(FOR IMAGES KINDLY CHECK YOUR BOOK) NERVOUS SYSTEM Functions of the Nervous System  The master controlling

and communicating system of the body  Functions 1. Sensory input: detects external and internal stimuli 2. Integration: processes and responds to sensory input 3. Control of Muscles and Glands 4. Homeostasis is maintained by regulating other systems 5. Center for Mental Activities Parts of the Nervous System  Two anatomical divisions Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain and spinal cord Encased in bone

CNS and receives information from the CNS CNS processes, integrates, stores, and responds to information from the PNS

Parts of the Nervous System  PNS has two divisions Sensory division transmits action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS Motor division carries action potentials away from the CNS in cranial or spinal nerves (two subdivisions) Somatic nervous system innervates skeletal muscle Autonomic nervous system (ANS) innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands (three subdivisions) Sympathetic division is most active during physical activity (fight or flight division) Parasympathet ic division regulates resting functions (rest

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Nervous tissue outside of the CNS Consists of sensory receptors and nerves

 The anatomical divisions perform different functions PNS detects stimuli and transmits information to the

and digest division) -Enteric nervous system controls the digestive system

Neuron Structure  Cell Body (Soma) Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus Nissl substance is an aggregate of rough ER and free ribosomes Primary site of protein synthesis

Cells of the Nervous System  The two principal cell types of the nervous system are: Neurons (Nerve cells): excitable cells that transmit electrical signals to other neurons/effector organs Non-neural cells (Glial cells/Neuroglia): cells that surround neurons; Nonneuronal cells of CNS & PNS

Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other organelles are present Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are called nuclei and in the PNS ganglia

Neuron Structure  Axons (Nerve Fibers) Trigger zone is the part of the neuron where the axon originates Action potential is generated from the trigger zone

Neurons (Nerve Cells)  Receive stimuli and transmit action potentials to other neurons/effector organs  Have three components: The cell body (soma) is the primary site of protein synthesis; contains nucleus Dendrites are short, branched cytoplasmic extensions of the cell body that usually conduct electric signals toward the cell body An axon is a cytoplasmic long extension of the cell body that transmits action potentials to other cells

Slender long processes of uniform diameter and may vary in length from a few millimeters to more than a meter Usually, there is only one unbranched axon per neuron Rare branches, if present, are called collateral axons

Presynaptic terminal: branched terminus of an axon (10,000 or more) Synapse: junction between a nerve cell and another cell Bundles of processes are called nerve tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS

Oligodendrocytes (cell processes than can surround several axons)

 Glial Cells of the PNS Satellite cells Schwann cells (single cells surrounding axons)

Types of Neurons  Multipolar neurons have several dendrites and a single axon Interneurons and motor neurons

Glial Cells of the CNS  Astrocytes Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries Functions: Support and brace neurons and blood vessels Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies

 Bipolar neurons have a single axon and dendrite Components of sensory organs

 Unipolar neurons have a single axon (no dendrite) Most sensory neurons

Glial Cells/Neuroglia (Non-Neuronal Cells of CNS & PNS)  Glial Cells (Supporting Cells): More numerous than neurons Most neuroglia retain the ability to divide, while neurons do not.

Influence the functioning of the blood-brain barrier Guide migration of young neurons Process substances mopping up leaked potassium ions

 Glial Cells of the CNS Astrocytes (star shaped) Microglial (small mobile cells) Ependymal cells (squamous epithelial-like)

recycling neurotransmitt ers

Isolate damaged tissue and limit the spread of inflammation

Plasma membrane of Schwann cells or Oligodendrocytes repeatedly wraps around a segment of an axon to form the myelin sheath Myelin is a whitish, fatty (protein-lipid), segmented sheath around most long axons It functions to: Protect the axon Electrically insulate

 Ependymal cells: range in shape from squamous to columnar and many are ciliated They line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord Some are specialized (choroid plexuses) to produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Help to circulate CSF using their cilia

fibers from one another Increase the speed of

nerve impulse transmission  Node of Ranvier Gaps in the myelin sheath

 Microglia Small, ovoid cells with spiny processes Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons

 Unmyelinated axons Rest in invaginations of Schwann cell (PNS) or Oligodendrocytes (CNS) Conduct action potentials slowly

 Oligodendrocytes: form myelin sheaths around the axons of several CNS neurons Glial Cells of the PNS  Schwann cells: form a myelin sheath around part of the axon of a PNS neuron  Satellite cells: support and nourish neuron cell bodies within ganglia Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons  Myelinated axons

Organization of Nervous Tissue  Nervous tissue can be grouped into white matter and gray matter White matter Consists of myelinated axons Propagates action potentials

Forms nerve tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS

 The epidural space is between the periosteum of the vertebral canal and the dura mater  The subarachnoid space is between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater Spinal Cord Cross Section  The spinal cord consists of peripheral white matter and central gray matter  White matter is organized into 3 columns (funiculi), which are subdivided into tracts (fasciculi or pathways), which consist of ascending and descending axons  Gray matter (shaped-like letter H) is divided into horns The dorsal horns contain sensory axons that synapse with interneurons The ventral horns contain the neuron cell bodies of somatic motor neurons The lateral horns contain the neuron cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons

Gray Matter Collections of neuron cell bodies or unmyelinated axons Forms cortex and nuclei in the CNS and ganglia in the PNS

Spinal Cord  Major communication link between the brain and the PNS (spinal nerves)  Participates in the integration of incoming information and produces responses through reflex mechanisms  Gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves  Cervical and lumbosacral enlargements give rise to the spinal nerves of the limbs  Nerves from the end of the spinal cord form the cauda equina  Shorter than the vertebral column Meninges of the Spinal Cord  Three meningeal layers surround the spinal cord. From superficial to deep they are Dura mater Arachnoid mater Pia mater

Spinal Cord Cross Section  Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord in numerous rootlets  The rootlets combine to form a ventral root and a dorsal root Spinal Cord Cross Section  The dorsal root contains sensory axons  The ventral root has motor axons

 Spinal nerves have sensory and motor axons Reflexes  Stereotypic, unconscious, involuntary responses to stimuli  Maintain homeostasis  Two general types: Somatic reflexes

 A reflex arc is the functional unit of the nervous system (smallest and simplest pathway capable of receiving stimulus & yielding a response) Sensory receptors respond to stimuli and produce action potentials in sensory neurons Sensory neurons propagate action potentials to the CNS Interneurons in the CNS synapse with sensory neurons and with motor neurons Motor neurons carry action potentials from the CNS to effector organs Effector organs, such as muscles or glands, respond to the action potential

Mediated through the somatic motor nervous system and includes responses that Remove the body from painful stimuli Keep the body from suddenly falling Cause movement because of external forces

Spinal Reflex  Convergent and divergent pathways interact with reflexes  Reflexes are integrated within the brain and spinal cord  Higher brain centers can suppress or exaggerate reflexes Stretch Reflex - a reflex in which muscles contract in response to a stretching force applied to them.  Muscle spindles detect the stretch of skeletal muscles and cause the muscle to shorten reflexively  Jerk reflex or Patellar reflex

Autonomic reflexes Mediated through the ANS and are responsible for maintaining variables within their normal ranges Blood pressure Blood carbon dioxide levels Water intake

Golgi Tendon Reflex  Golgi tendon organs respond to increased tension within tendons and cause skeletal muscles to relax Withdrawal Reflex or Flexor Reflex

 Spinal nerves have specific cutaneous distributions called dermatomes Major Spinal Nerve Plexuses  The five major plexuses are Cervical (C1-C4) Phrenic nerve

 Activation of pain receptors (sensory receptor) causes contraction of muscles and the removal of some part of the body from a painful stimulus Withdrawal Reflex  Activation of pain receptors causes contraction of muscles and the removal of some part of the body from a painful stimulus  A.k.a. Flexor Reflex Structure of Nerves  Individual axons are surrounded by the endoneurium  Groups of axons (fascicles) are bound together by the perineurium  Fascicles form the nerve and are held together by the epineurium Spinal Nerves  There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves Eight cervical Twelve thoracic Five lumbar Five sacral One coccygeal

Brachial (C5-T1) Axillary, radial, musculocutaneous, ulnar, and median nerves

Lumbar (L1-L4) Sacral (L4-S4) Coccygeal (S5-coccygeal)

 The lumbar and sacral plexuses are often considered together as the lumbosacral plexus Obturator, femoral, tibial, and common fibular nerves

Brain  Contained in the cranial cavity  Is the control center for many of the body s functions  Consists of the Brainstem Cerebellum Diencephalon Cerebrum

Brainstem  Consist of the Medulla oblongata Pons Midbrain

Superior to the medulla Ascending and Descending tracts pass through the pons Connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum Pontine nuclei regulate breathing, swallowing, balance, chewing, and salivation (several nuclei of the MO extend to the lower part of the pons)

 Connects the spinal cord and cerebellum to the remainder of the brain  Ten of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from it  Damage to small areas of the brainstem can cause death, whereas damage to relatively large areas of the cerebrum or cerebellum do not  Medulla Oblongata The most inferior portion of the BS & is continuous with the spinal cord and contains ascending and descending tracts Extends from the level of the foramen magnum to the pons Medullary nuclei regulate the heart, blood vessels, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance and coordination The pyramids (2 anterior prominent enlargements) are descending tracts controlling voluntary muscle (skeletal) movement

 Midbrain Superior to the pons;smallest region of the BS Corpora quadrigemina consist of four colliculi  Two inferior colliculi are involved in hearing  Two superior colliculi in visual reflexes Substantia nigra and the red nucleus help regulate general body movements

 Reticular Formation Consists of nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem Regulates cyclic motor functions, such as breathing, walking, and chewing Reticular activating system, which is part of the reticular formation, maintains arousal,

 Pons (Bridge)

consciousness and regulates the sleep-wake cycle Damage to cells of reticuar formation COMA

adhesion resembling like a yoyo Largest part of the diencephalon All sensory input that reaches the cerebrum, except for the sense of smell, synapses in the thalamus Interacts with other parts of the brain to control motor activity Involved in emotions (mood) and pain perception

Cerebellum  Means Little brain  Attached to the brainstem by several large connections CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES  The cerebellum has three parts: Flocculonodular lobe controls balance and eye movements Vermis and medial part of the lateral hemispheres control posture, locomotion, and fine motor coordination The lateral hemispheres are involved with the planning, practice, and learning of complex movements

 Subthalamus Inferior to the thalamus Involved in motor function

 Epithalamus Superior and posterior to the thalamus Consists of the  Habenular nuclei, which influence emotions through the sense of smell  Pineal body, which may play a role in the onset of puberty and the sleep-wake cycle  Hypothalamus: Main visceral control center of the body and is vitally important to overall body homeostasis; Most inferior part of the diencephalon.

Diencephalon  Located between the brainstem and the cerebrum  Consists of the Thalamus Subthalamus Epithalamus Hypothalamus

 Thalamus Consists of two lobes connected by the interthalamic

Autonomic control center (heart rate, blood pressure, etc.) Center for emotional response/behavior Nervous perspiration Body temperature regulation Regulation of food intake (hunger) Regulation of water balance (Thirst) Control of endocrine system functioning (secretion of hormones from pituitary gland) Mammillary bodies are reflex centers for olfaction (odors)

 Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary motor function, motivation, aggression, the sense of smell, and mood  Parietal lobes contain the major sensory areas receiving sensory input, such as touch, pain, temperature, balance, and taste  Occipital lobes contain the visual centers  Temporal lobes evaluate smell and hearing input and are involved in memory, abstract thought, and judgment  Insula is located deep within the lateral fissure Meninges  The brain and spinal cord are covered by the dura, arachnoid and pia mater  The dura mater attaches to the skull and has two layers that can separate to form dural folds and dural venous sinuses  Beneath the arachnoid mater the subarachnoid space contains CSF that helps cushion the brain  The pia mater attaches directly to the brain Ventricles

Cerebrum  Cortex of the cerebrum is folded into ridges called gyri and grooves called sulci or fissures  Largest part of the brain  The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres  Each hemisphere has five lobes Frontal lobes Parietal lobes Occipital lobes Temporal lobes Insula

 The lateral ventricles in the cerebrum are connected to the third ventricle in the diencephalon by the interventricular foramina

 The third ventricle is connected to the fourth ventricle in the pons by the cerebral aqueduct  The central canal of the spinal cord is connected to the fourth ventricle  The fourth ventricle is connected to the subarachnoid space by median and lateral apertures Normal flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Choroid Plexus 2 lateral ventricles Foramen of Monroe/Interventricular Formane 3rd ventricle Aqueduct of Sylvius 4th ventricle 2 Luschka (lateral) & 1 Magendie (Medial) Subarchnoid space Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)  Produced from the blood in the choroid plexus of each ventricle by ependymal cells  Moves from the lateral to the third and then to the fourth ventricle  From the fourth ventricle, CSF enters the subarachnoid space through three apertures  Leaves the subarachnoid space through arachnoid granulations and returns to the blood in the dural venous sinuses Cranial Nerves  The two types of general functions are sensory and motor

Sensory includes special senses and general senses Motor includes somatic motor and parasympathetic

 Cranial nerves and their functions are summarized in Table 11.2

*PS KINDLY CHECK PP 312,329-334 (TABLES)

Sensory Tracts  Ascending pathways carry conscious and unconscious sensations Each pathway carries specific sensory information because each pathway is associated with specific types of receptors Anterolateral system Conveys cutaneous sensory information to the brain Spinothalamic tracts Carries pain, temperature, light touch, pressure, tickle, and itch sensations Ascend to the thalamus

Spinoreticular tracts Ascend to the thalamus

Unconcious pain

Spinomesencephalic tracts Ascend to the midbrain Unconscious pain and touch

Upper motor neurons extend to lower motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord Corticospinal tract Control muscle movements below the head Especially the distal limbs Make fine motor control of the fingers possible

 Ascending pathways (cont.) Dorsal column/medial lemniscal system Carries the sensations of two-point discrimination Proprioception Pressure Vibration

Lateral corticospinal tracts Anterior corticospinal tracts

Corticobulbar tracts Innervate the head muscles (except for muscles moving the eyes)

Trigeminothalamic tracts Carries sensory information from the face, nose, and mouth

 Indirect pathways Spinocerebellar tracts Proprioception Arise from the cerebral cortex and cerebellum Upper motor neurons extend to brainstem nuclei Axons from the nuclei extend to lower motor neurons

*CHECK P 351 (DESCENDING SPINAL PATHWAYS TABLE ) Motor Tracts  Direct pathways Arise from the cerebral cortex

Involved in conscious and unconscious trunk and proximal limb muscle

movements, posture, and balance Speech  Located only in the left cortex in most people  Wernicke s area comprehends and formulates speech  Broca s area receives input from Wernicke s area and sends impulses to the premotor and motor areas, which cause the muscle movements required for speech Rubrospinal Reticulospinal Vestibulospinal

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