French project History of india-

India earned its independence from the British on the 15/8/47. But the British army left India ultimately in 1950. The Indians celebrate 26/1/1950 as the Republic Day of India. On this day the Indian constitution was adopted. Until its independence in 1947, other countries which neighbor India today; Pakistan, Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan), Myanmar (formerly Burma) and distant places like Aden in present day Yemen; were all parts of British India and were all considered as India. Until then (including the British era) India was never one single country but a collection of kingdoms and authorities with no sense of unity. In this sense India as one single country is mainly a result of British rule. Before that the word India was not used to indicate the present day India, but any kingdom, culture or community that existed between present day Afganistan, in the west, up to China and Myanmar in the east.
European Influence Over India The period from 1707AD, the year when Aurangzeb died, to 1857, the year of the Indian Uprising, saw the gradual increase of the European influence in India. The Europeans had been filtering into India for a long time before they actually decided to set up shop here. Even though the British got away with the jackpot, the real pioneers to reach India were the Portuguese. Full of crusading and commercial zeal, Vasco da Gama was the first known European to reach India in 1498, even before the Mughals arrived here. When Vasco da Gama docked his ship in Calicut, he announced that he came in search of "Christians and spices" and the very first people he met here were Christians, who were descendants of those who had settled in India way back in the 4th century AD. Portuguese Rule Religious fervor forgotten, the Portuguese eventually settled down to a very prosperous trade in spices with India. The Muslim rulers in Delhi and then the Mughals never really warmed up to the idea of a foreign power continuing trade on the seas under their imperial noses. What's more, they were not exactly very honest traders too, since they thought that no word that was given to an infidel need be kept. So much so that the word phirangi, or foreigner in colloquial, came to be a hissing and a byword among locals. In fact in Goa, where the Portuguese ruled, intolerance levels ran high and even the building of Hindu temples was banned. Alberquerque (1509-1515), who was the second Portugese viceroy in India, encouraged mixed marriages with the sole object of creating a mixed race who were Portuguese Catholics, and who would be bound by race and culture to the Portuguese. They were known as Luso-Indians at one time and now simply as Goans. One of main reasons why Portugal was never able to go anywhere further than Goa was that Spain took over the country in 1580AD.

Taj mahal-

The Taj Mahal is situated in Uttar Pradesh state of India. It is located in Agra city around 210 kms away from New Delhi, the capital of India. Taj Mahal is well known as the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Islamic and Indian architectural styles. It has been declared as World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1983 and is one of the 7 wonders of the world! It is made of pure white marble. The marble shimmers in silvery white color in the moonlight and at the end of day reflects the fiery tints of the setting sun. The Taj Mahal in all its timeless beauty still remains an inspiration for writers, poets, painters and photographers. Lovers still meet here in the full moon nights in the shadow of the world's most famous monument of love. The Taj Mahal stands on the banks of the Yamuna River. It was built in the memory of the stunningly beautiful Mumtaz (Arjumand Bano Begum) by Shahjahan (Prince Khurram). In 1631, Shahjahan went on an expedition to the south India and as always, Mumtaz Mahal accompanied him. But unfortunately she died in childbirth at Burhanpur. It is interesting to know she had given birth to fourteen children, of whom only four sons and three daughters survived. When Mumtaz Mahal died, she was just 39 years old. Shahjahan did go into the deep sadness. Historical documents say that, there was no music, no celebration and no feasting of any kind in those 2 years. Shahjahan then decided to erect a memorial to his queen in pristine marble that the world would never forget. The site selected for the tomb was a garden on Yamuna River's bank. The site was also chosen because it could be seen from Shahjahan's personal palace in Agra Fort. Work on the museum began in 1633 and 22,000 workers labored for 17 and half years to build it! The most skilled architects, calligraphers, inlay craftsmen, stone-carvers and masons came from all across India and abroad. An expert in building the double dome came from Persia, The master mason was from Baghdad and an inlay specialist from Delhi was invited. The building material was also imported from different places. The corals came from Arabia, Onyx and amethyst from Persia and the garnets from Bundelkhand. Mumtaz Mahal's final resting-place was ornamented like a jewel-box of a Queen. The construction of Taj Mahal took 22 years and as much as 32 crore rupees to complete! It is said that Shahjahan wanted to build the replica just on the opposite river bank but with black marble. But the estimated cost was around 4 times the construction cost of Taj Mahal. For the reason he had to drop the idea. The Taj Mahal is and will remain in the heart of every lover throughout the world. It is an experience which you should have at least once in a lifetime!

QUATUB MINAR -

Qutub Minar has a stand alone place in the prime attractions amongst all the historical monuments of India. The word 'Qutub' means 'pole of justice'. It is situated in Delhi, the capital of India. The monument can be seen from most parts of the old city.

Qutub Minar is among the tallest and famous towers in the world. It is the tallest brick minaret in the world. The minar has been listed to UNESCO world heritage list. It is a great masterpiece of Mughal architecture. The Minar is made of red sandstone. Height of Qutub Minar is 72.5mts. It is an architectural marvel of the 13th century. It was constructed by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in the 12th century for celebrating the victory of Mohammed Ghori over the Rajputs and was completed in the 13th century by his successors. It is one of the best examples of Indo Islamic architecture. It was viewed in those times as a symbol of the military might of the Turko-Afghan dynasty and Islam. Qutub Minar is in a long conical shape. The monument's diameter ranges from 14.3 meters at the base to 2.7 meters at the top. This creates the illusion of increased height. It has 379 round shaped staircases inside it. This stairway leads to a spectacular view of the city from the top of Qutub Minar. The tower has five distinct stories, which are separated by balconies. The first three stories are made of red sandstone. When lightning knocked off the fourth in 1368, Qutub Minar was restored by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, who added a fourth and fifth floor which are made of marble and sandstone. The walls of the minar are carved intricately and inscribed with verses from Muslim's holy mythological scripture The Quran. The Minar contains numerous inscriptions in Devnagari and Arabic characters, which narrate its history. In the year 1505, earthquake struck the Minar. It was repaired by Sikandar Lodi. Later on in the year 1794, another earthquake was faced by the minar and it was an engineer Major Smith, who repaired the affected parts of the minar. But in last few years, because of some suicide cases and destroying mentality incidents, the minar came into light for bad reasons. The Qutub Minar is a place to treasure for our coming generations. So that they can feel proud for architectural knowledge our forefathers had. Edakkal Caves, Kerala, India Situated on Ambukuthi hills, the caves are 10 kms from Sultanbathery, in Wayanad district. F. Fawcett, the then Superintendent of Police, who was also a pre-history enthusiast, accidentally discovered the caves in 1894. Archaelogists consider the caves as one of the earliest centres of human habitation. Formed by a large split in a huge rock, the two natural rock formations represent the world's richest pictographic gallery of its kind. The caves contain several paintings and pictorial writings of the New Stone-Age Civilization which speaks volumes of the bygone life and civilization. Edakkal caves are located at a height of 1000 m on Ambukutty Mala near Ambalavayal. The New Stone Age pictorial writings on the walls of these natural caves at Edakkal are evidence of the civilisation that existed in these regions in prehistoric times. The caves can be accessed only by a 1 km trekking trail from Edakkal. Morning hours are the best time to visit the caves. Elephanta Caves The Elephanta Island is the site of the magnificent Elephanta caves, containing beautiful carvings, sculptures, and a temple to the Hindu God, Lord Shiva. These caves are located at a

distance of 11-km from Mumbai and are now designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The island of Elephanta, being a commercial, military and religious center for centuries has traces of early Buddhist culture. The Elephanta caves are thought to date back to the Silhara kings belonging to the period between 9th - 12th centuries. Legends and history suggest that the great warrior prince of Chalukya dynasty Pulkesin ll, raised the shrine to celebrate his victory. Some historians also suggest that these caves were built by the Kalchuri King Krishnaraja in 6th century AD. The entire cave temple complex covers an area of about 60, 000 square feet. The World of Lord Shiva, Elephanta is the place where the main events in the mythology of Lord Shiva are depicted most powerfully, consistently and exclusively. At Ellora though other Gods appear on the panel with Shiva, but at Elephanta there is nothing but Shiva. According to Hindu Mythology three Gods govern their world : Brahma -- the creator, Vishnu -- the Preserver and Maheshwara -- the Destroyer. Elephanta has a story that there was a pillar whose end could not be found. Even the Gods failed to determine the length of the pillar. The temples in the Elephanta caves and the carvings on the walls show Shiva in different moods and shapes, Lord Shiva practicing Yoga, Lord Shiva meditating with snakes coiled around his neck, and at places Shiva is in the company of his wife, Parvati. Panel 6 of the caves represents the marriage of Shiva with Parvati with the rites being performed by Brahma and scores of other Gods attending the marriage. Panel 5 of the cave describes the coming of Ganga from heaven to Earth. As the great force of Ganga might have destroyed the Earth, she lands in the hair locks of Shiva who then gently releases her. The wise and righteous Lord before whom the forces of evil and ignorance, flee, and are terrified into submission is carved on the 7th panel. Similarly other wall panels narrate the story of Lord Shiva. On the western end is the sanctuary of Linga denoting the essence of creative power, in which Lord Shiva is worshipped as the Lord of Fertility and Procreation. The Monasteries of Ajanta lead us directly to Elephanta. It appears that the same families of craftsmen and sculptors who were working on the Kailasa temple of Ellora and adjoining Buddhist caves at Ellora were employed at Elephanta. An exquisite ensample of rock-cut artistry, can be found here. No doubt the cave was the creation of an unknown genius, a master architect, who having thoroughly absorbed and assimilated the magnificent contribution of his predecessors in the dual traditions of the independent free standing sculpture and rock-cut architecture, produced a monument which introduced a whole new world of form, quite distinct from any previous achievement. The sculptors carved out of solid basalt rock, a representation of the heavenly mountain residence of Lord Shiva. Opening out from three sides, the temple lets in light from many angles making the sculptures seem to move with the changing angles of light. The temple plan is so symmetric with important focal points worked out in a geometric Mandala (the design that represents the energy field). The pillars inside the cave give an impression that these pillars support the roof. Again the cross beams on the roof makes the visitor feel there is a ceiling of the caves. The pillars have been deliberately kept simple as to attract the attention

towards the exquisite carvings on the panels, which are nine in number. There are three openings to the caves, which allows light to enter from various angles in different seasons giving an expression that the images are moving with transition of light.

Indias food & culture

Indian food is different from rest of the world not only in taste but also in cooking methods. It reflects a perfect blend of various cultures and ages. Just like Indian culture, food in India has also been influenced by various civilizations, which have contributed their share in its overall development and the present form. Foods of India are better known for its spiciness. Throughout India, be it North India or South India, spices are used generously in food. But one must not forget that every single spice used in Indian dishes carries some or the other nutritional as well as medicinal properties.

North Indian Food Food in the north India, to begin with, Kashmiri cuisines reflect strong Central Asian influences. In Kashmir, mostly all the dishes are prepared around the main course of rice found abundantly in the beautiful valley. Another delicious item cooked here is the 'Saag' that is prepared with a green leafy vegetable known as the 'Hak'. But on the other hand states like the Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh show high consumption of chapatis as staple food. Again, these chapatis are prepared with a variety of flours such as wheat, rice, maida, besan etc. Besides chapatis other closely related breads baked in these regions include Tandoori, Rumaali and Naan etc. However in the northern region impact of Mughlal food is quite obvious. West Indian Food In western India, the desert cuisine is famous for its unique taste and varieties of food. Rajasthan and Gujarat are the states that represent the desseert flavor of Indian food. Here an immense variety of dals and achars (pickles/preserves) is used that simply substitutes the relative lack of fresh vegetables in these areas. In the states like Maharashtra, the food is usually a mix of both north as well as south cooking styles. Here people use both the rice and the wheat with same interest. Along the coastline of Mumbai a wide variety of fishes is available. Some of the delicious preparations include dishes

like the Bombay Prawn and Pomfret. In Goa, that is further down towards south, one can notice Portuguese influence in the cooking style as well as in the dishes. Some of the major dishes of this regiun are the sweet and sour Vindaloo, duck baffad, sorpotel and egg molie etc.

People of India
India is a fascinating country where people of many different communities and religions live together in unity. Indian Population is polygenetic and is an amazing amalgamation of various races and cultures. It is impossible to find out the exact origin of Indian People. The species known as Ramapithecus was found in the Siwalik foothills of north western Himalayas. The species believed to be the first in the line of hominids (Human Family) lived some 14 million years ago. Researchers have found that a species resembling the Austrapithecus lived in India some 2 million years ago. Even this discovery leaves an evolutionary gap of as much as 12 million years since Ramapithecus. There are many diverse ethnic groups among the people of India. The 6 main ethnic groups are as follows. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Negrito Proto - Australoids or Austrics Mongoloids Mediterranean or Dravidian Western Brachycephals Nordic Aryans

Negroids The Negritos or the Brachycephalic (broad headed) from Africa were the earliest people to have come to India. They have survived in their original habitat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese and the Great Andamanese are some of the examples. Some hill tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans and Kurumbas are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India. Pro-Australoids or Austrics These groups were the next to come to India after the Negritos. They are people with wavy hair lavishly distributed all over their brown bodies, long headed with low foreheads and prominent eye ridges, noses with low and broad roots, thick jaws, large palates and teeth and small chins. The Austrics of India represent a race of medium height, dark complexion with long heads and rather flat noses but otherwise of regular features. Miscegenation with the earlier Negroids may be the reason for the dark or black pigmentation of the skin and flat noses.

The Austrics laid the foundation of Indian civilization. They cultivated rice and vegetables and made sugar from sugarcane. Now these people are found in some parts of India, Myanmar and the islands of South East Asia. Their languages have survived in the Central and Eastern India. Mongoloids These people are found in the North eastern part of India in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Tripura. They are also found in Northern parts of West Bengal, Sikkim, and Ladakh. Generally they are people with yellow complexion, oblique eyes, high cheekbones, sparse hair and medium height. Dravidians These are the people of South India. They have been believed to come before the Aryans. They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean. They appear to be people of the same stock as the peoples of Asia Minor and Crete and pre- Hellenic Aegean's of Greece. They are reputed to have built up the city civilization of the Indus valley, whose remains have been found at Mohenjo- daro and Harappa and other Indus cities. Western Bracycephals These include the Alpinoids, Dinarics and Armenoids. The Parsis and Kodavas also fall in this category. They are the broad headed people living mainly on the western side of the country such as the Ganga Valley and the delta, parts of Kashmir, Kathiawar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Nordics or the Indo-Aryans This group were the last one to immigrate to India. They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C. They are now mainly found in the northern and central part of India. Region in India
India, the land of spirituality and philosophy considers religion as an integral part of its entire tradition. The worship of various religions and its rituals play a significant role in every aspect of human life in the country.

India is the birthplace of two great religions of the world, namely, Hinduism and Buddhism. It is also the birthplace of one of the oldest religions of the world, Zoroastrianism, and home to an ancient religion, Jainism. Sikhism is another very recognizable religion which began here bringing together the best aspects of Hinduism and Islam. Followers of religions originated in other countries such as Islam, Christianity, Bahaism and Judaism also form a part of the population of secular nation, India. Hinduism is the dominant faith. According to 2001 Census, 80.5% of the population of the country are designated 'Hindu'. It is one of the ancient religions in the world, which began about 6000 years ago. Besides Hindus, Muslims are the most prominent religious group and are an integral part of Indian society. There are approximately13.4% Muslims (over 100 million), 2.3%

Christians (over 20 million), 1.9 % Sikhs (18 million) and others including Buddhists (6 million), Jains, Parsis (Zoroastrians), Jews, and Bahais, less than 2 percent. Hindus and Muslims are spread throughout the country. Muslims are found mostly in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala. They represent a majority in Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep. Christian concentrations are found in the northeastern states like Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya and the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Goa. Sikhs are a majority in the state of Punjab whereas Buddhists are found in large numbers in Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Bengal and Sikkim. Though a tiny minority, Jains are found all over India. Majority of Jains live in the states of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat.

Languages of India
India is rich in languages. There are a quite a number of languages spoken in India. Some of these languages are accepted nationally while others are accepted as dialects of that particular region. The Indian languages belong to four language families namely Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic (Austric) and Sino-Tibetan. Majority of India's population are using Indo-European and Dravidian languages. The former are spoken mainly in northern and central regions and the latter in southern India. Some ethnic groups in Assam and other parts of eastern India speak Austric languages. People in the northern Himalayan region and near the Burmese border speak Sino-Tibetan languages. The written forms of language or scripts come from an ancient Indian script called Brahmi. India has 22 officially recognised languages. But around 33 different languages and 2000 dialects have been identified in India. Hindi, in the Devanagari script is the official language of the Federal government of India. English is an associate official language. Sanskrit, the classical language of India, represents the highest achievement of the Indo-Aryan Languages. The beginning of Sanskrit literature may be traced back to Rig Vedic period. It is the oldest literary language of India, which is more than 5,000 years old and the basis of many modern Indian languages including Hindi and Urdu. Its earliest dialect form, Vedic was spoken by the Aryans. All the classical literature and the Indian epics have been written in Sanskrit.

Indian Culture
Few countries in the world have such an ancient and diverse culture as India's. Stretching back in an unbroken sweep over 5000 years, India's culture has been enriched by successive waves of migration which were absorbed into the Indian way of life.It is this variety which is a special hallmark of India. Its physical, religious and racial variety is as immense as its linguistic

diversity. Underneath this diversity lies the continuity of Indian civilization and social structure from the very earliest times until the present day. Modern India presents a picture of unity in diversity to which history provides no parallel. Here is a catalogue of everything Indian. Indian religions, festivals, rituals, artifacts, monuments, costumes, music and dance, language and literature. Come and discover a little more of India's culture by selecting any of the topics listed below. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures spread all over the Indian subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old.[1] Regarded by some historians as the "oldest living civilization of Earth", the Indian tradition dates back to 8000 BC[2] and has a continuous recorded history since the time of the Vedas for over 5,500 years.[3] Several elements of India's diverse culture such as Indian religions, yoga and Indian cuisine have had a profound impact across the world.