1

.
528

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 30, NO. 3, MAYIJUNE 1994

Harmonics: The Effects on Power Quality and Transformers

Robert D. Henderson, Member, IEEE, and Patrick J. Rose

Abstract-The use of non-linear devices such as rectifiers or converters, power supplies and other devices utilizing solid-state switching has increased in industry during recent years. Unfortunately, the effect of harmonic distortion has also increased on the industrial power system as a direct result. This paper is based upon actual harmonic studies on 480 V, three-phase, variable speed drives and the effects of harmonics on transformers in those systems. It also includes the recommendations for correction of the problems resulting from harmonic distortion.

I. INTRODUCTION
A. Dejining the Harmonics Problems HARMONIC is a sinusoidal component of a periodic waveform having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental power frequency of 60 Hz. For example, 120 Hz is the second harmonic (2 x 60 Hz), 180 Hz is the third harmonic (3 x 60 Hz), etc. Harmonic distortion of the power waveform occurs when the fundamental, second, third and other harmonics are combined. The result is voltage and current contaminations on the sinusoidal waveform. Fig. 1 shows simplified fundamental and third harmonic waveforms. When combined, the distorted waveform in Fig. 2 results. A similar but more complex distorted waveform can be seen when all generated harmonics are combined with the fundamental. Harmonics are generated when nonlinear equipment draws current in short pulses. The harmonics in the load current can sometimes result in overheated transformers, overheated neutrals, blown fuses and tripped circuit breakers (or breakers failing to trip in some cases). Complex power system impedances can also be an indirect source of voltage harmonics. Voltage harmonics are produced when non-linear loads draw harmonic currents that act in an Ohms law relationship with transformer, cable, and other system impedances.

Fig. 1.

Fundamental and third harmonic.

Fig. 2.

Fundamental and third harmonic combined.

B. Harmonic Distortion
Any repetitive distorted (nonsinusoidal) waveform can be broken down into pure sine waves whose frequencies are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. These pure
Paper PID 93-32, approved by the Textile, Fiber, and Film Industry Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at te 1993 Textile, Fiber, and Film Industry Committee Technical Conference. Manuscript released for publication October 21, 1993. The authors are with RDH Consultants, Inc., Charlotte, NC 28241 USA. IEEE Log Number 9400162.

sine waves that make up the nonsinusoidal waveform are the harmonic components. Fourier analysis is used to determine the waveforms component sine wave amplitudes and frequencies. Fig. 3 shows a typical example of the distorted waveform. There are an infinite number of harmonics that make up a distorted wave. As the frequencies of these harmonics increase, their amplitudes tend to decrease in an inverse manner. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)is a short version of the Fourier analysis which limits the calculated number of harmonic components to 50 (with insignificant error). After the transform of a nonsinusoidal voltage or current waveform is completed, the harmonic distortion resulting from each frequency can be calculated. Harmonic distortion describes the condition that occurs when a waveform is

0093-9994/94$04.00 0 1994 IEEE

HENDERSON AND ROSE HARMONICS: EFFECTS ON POWER QUALITY

529

TABLE I

TRANSFORMER (CONNECTED LOAD LOAD)

PHASE C Peak

AMPS
304

Drive

Tx.
WV-4 440 300 75

CF
1.90 1.66 1.69

THDF
0.74 0.85 0.84

R-M-S
Average

203
116

Avg-RMS
C f 1.49

196
6% 4%

14 17-1 18-2

NEW RTG. 326 255 63

% LOAD 105 100 102

F f : 1 16

TABLE I1

CBEMA O f : 0 . 9 5
File

TRANSFORMER (RUNNINGLOAD) LOAD

Drive

DZCS-C

Tx.
(KVA) 118 75

CF

THDF

D a t e : 10-06-92

10-6 17

1.70 1.58

0.83 0.90

NEW RTG. 98 68

LOAD 105 101

Harn

KOis1

Harm
0

X Dlit
1 5

Hlrn
14

I Disl
0.7 0.6 1.1 4.0
0.8 2 5

Harm
20 21

Olst

D. Possible Solutions to Harmonics Problems Several possible solutions exist for an area of a plant that exceeds the 5% distortion limit established by IEEE. The amount of harmonic distortion present at the input of sensitive equipment can be decreased by the use of dedicated circuits to isolate harmonic producing equipment. Line reactors, custom designed harmonic filters or K-rated transformers can be used with non-linear loads in certain cases. A detailed harmonic analysis must be performed to determine levels of distortion and resonant frequencies before the correct solution is determined. An analysis may show that excessive harmonics are being generated by some equipment that simply need maintenance overhauls. Whatever the solution, it will depend on the particular application, the results of a harmonic study and a cost analysis.

2 3
4

16 k

16
5 0 3 0 5 k

9 10

0.7 1.9
8 1 t

15
16

0.1 0.5

II
12
13

6
1

0 9
2 8

0.9
2.9

17 18
?9

22 23 21 25

0 9 2.1

0.8
2 0

Processed T h r o q h the 5 0 t h Harmnic

Total Harmonic D i s t o r t i o n = I 4 . 1
THol151 = 33.2
70181

K factor

= 1.8

Kf(151 = 4.0 Even = 9.9

Md

12 6

PHASE C

rwpS

Tola1 T r l p l e n = 1.0

F l l e : D2CS-C

Oale: 10-06-92

Fig. 3. Typical distorted current waveform.

changed from its original shape by the addition of a harmonic frequency. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) describes the change that occurs when all harmonic frequencies are considered.

E. Transformers
Losses in transformers are generally subdivided into core and winding losses. Core loss is of minor concern since it is due to flux generated in the core when a transformer is excited by the bus voltage. Winding loss, which is made up of 12R and stray losses, is generated by currents passing through a transformer. The winding loss is important because of relatively high load current distortion levels. 12R loss is due to current that passes through the winding resistance. Eddy currents are an example of 12R loss which in turn cause losses that are dissipated as heat. The stray loss component is due to stray electromagnetic flux in the windings and other conducting transformer elements. Isolation transformers can be used with harmonic generating equipment to limit the effects on the distribution system. The practice of derating a transformer has been prevalent in previous years. Recently, K-rated transformers have emerged with a greater ability to withstand stress damage and overheating. The K factor was developed by Underwriters Laboratory in UL1561. The K factor numbers do not linearly indicate transformer harmonic tolerance. For example, a K 4 rated transformer has four times the eddy current tolerance as a K 1 transformer (lowest rating). A K13 rated transformer has approximately twice the tolerance of a K 4 and a K30 has twice the tolerance of a K13.

C. Distortion Limits
Three classes have been established on low-voltage (480 V) systems by IEEE in Table I1 of Standard 519-1981 to set the distortion limits on a voltage waveform that may be allowed from static power converters. These limits are as follows:

Class Special Application General System Dedicated System

DF (%)

3 5
10

A Special Application is one where the rate of change of voltage of a notch might mistrigger an event on sensitive equipment. A Dedicated System describes buses that supply static power converters only. Most industrial facilities fall under the General System class. The distortion factor (DF) is the same as Harmonic factor or Total Harmonic Distortion. DF is the ratio of the total amount of energy contained in the harmonics to the amount of energy in the fundamental.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS O N INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 30, NO. 3. MAY/JUNE 1994

PHASE A

AMPS
120

PHASE A Peak

AMPS

Peak
R-U-S
Average

56.8 50 1
49 6

19
44

R-M-S'
Average' Avg-RMS.

Avg-RMS
Cf

49
41%

55.2
-20% -9%

2 02
1 36

C f ' 1.13

Ff

22%
0 10

Ff

1 01

CBEUA D f
FI le Oate

CBEMA Df : 1 . 2 5
File Date

01075-A
10-01-92

DllCS-A

10-08-92

Ham 2 3 4 5 6 1

K Dirt
112' 325' 1 3 * 389' ? 9 1 9 '

Harm
8 9 10

XClit 1 8

Harm 14 15 16 11 I8
19

P Dl51
G9
4 9

Harm
21 1 21 22
23

P Dlsl
1 1

~
2
3
4

rI: Cni s 1

Harm
8 9

Dirt 102'

Harm

I Dirt
6 4 t

Harm

I Dirt
4 6 1 7
3 3 4 7

520'
2 0 2JO*
2 6 1 :

90'
2 6
6 8 1

09
2 6

11 12
11

2 5 0 5

I 5 1 1

24
25

3 0 i 0

1 4 J 9

6
7

1 1

89' 1 1 '

10 11 12 11

1 J E l *
9 9 1

14 15 16 11 18 1Y

20
21

1 J
4 6 6 4 *
2 4 3 2

22
23 24 25

3 4
4 3

21
2 4

Processed Through the 50th Harnonic

Proreared Through the 50th

Harmonic

I o l s l narnnnrc D i i l o i l i o n = 5 4 . 8

K l a c l o r = 9.0

lH01I51 = 5 4 . 4
l o t i 1 Odd
i

11(15) = 6 2

IHD(l5)
PHASE A
Mlps

60.0
i

K11151 = 6 5 Even = 62 2 PHASE A

UPS

I2 8
: 14

Elen
6

14 6

l o l a 1 Md Dale 10-01 92

32 I

l o t t i lilplen

F i l e - DlOlS A

I o t i l Tripten = 11 6

F l l e DllCS-A

Dile

10-08-92

Fig. 4. Triplen harmonics.

Fig. 5. Nonsymmetrical waveform.

11. SCOPE

The objective of this power quality analysis was to study the harmonics generated by the variable speed drives for industrial process lines, and to recommend corrective actions for any harmonic problems found. This study was originated because of repeated failure of drive isolation transformers. All three phases of the line and load side of each drive isolation transformer were monitored. Both voltage and current waveforms were recorded for each phase for problem identification purposes. A total of 146 voltage and 146 current waveforms were captured and analyzed. The voltage waveforms were captured using a set of 1000 V probes and a Tektronix 222PS oscilloscope. An ac clamp-n 1200 A current probe was used with the oscilloscope to obtain the current waveforms. Waveform data was transferred to a notebook computer via an RS-232 communications cable where it was saved for future analysis. The harmonic analysis software utilized in the study was made available by Ed Lethert Associates, Inc. This software allowed the acquisition of waveforms, storage, recall from storage, and waveform display, as well as the calculation of harmonic content for each waveform obtained. The software performs a Fourier analysis on the waveform data using the (FFT).
111. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

These faulty components raised voltage and current distortion levels. Higher levels of harmonic distortion in the power system caused increased transformer losses, which resulted in overheating. Excessive heat caused rapid deterioration of the insulation, leading to premature failure.
A. Drive Problems

Generally, most of the harmonic problems found in this study were the result of aging and failed drive components.

The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) drives included in this study are known as six-pulse converters. An internal electronic power converter changes electrical energy from one form to another, typically by "chopping up" the waveform and reassembling it in a unique manner. This change is accomplished by using solid-state devices such as SCR's, diodes and thyristors to switch six times a cycle in the conducting circuits of the converter. The presence of strong triplen harmonics usually indicates a problem with the drives such as nonfunctioning parts, loose connections, etc. A total of eleven drives had triplen harmonics in excess of 9%. The range was from 9.2%; to 34.6%. Fig. 4 shows the current waveform and analysis for the drive which had the triplen harmonics of 34.6%. A majority of the drives surveyed lacked some symmetry in their current waveforms; however, Fig. 5 shows an extreme example. This waveform was typical for five different drives and was indicative of faulty SCR's. The SCR's were later replaced and the drives operated normally.

HENDERSON AND ROSE HARMONICS: EFFECTS ON POWER QUALITY

531

CIRCUIT Peak:

VOLTS

CIRCUIT Peak:

VOLTS
0.065 0.047

0,067 0 043
0.039

R-Y-S:
Average: Avg-RHS:

R-Y-S:

Average: 0.042 Avg-RMS: CF: 1.37

0.043
10% -0%

0.041
-3% 0%

Cf:1.56
Ff:1.11

Ff:i.i2

CBEUA D f : 0 . 9 1
File:

CBEW

Df:

1.03

D18YS-AB

F i l e : LlMSS-AB Date:

10-08-52

Harm
2 3 4 5

I Oisi
1 5

Harm 8 9 10 11

x mil
1.4 0.1 1.3 1 9

nrm
14 1s 16 17 18
19

x Disi
1.5 0.2 1.0 1 3

Hain 20 21 22 23 21 25

U Disi
1 6 0.2 1 2 1 0 0.6 0 1

nirn 2 3
1

li D i s i
0.6 0.6

Harm 8 9 10 11 12 I3

% 0161

tkrm 14 1s 16 11 18
I9

x Dlst
0.2 0 2 0.4 0.7 0.3
0 2

Harm

~1st

0 2
1 3 4 4 0.1
I 2

0.3 0.1 0 2

20 21

0.B

0.5
0.1 0.8

6
1

12
13

0.6 0.5

0.4 0 1

5 6
1

0.2 3.1 0.3 2.8

0.9
0.5

22 23 24
25

0.2
0.1

I.0

Processed Through t h e 50th Hammnic

Processed Through the 50th Hsrmnic

Total Harmonic Dlstorllon = 1 . 5

TW[lS) = 6 . 0
Total M d = 6 3

K lictor

= 5.1

T o t a l Harmonic D i s t o r t i o n = 5 . 5 TtU[lS]
i

I: factor = 1.1

Kf115) = 1 . 2
Even = 5 7
1 6

4.3
i

Kf(15)

1.1
ClACUlT MCTS
Flle: L1ySS-I

CIRCUIT VOLTS
F i l e . DlOUS-AE

T ~ t a Md l

1.2

Even = 1 . 9

l o l a l Trlplen

Dale

10-08-92

Tolal T r l p l e n = 1 4

Dale: 10-08-92

Fig. 6. Line notch crossing zero axis.

Fig. 7. Flat-topped voltage waveform.

B. Transformer Loading
The true R M S voltage and current readings were used to calculate the running load ( K V A ) on all of the isolation transformers. The crest factor (CF) as obtained from the harmonic analysis was used to arrive at the transformer harmonic derating factor (THDF) as follows: THDF = -

d2

CF

The THDF was then multiplied by the transformer KVA to obtain the new transformer rating. Table I shows the transformers that would have been overloaded had their drives been running at full load. Table I1 shows the transformers that were overloaded when the running (actual) loads are considered. The transformers for the two drives listed in Table I1 have failed since this study was performed. In addition to these drive transformers, eight additional drive transformers were found to be undersized per the manufacturers recommendations.

suspect that this probably will not be the case. In this case, properly sized overcurrent protection has not prevented these transformers from burning up in the past and probably will not in the future. A K-20 transformer would certainly be safer, and probably less expensive when the cost for downtime and the replacement of transformers is considered. The THD for these drives varied from a low of 3.5 to a high of 12.9 on the secondary of these isolation transformers. When compared to THD on the primary side of the isolation transformer, it appears that the harmonics are attenuated by factors varying from a low of 1.9 to a high of 5.4. The average attenuation is approximately 3.

D. Additional Findings
Fig. 6 shows a voltage waveform in which the line notch in the waveform crosses the zero axis. Many devices, (i.e., other drives, control systems, etc.) utilize the 60 Hz frequency to provide the timing for the operation of those devices and are sensitive to these types of deviations causing inaccuracies in control, loss of memory, or loss of critical timing. This wave form is a clear example of why these devices should never be put on the same isolation transformer with a drive of this type. Fig. 7 shows a voltage waveform in which the peak voltage has been flat-topped, lowering the peak voltage. Again equipment critically dependent upon the magnitude of the peak voltage should not be fed from an isolation transformer serving drives of this type.

C. Do Isolation Transformers Affect K Factor and THD?

The required K factor for these drives varied between a low of 4.3 and a high of 20.1. Many sources are indicating that a K factor of 13 is sufficient for these types of drives. Others have indicated that K-20 is better. Based upon these findings, K - 13 may be sufficient, assuming the drives are well maintained throughout their life; however, it would be safe to

532

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 30. NO 3 , MAY/JCNE 1994

IV. CONCLUSIONS
Predictive maintenance of drives could be facilitated by periodically observing their current waveforms for non-symmetry. This can possibly save the cost of replacing transformers and indicate potential problems with drives before they happen. Derating of drive tranformers is necessary when K factor rated transformers are not used. Ignoring this requirement can be costly. At a minimum, when the drive transformer is specified, it should be sized according to the manufacturers requirements based upon motor horsepower. Since the purchase of a transformer quite often goes through a bid process, it may be more desirable to include the drive type and horsepower in the transformer specification and require the transformer vendor to size the transformer. Use of isolation transformers with a K-20 rating should be considered; especially, when long term drive maintenance is not performed. Isolation transformers attenuate THD by an average of three times; however, they do not eliminate harmonics. Peak voltage or frequency sensitive devices should not be put on the load side of drive isolation transformers. These devices should be fed from their own clean source of power.

(21 IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capabilily When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents, A N W I E E E C.57.1101986, 1986. 131 J. Moravek and E. Lethert, Field study of harmonic loading in modem electrical systems, EDI, Mar. 199 I . 141 Fluke and Phillips, In Tune With Power Harmonics. John Fluke Mfg. Co., Inc., Everett, WA.

Robert D. Henderson (M88) received the B.S.E.E. degree from Clemwn University. Clemwn. SC, in 1974. From 1974 to 1978 he was employed as an Electrical Design Engineer with Springs Inductries. From 1978 to 1984 he was a Project Engineer and an Engineering Group Leader with Fiber Industries, Inc. From 1984 to 1986 he was employed a\ it Lead Electrical Engineer with Steams Catalytic. Inc. In 1986 he formed RDH Conwltants, Inc. He is a registered P.E. i n North Carolina and South Carolmi. Mr. Henderson IS a member of NSPE and NFPA

Patrick J. Rose received the B.S.E.E. degree from

the University of North Carolina in 1989. Since 1990 he was been employed as an Electrical Design Engineer with emphasis on harmonic, selective coordination and short circuit studies. Mr. Rose is an E.I.T. in North Carolina.

REFERENCES
[ I 1 IEEE Guide for Harmonic Control and Reactive Compensation of Static Power Converters, ANSI/ IEEE Srcrizdurcl519-1981, 1981.