The Geographic Poles, and "True North"

The Earth rotates in space, a full spin every 24 hours. You can picture the axis of that rotation as an imaginary spindle that runs through the center of the Earth and pokes out at the top and bottom - like the spindle on a desk globe in its stand. The place where Earth's imaginary spindle would poke out in the Arctic is the geographic north pole. Where it would poke out in the Antarctic is the geographic south pole. The geographic poles are, by definition, the two ends of the Earth's axis of rotation - its imaginary spindle.

The term true north is shorthand for "the direction of the geographic north pole." In other words, wherever you happen to be on Earth, if you point toward the geographic north pole, you are said to be pointing true north. It would be very handy if a compass could do just that - point toward the geographic north pole. But it doesn't work that way ...

The Magnetic Poles, and "Magnetic North"

The Earth generates a magnetic field, with a shape roughly like the magnetic field of a bar magnet. And, like a magnet, the Earth has two magnetic poles, the north magnetic pole and the south magnetic pole. (Actually, the Earth's magnetic field isn't just dipolar, but for our purposes we can think of it as such.) Inconveniently, Earth's magnetic field is not aligned with its axis of rotation. So Earth's magnetic north pole is not in the same place as its geographic north pole. Same with the south poles. The magnetic north pole is presently about 700 miles from the geographic north pole, near Ellef Ringnes Island in the Canadian Arctic. The magnetic south pole is off the coast of Antarctica, south of Australia. But the magnetic poles don't stay in one place. Over time, they move. (For more details ... USGS National Geomagnetism

Program ... Canada Natural Resources Geomagnetism site. Over the eons, north and south magnetic poles even flip periodically!) We commonly say that the red end of a compass needle points to magnetic north, and we tend to visualize that as meaning that the needle points directly at the magnetic north pole. Actually, a compass needle doesn't point at the magnetic north pole. It aligns itself with the magnetic field in the location of the compass. And because Earth's magnetic field is irregular (see map), at any particular location the compass needle may not point directly at the magnetic north pole. So, in practical effect, "magnetic north" really means "the direction that the red end of a compass needle points, in a particular location at a particular time." Of course, that's a circular definition - the needle points to magnetic north, and magnetic north is where the needle points! But as long as we know, for a particular location, the difference between true north and the direction that a compass needle will point, we can use the compass to find true north by compensating for that difference, which is called ...

Declination
From any given location on Earth, true north (i.e., the direction of the geographic north pole) is very likely to be different from magnetic north (i.e., the direction that the compass needle points). The difference between the two directions, measured as an angle, is referred to as the magnetic declination, or simply the declination (also sometimes called the variation). A declination is either an east declination, which means that magnetic north is to the east (right) of true north from that location, or a west declination, which means that magnetic north is to the west (left) of true north from that location. The diagram to the right shows a 12 degree east declination. There are locations on Earth where magnetic north and true north happen to be the same direction - in other words, where the declination is zero degrees. The line on the Earth where the declination is zero is called the agonic line. In the US, the agonic line runs roughly from western Lake Superior down through the Florida panhandle. (See world declination map.)

Except where the declination is zero, every declination has to have two parts: a numerical angle (such as 12o) and a direction (east or west). It wouldn't help much to know that the declination is 12o if we didn't also know which direction it was from true north. A declination of 12o east is very different from a declination of 12o west!

Putting Map and Compass Together

Because magnetic north varies, most topographic maps are drawn to true north rather than magnetic north. True north is normally straight up on the map. But somewhere on the map the declination will be indicated. That's the key piece of information we need in order to make the compass (which points to magnetic north) and the map (which is drawn to true north) work together. On USGS topographic maps, the declination for the area shown on the map is normally indicated by a diagram like the one reproduced here, found in the bottom left margin of the map. The straight-up line points to true north, and is labeled with a star (representing the North Star ... see below). The line labeled "MN" points to magnetic north. The angle between them is the declination. (Note that there is also a third line, labeled "GN" for grid north, part of the UTM system, which we can ignore for this purpose.) In the sample shown here, the declination is 13-1/2o east. On other maps there may not be a diagram, but the declination will be stated somewhere in text.

Notice that the text below the diagram indicates that this is "1999 magnetic north." That is because, as discussed above, magnetic north varies over time. Magnetic north at the location of the map today may not be the same as it was in 1999. The current declination for a particular place can be obtained from NOAA's website declination calculator. Also notice that the text below the diagram indicates that this is the declination "at center of sheet" - in other words, at the place in the very center of the map. For most areas shown on a 7.5 minute topographic map, the map commonly used by wilderness hikers, there may be little or no difference between the declination at the place in the center of the map and anywhere else shown on the map. But in some places there are wild anomalies in declination (see the discussion of local magnetic anomalies on the Chris Goulet declination site). One of the key skills in map and compass use is learning how to compensate for declination when orienting the map and when taking and plotting bearings. Start by learning about the parts of a baseplate compass, then learn how to orient a topographic map.

The Celestial Poles, and the North Star

Even without a map or a compass, and even without knowing the declination, on a clear night in the Northern Hemisphere we can locate true north by finding the North Star. Think again about that imaginary spindle running through the center of the Earth - the Earth's axis of rotation poking out at the north and south geographic poles. Now extend that spindle out into space above the geographic north pole. The spot where the spindle meets the imaginary dome of the sky is called the north celestial pole. As the Earth rotates, if we're in the Northern Hemisphere all the stars in the sky will appear to rotate around that one spot, no matter where we're standing. Why? Because that spot in the sky is exactly aligned with Earth's axis of rotation, and Earth's rotation is what creates the apparent motion of the stars in the sky from our vantage point on Earth's surface. What if we're in the Southern Hemisphere? From there, the north celestial pole can't be seen. But the same principle holds true in the southern sky. Extend the Earth's imaginary spindle out into space from the geographic south pole. The spot where it meets the imaginary dome of the sky is the south celestial pole. From anywhere in the Southern Hemisphere, all the stars will appear to rotate around that spot. There is a star located very close to the north celestial pole, called the North Star, or Polaris. This is very convenient if we're in the Northern Hemisphere, because if we point at the North Star, we're pointing at the north celestial pole ... which means we're pointing at the imaginary spindle that goes down to Earth's geographic north pole ... which means we're pointing true north!

So, find the North Star and you've found true north, no compass needed. Walk toward the North Star and you're walking true north. Sail toward it, fly toward it - you're headed true north. The North Star has played an important role in navigation throughout history. The North Star, Polaris, is not difficult to find, because most people can recognize the Big Dipper in the night sky. The two stars at the end of the Big Dipper's bowl, often called the pointer stars, point at Polaris (see diagram).

Extend an imaginary line from the pointer stars, about as long as five times the distance between those two stars, and Polaris is the brightest star at the end of that line. (Also, Polaris is the star at the end of the Little Dipper's handle, but the Little Dipper is harder to see.) The Alaska state flag (below) shows this same arrangement, although it exaggerates the brightness of the North Star. Actually, Polaris is only medium bright, but it stands out because it is in a field of dimmer stars. There are stars much brighter than Polaris elsewhere in the sky. From any given location in the Northern Hemisphere, the North Star will always appear in the same spot in the sky, all night, every night, any time of year. (Try it yourself, right outside your door!) It's even in that same spot during the day, you just can't see it. The elevation of the North Star above the horizon, in degrees, is equal to the latitude of the observer. So, if the North Star is 42 degrees above your horizon, you are at 42 degrees North latitude. By the way ... Polaris is the North Star right now, but it wasn't always the North Star and it won't always be. That's because Earth's axis, its spindle, slowly changes orientation over time, just like the spindle of a spinning top. This is called precession of the axis. Precession of Earth's axis causes the north celestial pole to move in a giant circle in the sky over the course of about 26,000 years. The North Star at any given time is the star nearest the north celestial pole at that time. Today it's Polaris (within 1 degree). But 5,000 years ago it was Thuban, 12,000 years ago it was the bright star Vega, and it will be Vega again 14,000 years from now.

Crux, the Southern Cross

The North Star marks the north celestial pole, so you might be wondering ... isn't there also a "South Star" marking the south celestial pole, which could be used to find true south in the Southern Hemisphere? As it turns out, there are no easily noticeable stars at or very near the south celestial pole, so no, there is no usable "South Star." But there is a small constellation, Crux (the Southern Cross) (right), visible in the Southern Hemisphere (and in low latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere), the long axis of which points almost due north-south. This constellation is of navigational use. The Southern Cross appears on the flags of several nations, including New Zealand (left) and Australia.

http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geomag/field/magdec_e.php http://geomag.usgs.gov/movies/ Muestra como se movio el eje en 500 aos.

Orienting a Topographic Map.

Anytime we pick up a map our natural tendency is to hold it "right side up," so that the words (titles, labels, etc.) printed on the map can be read easily. Because most topo maps are drawn with true north "up," that means we'll be holding the map with true north at the top. But that can easily lead to confusion when navigating in the wilderness. If I happen to be facing south but am holding my map "right side up" with north at the top, my map is 180 degrees out of alignment with the landscape I'm looking at. What I should be doing is holding the map "upside down," with south at the top, so that the map and the landscape are aligned. That way, the landscape features (mountains, valleys, streams, etc.) I see in front of me will match up with those same features as shown on the map. I'll greatly improve my chances of figuring out where I am, what I'm looking at, and where I'm going! The process of aligning the map with the landscape is called orienting the map, and it is one of the most fundamental skills in wilderness navigation.

Orienting a Map Without Using a Compass

It is sometimes easy to orient a map, at least roughly, without using a compass. For example, the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, roughly, so depending on the time of day the position of the sun may give me a good clue how to roughly align the map. E.g., if it's early morning and I can see the sun, I can simply hold the map so that the right margin of the map (which is east) is on the same side as the sun. Or, if I know the name of some landscape feature I'm looking at ("Mt. Certainty," let's say), and I know approximately where I am on the map, I can orient the map by holding it so that the straight line between my location and Mt. Certainty on the map aligns with the straight line between my location and Mt. Certainty on the landscape. Of course, if I'm wrong about whether that is Mt. Certainty, or I really don't know where I am, then this method may only make things worse! If I want to be really sure, I'll use a compass to orient the map ...

Orienting a Map Using a Compass

To orient a map using a compass, we need to understand the meaning of declination, which is the angle of difference between true north and magnetic north for a particular location. We also need to know the parts of a baseplate compass. Click the links for details. Armed with that information, we're ready to go ... There are four steps for orienting a topographic map using a compass:

Step One

Determine the declination.

A topo map will always indicate the declination for the area shown on the map, either in a diagram or in text. A declination must have two parts: a numerical angle (such as 13o) and a direction (east or west of true north). Most USGS maps will show the declination with a diagram like this:

This diagram tells us that magnetic north is to the right of, i.e., to the east of, true north, at an angle of 13o. So, the declination is 13o east.

Step Two

Dial in the declination on the compass.

Start by setting "N" (which is equal to 0o or 360o) at the index line. Then, rotate the dial in the direction of the declination by the proper number of degrees. If the declination is 13o east, then I'll rotate the dial to the right, i.e., to the east, thirteen degrees. On most simple compasses each little mark on the dial is two degrees, so I'll be rotating the dial 6-1/2 marks. The result will be that the dial is set at 347o, like this:

Notice that "N" has been rotated to the right (i.e., to the east) by 6-1/2 marks = 13 degrees east. If this had been a west declination, rather than east, we would have rotated the dial to the left instead (i.e., to the west), thirteen degrees. The resulting setting on the dial would have been 13o. At this point in the process we ignore the magnetic needle. Note: The Step Two procedure described above assumes that the compass is the simplest type of baseplate compass, and not an adjustable-declination compass, also sometimes called a "set-and-forget" compass. (The described procedure will work, though, for an adjustable- declination compass which is set at zero.) How do you tell if you have an adjustable-declination compass? Turn it over, and it will usually have a tiny brass screw on the underside, under the dial. Rotating that screw (with a tiny screwdriver usually attached to the lanyard) sets the declination on an east-west scale visible on the underside of the dial. Once an adjustable-declination compass has been properly set for the declination at a particular location, you forget about the actual declination (hence the name "set-and-forget"), and just use the compass as if the declination were zero. So, with a properly set adjustable-declination compass, in Step Two we would simply set 0o ("N") at the index line and leave it there. Of course, when the compass is used at a different location, with a different declination, that new declination must be properly set on the underside of the compass.

Step Three Place one of the side edges of the compass baseplate precisely on the right
or left margin of the map, with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing to the top (north) of the map.

Still ignore the magnetic needle.

Step Four

With the compass still in place on the margin of the map, turn the map and compass together as a unit until the red end of the magnetic needle is lined up with the orienting arrow (aka the "gate" or the "box").

For a 13o east declination, the result will look like this:

The map is now oriented with the landscape - true north on the map is aligned with true north on the Earth, etc.