:23.30 2:43:0.00 0:41:38.90 18:8:53.00 2:37:57.80 7:28:31.00 15:50:31.40 5:26:55.10 18:4:4.00 21:25:18.90 1:43:51.00 13:17:3.60 6:30:27.30 5:15:13.00 20:4:23.80 10:43:46.20 0:26:15.90 4:8:4.00 7:35:10.90 14:14:57.10 Lat. 13.28 13.29 13.13 13.31 13.18 13.31 14.07 14.27 14.03 13.80 13.94 14.00 14.40 14.79 14.56 14.48 14.68 14.81 14.42 14.53 14.47 14.46 14.61 14.37 12.97 13.69 13.68 12.41 12.01 12.30 11.98 10.62 10.76 10.45 9.89 9.62 9.81 9.50 8.48 8.48 8.56 7.99 8.57 Long. 50.48 50.84 50.97 50.80 50.88 50.66 51.64 51.82 51.59 51.58 51.53 51.58 53.55 54.66 54.66 56.28 55.52 55.57 56.41 55.73 56.21 56.24 55.63 56.37 57.46 57.03 57.18 57.97 57.72 57.89 57.81 57.02 57.00 56.88 57.87 57.77 57.47 57.99 58.46 58.16 58.17 58.92 58.36 Mw 5.2 4.9 4.9 5.2 4.9 4.9 5.8 5.7 5.9 5.0 5.4 5.3 5.0 5.1 4.9 5.3 5.2 5.7 5.3 4.8 5.3 5.0 5.2 5.2 4.9 5.4 5.3 6.4 6.1 6.4 5.1 5.4 6.2 5.7 5.3 5.1 4.8 4.9 5.3 5.2 5.4 5.0 4.9 T_ Plunge 0 18 4 4 7 3 9 21 4 3 4 5 12 8 7 10 0 9 16 6 11 5 6 15 11 12 5 16 19 7 12 44 6 21 0 0 10 8 17 1 6 10 10 T_ Azimuth 194 37 215 206 27 19 160 343 158 160 158 161 27 17 198 51 182 183 35 198 18 19 18 24 51 19 46 73 70 72 67 261 81 75 30 220 20 39 207 35 58 11 46 N_ Plunge 0 21 26 10 2 9 73 67 75 87 75 70 9 11 26 49 0 11 4 8 1 1 9 5 8 0 2 73 64 72 67 43 81 69 30 0 10 31 8 7 22 13 21 N_ Azimuth 104 134 123 297 297 110 280 140 53 316 262 264 295 286 104 152 92 275 126 107 108 109 109 115 319 289 315 234 295 320 306 56 210 259 300 130 112 133 115 125 326 279 140 P_ Plunge 90 61 64 79 83 80 15 8 14 1 15 20 75 76 63 39 90 76 73 80 79 85 79 74 76 78 84 5 17 17 20 13 7 1 60 90 75 58 71 83 67 74 66 P_ Azimuth 180 269 314 96 190 271 67 250 249 70 67 69 170 144 301 313 180 56 231 325 203 212 256 223 194 198 207 342 166 164 161 158 351 166 121 180 245 296 2 301 164 137 293 Strike 284 96 331 286 119 100 204 25 293 205 203 207 128 120 315 100 272 260 119 297 107 107 98 107 151 109 138 116 208 207 203 289 126 212 147 310 98 98 309 118 171 117 112 Dip 45 32 47 42 38 43 73 69 77 87 77 73 34 38 45 56 45 37 29 39 34 40 40 30 35 33 40 75 64 73 67 49 81 75 52 45 36 46 29 45 43 37 40 Rake -90 -132 -53 -105 -87 -104 -176 170 -7 179 -172 -169 -75 -72 -51 -157 -90 -109 -99 -77 -92 -92 -105 -100 -76 -90 -87 172 2 -7 -5 154 -179 14 -51 -90 -107 -136 -74 -100 -57 -68 -125 Auxiliary plane Strike 104 324 103 126 295 298 113 118 25 295 112 113 290 278 86 356 92 103 309 101 289 290 297 298 314 289 314 208 118 299 295 37 36 119 274 130 299 334 111 312 309 270 334 Dip 45 67 55 50 52 49 86 81 83 89 82 80 57 54 57 71 45 55 61 52 56 50 52 60 57 57 50 83 89 83 85 71 89 76 53 45 56 60 63 46 55 56 59 Slip -90 -67 -123 -76 -93 -78 -17 21 -167 3 -13 -18 -100 -104 -122 -36 -90 -76 -85 -100 -89 -88 -78 -84 -100 -90 -92 15 154 -163 -157 44 -9 164 -129 -90 -78 -53 -99 -80 -117 -106 -65 Solution Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Normal Normal Normal Strike-Slip Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Strike-Slip Normal Normal Normal Strike-Slip Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Cluster A A A A A A B B B B B B C D D E E E E E E E E E F F F G G G G H H H I I I I J J J J J Source HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV HRV

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and Sandwell (2007) (http://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/ get_data.cgi). The gravity map (Fig. 3) of the area shows that gravity anomalies bear linear relationship with seabed topography. High elevation zone shows positive gravity values and vice versa (refer below). Gravity, bathymetric and seismic sections taken across the clusters A through J along the section lines are shown on Fig.4. Of these; Cluster A locates on AR (Fig. 4a); Clusters C through F on SR (Fig. 4c through d) and clusters I and J on CR (Fig. 4i and j). Relocated seismic events using EHB technique (courtesy: Prof. E.R. Engdahl, pers. comm.) from ISC data are plotted below the seismic sections. Geophysical sections, so prepared are used to study the relationships between the seismic clusters and the stress orientation, faulting pattern and their characteristic crustal configuration. This in turn helps inferring on the tectonic status for the most intensely active seismic zones under the ASTJ and its constituent ridges and transforms. Free-air gravity anomalies together with corresponding bathymetric values and crustal sections underlying the locations of the seismic clusters are illustrated on Fig. 4. Thickness of oceanic crust underlying the AR varies from 4.8 to 8.4 km (Cochran, 1982); thickness variation in different parts of the ridge system is due to asymmetric spreading. Further, two-dimensional gravity modelling suggests thin 5-6 km thick crust in AR (Leroy et al. 2004). In all these sections, the focal depth of relocated seismicity is as deep as 30 km with majority of seismicity is originating from 15 20 km depth. If crustal models are valid, most of seismic activity is therefore of sub-crustal origin. The sections also indicate a narrow zone of seismicity, approximately 60 65 km of horizontal width and extending from 25-30 km vertically. Negative gravity anomalies outline the rift segments and positive gravity anomalies flanking it. The CMT solutions along these rifts-ridges are similar. These indicate gravity movement along NW-SE dipping conjugate fault planes, dipping, low to moderate on either side. It indicates a mechanism of repeated collapsing of rift wall by gravity faults during spreading, to generate seismicity along these ridge segments. We have suggested earlier a probable mechanism for the related process (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2010). Basic features involved here are: crustal thinning, deformation on the top basement and sub-crustal mass anomalies, with exhumed mantle material (Leroy et al. 2004). Bathymetric and Free-air anomaly profiles together with their underlying crustal sections for seismic clusters relating to the two transforms AFT and OFZ are also provided on Fig. 4. Here, the cluster B is noticed on AFT and clusters
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G and H are noticed on OFZ. Wide-angle seismic data demonstrate a typical oceanic crust of thickness ~6 km, present to the northwest of OFZ. But there is an abrupt change both in crustal thickness and velocity structure at the northwestern edge of the Dalrymple trough, and the trough itself is underlain by 12-km-thick crust interpreted as thinned continental crust (Edwards et al. 2008). Similarly, the observed thickness of the oceanic crust in the Laxmi Ridge, NW of the study area, is 11.7 km (Naini and Talwani, 1983). It is thus apparent that the crustal thickness underlying the transforms is slightly more than that for the rift-ridge axis. Distinct flat and elevated bathymetry can be seen at the location of the clusters G and H on OFZ (Fig. 4 g and h). The fault planes in the AFT are NNE-SSW trending with steep dip showing sinistral slip motion. Similarly, the fault planes in the OFZ are NNE-SSW to NE-SW trending dipping steeply showing dextral to pure strike slip motion.
bVALUE IN THE CLUSTERS

The earthquake size distribution based on Gutenberg and Richter frequency-magnitude distribution (FMD) follows the well-known power law, designated as b-value. The parameter b depends on the effective stress regime and tectonic character of the region (Hatzidimitriou et al. 1985; Tsapanos, 1990). Decreasing of b value within seismogenic volume correlates the increasing effective stress levels prior to a major shock (Kanamori, 1981) or increase in applied shear stress / effective stress (Urbancic et al. 1992). Smith (1986) observed that the Cape Campbell earthquake of January 1977 was preceded by and located close to a high b-value. In one of our earlier study in search of precursor of great 26th December 2004 Sumatra earthquake (Mw = 9.3) in Sumatra region, a temporal low in b-value (0.68-0.8) is reported prior to the mega-events of 2.11.2002 (M = 7.6) and 26.12.2004 (Mw 9.3) (Dasgupta et al. 2007) which corroborated well with the observed and experimental b value data of Schorlemmer et al. (2005). In the present case, the b-value calculated by maximum likelihood method (Aki, 1965) shows that the clusters B, G and H located on AFT and OFZ are actually associated with very low b-value 0.54 to 0.62. Whereas, in the ridge-rift segments, low b - value (~ 0.72) is characteristics of seismic clusters C and E belonging to SR as well as the clusters I and J for CR. Isolated moderate b values of 1.08 are observed in clusters A, D and F belonging to AR and SR segments (Table 1). The estimated b-values lead us to speculate that the clusters with very low b-values like B, C, E, G, H, I and J in the transform and ridge segments are probably vulnerable to produce moderate size seismicity in future.

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Fig.4. Crustal sections underlying the geophysical sections crossing the seismic clusters A through J (Fig.3 for section line locations).
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ROLE OF PORE-PRESSURE PERTURBATION AND 1975 SWARM CORRESPONDING TO CLUSTER E

There are several small swarm sequences in the ridge segments, of which, the largest swarm sequence with 56 numbers of earthquakes between 19.04.1975 and 25.05.1975 was registered in cluster E (Table 1). The relationship between the swarm sequence and its causative pore pressure perturbation is then studied by a process called the r-t method what is based on the diffusion equation for a point pore pressure source in a homogeneous and isotropic fluid saturated poro-elastic medium having specific hydraulic properties. Shapiro et al. (1997, 2002) predict that fluid flow may trigger an earthquake at a location r, at any time t, after the pressure perturbation. The distance r of the propagating pore pressure front from the injection point (that acts as a source with t = 0), with r = (4Dt), is estimated as a function of time (t). The equation actually defines the enveloping parabola in the r-t plot with variable hydraulic diffusivity (D) values, where, seismicity points should lie below the modelled parabolic curve. The D is scalar; whose value depends on permeability (k), uniaxial specific storage coefficient (S) and viscosity of the fluid (m) by the equation D = k/(mS) (Kuempel, 1991; Wang, 2000). On the contrary, if the earthquake triggering occurs shortly after the pore pressure perturbations (Noir et al. 1997), we should observe a narrow cluster of seismicity along the line of the modelled parabola in the r-t plot with variable scalar D values. The D-value in the earths crust usually ranges between 0.1 and 10m2/s (Shapiro et al. 1999) but can reach up to 90 m2/s (Antonioli et al. 2005). In this scheme the r-t plot basically represents spatial distance r of an individual event from the injection point as a function of time t. An unambiguously defined injection point source, which corresponds to the origin of the graph at time 0, is therefore a pre-requisite for calculation purpose (Shapiro et al. 1997). The injection point from which the fluid diffusion starts in the case of 1975 swarm is identified as the epicentral location of the first earthquake (date 19.04.1975, 13 Hr, 45 Min, 50.1 Sec., latitude 14.42 and longitude 56.51) from where the fluid actually begins to propagate (for further explanation on injection point, refer Shapiro et al. 1997, 2002, 2003). The r-t plot for D values of 8 m2/s for earthquakes of 1975 swarm follows the parabolic equations (Fig.5), where, the swarm relates to the diffusion of pore pressure perturbations in a poro-elastic fluid saturated medium. The pore-pressure perturbations that generate earthquake swarm in divergent pull-apart basins are initiated by magmatic dyke intrusion from mantle source (also refer Mukhopadhyay et al. 2010). Similar condition seemingly exists in this ridge segment. A
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Fig.5. The r-t plot for the 1975 swarm sequence corresponding to cluster E found for the Sheba Ridge, with modelled parabolic envelope of diffusivity (D = 8 m2/s). Refer text for discussion.

narrow zone of volcanic activity, which delineates a volcanic ridge, marks the volcanic nature of this axis of spreading which is relatively straight, shallow and continuous, with depths between 3000 and 3800 m (Fournier et al. 2008). Though similar exercise is necessary for all the swarm sequences registered in Table 1, but due to paucity of earthquake data in those swarms it is not possible to construct the r-t plots. However, it is conjectured that similar mechanism as described above is responsible for generating such swarms.
ON THE EVOLUTIONARY CHARACTERISTICS OF ASTJ

The stability of the triple junction depends mostly on the evolutionary behaviour of the plate boundaries in a local as well as in a regional scale depending on plate motion (Fournier et al. 2008). Though Ridge-Ridge-Ridge (RRR) triple junctions are most common in the earth, the RidgeRidge-Fault (RRF) triple junction where one transform fault meets two spreading ridges though rare but present in three occasions: the Azores triple junction in Atlantic Ocean, the Juan Fernandez triple junction in Pacific Ocean and the presently studied area of Aden - Owen Carlsberg triple junction in the Indian Ocean (Searle, 1980; Larson et al. 1992; Gordon and DeMets, 1989). Kinematically, the RRF triple junctions are unstable and evolve into RFF triple junction. The RFF type triple junction is absent here because one of the transform faults has evolved into a ridge system (Fournier et al. 2008). This can be viewed from a plot of the earthquake and CMT data, active structures, corresponding bathymetric and Free-air gravity anomalies (Fig.6). In western part of the map, the AR is offset over 200 km by

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Fig.6. The RRF triple junction in the western end of Indian plate with active deformational structures surrounding it, represented by contrasting CMT solutions. The triple junction is formed by Sheba ridge, Carlsberg ridge on two sides with OFZ as the connector. A new active triangular deformational zone between the ridges and transform is in the process of evolution where the deformational front is shifted from OFZ to another transform NW of the Wheatly Deep. Small white circles with black outlines are the earthquake points. Large white circles denote Strike-slip, box Normal and star thrust events. Other features are as in Fig.3. AFT: Alula-Fartak Transform, ST: Socotra Transform. AFT (Radhakrishna and Searle, 2006). In central part, minor Socotra Transform (ST) offsets SR. In the central portion of the map, the arcuate orientation of SR between transforms AFT, ST and OFZ is also delineated by epicentral pattern. The OFZ offsets CR by 330 km and connects to the SR (Matthews, 1963, 1966; Laughton, 1966; Matthews et al. 1967; Laughton et al. 1970). Some representative CMT beach ball diagram is placed to better represent the crustal motion (strike-slip mechanism for the transforms and normal mechanism for the ridges) in different parts of this active plate boundary. The rectilinear E-W disposition of earthquake epicentres just north of the eastern segment of the SR, with prominent moderate to small crustal earthquake between, forms a triangular zone represented by present day active deformation. The beach ball diagrams for four available CMT solutions within this zone are analysed: two strike-slip mechanisms (solution numbers 1 and 2, Fig. 6), one with thrust type of solution (solution number 3, Fig. 6) while the remaining is a normal mechanism (solution number 4, Fig.6) occurred at the western end of the extensional Beautemps Beaupre basin where OFZ ends. The strikeslip mechanism earthquakes occurred in the year 1981 and
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1985, with NNE SSW striking steep dipping fault planes and sub-horizontal tension axis along NNW-SSE. These lend support to infer sinistral motion, possibly along a transform fault, that joins the SR. Along the inferred fault line, a thrust earthquake (solution number 3 that occurred on 22.11.2003) with N - S fault plane and sub horizontal (15) E-W oriented compression axis has taken place. This N-S plane corresponds to one of the transform that offsets SR, and also acts as boundary of an active deformation zone. It is also evident that east of this active front the OFZ between the Wheatly Deep and eastern end of the Beautemps Beaupre basin (with occurrence of a normal mechanism for the event number 4 in 1990 having E-W fault plane) is seismically inactive presently. In fact, the presence of this active deformational front is also elaborated (Fournier et al. 2010). They also concluded that the evolution of the triple junction was marked by a change of geometry of the ArabiaIndia plate boundary around 10 Ma and the formation of the Beautemps-Beaupr Basin. A small part of the Arabian plate was then transferred to the Indian plate. This small part of the plate is the area between active deformation front and aseismic OFZ scarp zone. This change of geometry was coeval with a regional kinematic reorganization corresponding to the onset of intraplate deformation in the India-Australia plate and a change of kinematics along the SR, CR, and southern Central Indian ridges (Fournier et al. 2010). It is interesting to note that seismic cluster E near this active deformational front is the most active cluster, with occurrence of, repeated FMA sequence and earthquake swarms. Though purely speculative at the moment, but it is likely that this active deformation front may propagate further to the west if the present activity continues. There is also a possibility that this transform (due to oblique plate motion and rotation) may be exposed to the tensile domain oblique to it and will form a separate ridge segment. It therefore remains conjectural that the ASTJ, what is presently defined as RRF triple junction, will continue in its present tectonic form, or it will eventually be converted to a more stable RRR triple junction.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

It is apparent from the results of cluster analysis that clusters on the ridges produce more number of earthquakes compared to their counterparts on the transforms. It is of interest to note that clusters on the ridges are dominated by normal events on low to moderate dipping fault planes striking along the ridge axis, whereas, the clusters on transforms are characterized by strike-slip events on steep dipping fault planes. It summarises that transforms are steep
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dipping mantle penetrating fault planes whereas faults or fracture systems in ridges are mainly shallow angle shear fractures probably produced by penetration of mantle dykes beneath the active rifts. The clustered earthquakes on the ridge segments generate low magnitude swarm sequences of small durations and isolated FMA sequences, whereas, earthquakes in the transforms produce moderate size isolated floating earthquake events or FMA sequences. The swarms are the product of pore-pressure perturbation initiated by magmatic fluids generated from magmatic dyke intrusion as indicated by r-t plot. The transforms however did not produce any swarm sequence as such. This indicates that strain accumulation is more in the transforms by probable strike-slip mechanism compared to the ridge segments where strain release is due to strong decoupling and aseismic creep. The geometric dispositions of the rift-ridges compare to the transforms (Fig. 2) indicate that SR segment is arcuate in shape. This arcuate nature of SR is due to the motion along two strike slip faults with contrasting slip vectors, AFT on the western end with sinistral motion and OFZ with dextral motion at the eastern end. This configuration also indicates that in the region circumventing the ASTJ, the Somalia plate is moving faster northerly in comparison to Arabian plate. The junction between Somalia and Arabian plate is highly active and represented by thick zone of seismicity. The OFZ represents segments of both passive and active seismic zone. The junction between Arabian and Indian plates is highly seismic and also represented by seismic clusters G and H. The junction between the Arabian and Indian plates along this fracture zone beyond 12 N latitude is passive. This is probably an outcome of passive tectonic process where the lithospheric slab is being dragged northward through the surrounding lithosphere. The effect of dragging is visible at the eastern end of the Error and Sharbithat ridge in contact with OFZ (Fig. 1). A total displacement of 10-12 km along OFZ for the past 3-6 Ma is also indicated by Fournier et al. (2011). Free-air anomalies in the study area exhibit good correspondence to bathymetric relief. The rift zones show a broad U-shaped bathymetric profile indicative of high spreading rate along this constructive margin. The low gravity anomalies in the rift zone proper and higher gravity anomalies on the ridge flanks are quite characteristic. The high heat flow and extreme fractured nature of the crust along the rift segment contributes elevated pore pressure zones due to underlying magmatic fluid activity from mantle source. The time bound pore pressure perturbation has caused several swarms of small temporal duration including

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a large swarm in cluster E. On the other hand, the ridge segments on either side of the rift is made up of fresh unfractured basalts, the pore-pressure effect within this solid fine grained quickly chilled rock may be considerably less or altogether absent. Majority of these clusters seem to be related to dyke intrusions, propagation, pore fluid fluctuations, hydrothermal activity etc. inferred from the r-t plot (Fig. 5). These dyke intrusions interact with the FMA producing more prolific shorter duration seismic sequences (also refer Simo et al. 2010). These sequences are already detailed in Table 1. Higher level of ridge (or near-ridge) seismicity seen here may be the result of modification or enhancement of the more typical near-ridge thermoelastic stress state associated with plate cooling, or by active secondary convection beneath the young lithosphere of the Indian plate (Bergman and Solomon, 1984). Generally, the low shear velocities associated with the oceanic spreading centre indicate partial melting that triggers dynamic upwelling driven by either the buoyancy of retained melt or by the reduced density of depleted mantle (Wang et al. 2009). The anisotropy in the upwelling mantle in this zone is due to the preferential alignment of the fast axes of olivine crystals in the direction of mantle flow and also to generate preferential alignment of cracks that feed melt towards the spreading axis (Kendall, 1994). Hydrothermal activity associated with asymmetrical accretion in the ridge segment as in the present case shows high levels of near-continuous hydroacoustically and recorded teleseismic events (Escartn et al. 2008). The band of seismicity above the magma chamber suggests that hydrothermal circulation and generation of cracks may be strongly aligned along the ridge axis and hydrothermal cells are oriented across-axis (Tolstoy et al. 2008). Furthermore, long-term data from several spreading ridge sites have shown that microearthquakes at seafloor hydrothermal systems are strongly tidally influenced, implying a seismic pulsing of the seafloor and the hydrothermal flow moving through it (Tolstoy, 2008). This stress change results into generation of preferential alignment of cracks. Failure of this cracks results into teleseismically - recorded seismicity along ridge axis.

CONCLUSIONS

The details of kinematics for ASTJ formed between the Indian, Arabian and Somalia plates is already well known, though, its exact nature is debated. Here we have analysed a revised seismicity to identify ten numbers of seismic clusters distributed both in rift-ridge and transform systems surrounding ASTJ. This forms the most active segments acting as prominent earthquake source zones of strain accumulation and repeated subsequent release in the region. Stress and faulting pattern, derived through a number of CMT solutions, are characteristic for the spreading ridges and transforms. The spreading ridge defines predominantly normal earthquakes whereas the transforms produce strikeslip mechanism events. Majority of the earthquakes originating in ASTJ are entirely of mantle origin; the earthquakes derived from oceanic crust are rare. These earthquakes are thus generated by changes in thermo-elastic stress due to dyke intrusions, pore fluid fluctuations, hydrothermal activity from underlying mantle flow along ridge axis. Individual clusters exhibit meaningful relationships with the seabed morphology, and to a lesser extent, with the deep gravity anomalies. The elevated pore pressure zones are due to underlying magmatic fluid activity from mantle source. The relationship between dyking event, pore-pressure perturbations and swarm generation are established. ASTJ is still in the process of tectonic evolution. Like other triple junctions, the ASTJ is also characterised by tensional domain with earthquakes having normal or lateral faulting sources. Compressional earthquakes are rare. The anomalous thrust earthquake occurs in the triangular deformation zone proximal to Wheatley Deep is such an exception. The active deformation in this triangular zone that is formed due to a shift of deformational front from OFZ towards a transform that offsets SR. Acknowledgements: One of the authors (Manoj Mukhopadhyay) acknowledges that this project was supported by King Saud University, Deanship of Scientific Research, College of Science Research Center.

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(Received: 31 January 2011; Revised form accepted: 3 March 2011)

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.78, AUGUST 2011