Gkarlis-BEM Solutions For Linear Elastic and Fracture Mechanics Problems With Micro Structural Effects

BEM Solutions for Linear Elastic and Fracture Mechanics Problems with Microstructural Eects
Gerasimos F. Karlis
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics University of Patras
Doctoral Thesis
I would like to dedicate this thesis to my loving parents and brother.
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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my mentor, Professor Demosthenes Polyzos, for taking me under his scientic supervision. His faith in me was of utmost importance. Without his guidance, support and personal work none of this would have been possible. It was a great honor for me to have the privilege of collaborating with Professor Dimitri E. Beskos, whose valuable contribution in the Boundary Elements eld has set a precious example. I shall always be grateful to Assistant Professor Stefanos V. Tsinopoulos, for being one of the most important sources of motivation and guidance. In fact he was there for me at every step, from the beginning of my graduate studies to the end of it and without his guidance I would have never been able to accomplish the work of this thesis. I would like to acknowledge the contribution of the Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics department, as well as the Civil Engineering department of the University of Patras for providing the necessary resources and a fertile environment for research. Finally, I would like to express my thanks to the European Social Fund (ESF), Operational Program for Educational and Vocational Training II (EPEAEK II), and particularly the Greek Program PYTHAGORAS II, for funding part of this work.
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Abstract
During this thesis, a Boundary Element Method (BEM) has been developed for the solution of static linear elastic problems with microstructural eects in two (2D) and three dimensions (3D). The second simplied form of Mindlins Generalized Gradient Elasticity Theory (Mindlins Form II) has been employed. The fundamental solution of the 4th order partial dierential equation, that describes the aforementioned theory, has been derived and the integral equations that govern Mindlins Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory have been obtained. Furthermore, a BEM formulation has been developed and specic Boundary Value Problems (BVPs) were solved numerically and compared with the corresponding analytical solutions to verify the correctness of the formulation and demonstrate its accuracy. Moreover, two new partially discontinuous boundary elements with variable order of singularity, a line and a quadrilateral element, have been developed for the solution of fracture mechanics problems. The calculation of the unknown elds near the crack tip (or front) demanded the use of elements that could interpolate abruptly varying elds. The new elements were created in a way that their interpolation functions were no longer quadratic but their behavior depended on the order of singularity of each eld. Finally, the Stress Intensity Factor (SIF) of the crack has been calculated with high accuracy, based on the elements nodal traction values. Static fracture mechanics problems for Mode I and Mixed Mode (I & II) cracks, have been solved in 2D and 3D and the corresponding SIFs have been obtained, in the context of both classical and Form II Gradient Elasticity theories.
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Mindlin

viii
Contents
Nomenclature 1 Introduction 1.1 Linear elastic theories with microstructural eects 1.2 Numerical solutions in gradient elastic theories . . 1.3 Gradient elastic fracture mechanics . . . . . . . . 1.4 Structure of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Novelty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii 1 1 5 7 8 9 11 13 13 15 18 21 24 29 29 31 34 37 37 45 46 47
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2 Mindlins Theory of Elasticity with Microstructure 2.1 General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Equations of Equilibrium and Boundary Conditions . . . 2.1.3 Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Form I, II and III Gradient Elasticity Theories . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Integral Representation of the Form II Gradient Elastic Problem 2.4.1 Reciprocal Integral Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 2D and 3D Fundamental Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Boundary Integral Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Boundary Element Formulation 3.1 BEM Formulation . . . . . . . . 3.2 Symmetry and antisymmetry . 3.3 Subregioning . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Numerical Integrations . . . . .
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ix
CONTENTS
3.4.1 3.4.2
Normal and nearly singular integration . . . . . . . . . . . Singular Integration 3.4.2.1 3.4.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Treating weak singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . Treating strong and hyper singularities . . . . . .
48 50 50 52 56 56 58 59 63 64 67 67 71 73 75 75 79 80 82 83 84 85 90 92 97 101
3.5
Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 Hollow Cylinder under pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radial deformation of a Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tension of a bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Fracture in Elasticity with Microstructure 4.1 4.2 Displacement and Stress Fields near the Crack . . . . . . . . . . . Crack Elements for Linear and Gradient Elastic Fracture . . . . . 4.2.1 4.2.2 Two dimensional crack element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.3 4.2.3 4.2.4 Integrals involving the eld R . . . . . . . . . . . Integrals involving the eld P . . . . . . . . . . . Integrals involving the eld q . . . . . . . . . . .
Integrations over a three noded quadratic line special element 71
Three dimensional crack element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4.1 4.2.4.2 4.2.4.3 Integrals involving the eld R . . . . . . . . . . . Integrals involving the eld P . . . . . . . . . . . Integrals involving the eld q . . . . . . . . . . .
Integrations over an eight-noded quadrilateral special element 78
4.3 4.4
BEM Stress Intensity Factor Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 Square plate with horizontal line crack under tension . . . Square plate with diagonal line crack under tension . . . . Cube with central horizontal rectangular crack . . . . . . .
5 Conclusions and Future Work A Form I, II & III Constants
A.1 Form I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 A.2 Form II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 A.3 Form III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
CONTENTS
B Form II: Total Potential Energy Calculation C Mindlins Form II: Kernels D Boundary Elements D.1 Surface Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.1.1 Eight Noded Quadratic Quadrilateral Element D.1.2 Six Noded Quadratic Triangular Element . . . D.2 Line Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2.1 Three Noded Quadratic Line Element . . . . . E Diving elements into triangles E.1 Quadrilateral Elements . . . . E.1.1 Triangle 1 . . . . . . . E.1.2 Triangle 2 . . . . . . . E.1.3 Triangle 3 . . . . . . . E.1.4 Triangle 4 . . . . . . . E.1.5 Triangle 5 . . . . . . . E.1.6 Triangle 6 . . . . . . . E.1.7 Triangle 7 . . . . . . . E.1.8 Triangle 8 . . . . . . . E.2 Triangular Elements . . . . . E.2.1 Triangle 1 . . . . . . . E.2.2 Triangle 2 . . . . . . . E.2.3 Triangle 3 . . . . . . . E.2.4 Triangle 4 . . . . . . . E.2.5 Triangle 5 . . . . . . . E.2.6 Triangle 6 . . . . . . .
105 107 117 117 117 120 122 122 125 125 125 127 127 127 128 128 128 128 129 129 130 130 131 131 132 133
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F Taylor expansion of the position vector
G Hollow Cylinder Under Pressure: Analytical solution constants135 H Eight Noded Special Element: Interpolation Functions References 137 153
xi
CONTENTS
xii
List of Figures
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 The one dimensional continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1D continuum with quadratically varying displacements and smaller element size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kinematic parameters of Mindlins theory of elasticity with microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical components of the double stress tensor and gradient microdeformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transformation of elements from the global to nate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements broken down to triangles . . . . . . The hollow cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radial displacement of the internal points . . Radial displacement of the internal points . . The gradient elastic bar . . . . . . . . . . . . Axial displacement of the internal points . . . their . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . local coordi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 12 15 16
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
39 52 57 57 59 60 61 64 66 68 70
Rectangular components of the crack tip stresses . . . . . . . . . . Mode I: Opening or tensile mode; Mode II: Sliding or in-plane shear mode; Mode III: Tearing or anti-plane shear mode . . . . . Variable order of singularity discontinuous boundary element and its transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A 2D discontinuous variable order of singularity element . . . . . Transition from the real 3D space to the parametric representation of the element and nodal renumbering, for the case of a fully discontinuous element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 5.1
Projection of point x to the crack front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Position of the variable singularity order elements w.r.t. the crack and domain division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gradient elastic plate with a horizontal line crack . . . . . . . . . Upper right quarter of the COD prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Position of the variable singularity order elements w.r.t. the crack and domain division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traction values near the crack tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gradient elastic plate with a central diagonal line crack . . . . . . Mixed Mode SIFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixed Mode SIFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shape of mode I crack for dierent values of the gradient coecient g compared to the 2D case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3D Mode I SIFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crack opening displacements (CODs) and tractions near the crack tip for gradient and classical elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77 84 85 86 89 91 91 93 94 94 95
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D.1 The geometrical and functional nodes of an eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 D.2 The geometrical and functional nodes of a six noded quadratic triangular element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 D.3 The geometrical and functional nodes of a three noded quadratic line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 E.1 Elements broken down to triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.2 A random triangle of a quadrilateral element with [1 , 2 ] R [0, Rmax ()] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.3 A random triangle of a triangular element with [1 , 2 ] R [0, Rmax ()] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 and . . . 126 and . . . 129
xiv
List of Tables
1.1 2.1 Works on size eects on specic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The renumbering of the element nodes, so that the crack front always resides on the rst side. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material constants for the hollow cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average percentage error w.r.t. the analytical solution of Zervos et al. (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average percentage error w.r.t. the analytical solution of Tsepoura et al. (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The material characteristics used in the hollow cylinder . . . . . . Average percentage error w.r.t. the analytical solution of Tsepoura et al. (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orders of magnitude of the asymptotic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . The renumbering of the element nodes, so that the crack front always resides on the rst side. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SIF convergence for the classical elastic case . . . . . . . . . . . . SIFs convergence for the gradient elastic case (g = 0.01, 0.05 and 0.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 56 58 59 60 62 70 76 88 90
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
D.1 The geometrical node coordinates of an eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 D.2 The functional node coordinates of a discontinuous eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 D.3 The geometrical node coordinates of a six noded quadratic triangular element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
xv
LIST OF TABLES
D.4 The functional node coordinates of a discontinuous six noded quadratic triangular element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 D.5 The geometrical node coordinates of a three noded quadratic line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 D.6 The functional node coordinates of a discontinuous three noded quadratic line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
xvi
Nomenclature
Roman Symbols fj Coecient of the body forces per unit volume vector f, see equation (2.22), page 17 ni Coecient of the outward pointing unit normal vector n, see equation (2.24), page 18 N i (1 , 2 ) The interpolation function that corresponds to the i-th node of an element, see equation (3.9), page 41 sij Tjk Coecient of the relative stresses tensor , see equation (2.19), page 16 s Coecient of the double forces per unit area tensor T, see equation (2.22), page 17 tj ui ui W Xi Coecient of the traction vector t, see equation (2.22), page 17 Coecient of the macro-displacements u, see equation (2.6), page 13 Coecient of the micro-displacements u , see equation (2.6), page 13 The potential energy density, see equation (2.15), page 16 Coecient of the material position vector X of a material particle, see equation (2.6), page 13 xi Coecient of the spatial position vector x of a material particle, see equation (2.6), page 13
xvii
NOMENCLATURE
Xi
Coecient of the material position vector X of a material particle with respect to a rectangular coordinate system that has its origin xed in the particle, see equation (2.6), page 13
xi
Coecient of the spatial position vector x of a material particle with respect to a rectangular coordinate system that has its origin xed in the particle, see equation (2.6), page 13
Greek Symbols ij ij ijk , ijk ij jk Coecient of the macro-strain tensor , see equation (2.12), page 14 Coecient of the relative deformation tensor , see equation (2.13), page 15 Coecient of the micro-deformation gradient , see equation (2.14), page 15 Lam constants e Coecient of the double stresses tensor , see equation (2.19), page 16 Coecient of the macro-rotation tensor , see equation (2.12), page 14 Coecient of the double forces per unit volume tensor , see equation (2.22), page 17
i (1 , 2 ) The shape function that corresponds to the i-th node of an element, see equation (3.4), page 40 jk ij ij Coecient of the micro-deformation , see equation (2.9), page 14 Coecient of the total stresses tensor , see equation (2.19), page 16 Coecient of the Cauchy stresses tensor , see equation (2.19), page 16
Subscripts L[i,j] The anti-symmetric part of second order tensor L
L(i,j) The symmetric part of second order tensor L
xviii
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Linear elastic theories with microstructural eects
Experimental observations have shown that macroscopically many materials are signicantly aected by their microstructure and exhibit a mechanical behavior which is dierent than that expected classically. Polycrystals, polymers, metallic and polymeric foams, granular materials, graphite, concrete, asphalt, porous media, cellular materials, bones and particle or ber reinforced composites are some examples of such materials. These microstructural eects become more pronounced especially when the size or a dimension of the considered structure becomes small and comparable to the microstructure of the constituent materials. Representative examples are those of membranes, very thin plates and shells, microelectronic devices, micromechanical systems, layered plates, bones and smart structures. However, even in large structures there are mechanical responses localized to small areas of the structural material (cracks, shear bands, dislocations) the size of which is comparable to the dimensions of the microstructure. Some representative works dealing with size eects in the aforementioned materials are provided in Table 1.1. Due to the lack of internal parameters, which would correlate the microstructure with the macrostructure, classical theory of linear elasticity fails to describe such behavior. Thus, resort should be made to other enhanced elastic theories
1. INTRODUCTION
where internal length scale constants correlating the microscopic representative volume elements with the macrostructure are involved in the constitutive equations of the considered elastic continuum. Such theories and the most general are the Cosserat elasticity theory (Cosserat & Cosserat (1909)), the Cosserat theory with constrained rotations or couple stresses theory (Grioli (1960), Toupin (1962), Mindlin & Tiersten (1962), Koiter (1964)), the strain gradient theory (Toupin (1964)), the multipolar theory of continuum mechanics (Green & Rivlin (1964)), the elastic theory with microstructure (Mindlin (1964), Mindlin (1965)), the micromorphic, microstretch and micropolar elastic theories (Eringen (1999)) and the non-local elasticity (Eringen (1992)). Most of the aforementioned theories have been developed in the decade of 60s and excellent historical reviews and comments on the subject can be found in the review articles of Mindlin & Tiersten (1962) and Tiersten & Bleustein (1974), in the paper of Exadaktylos & Vardoulakis (2001), in the thesis of Tekoglou (2007) and in the books of Vardoulakis & Sulem (1995) and Eringen (1999). Cosserat brothers were the rst to develop a general mechanics framework of continuous media where each point possesses six degrees of freedom like a rigid body and not three (position of a point in Euclidean space) as the classical elasticity does. These three extra degrees of freedom correspond to three directors, which represent rotations created by the so called couple stresses. As mentioned by Toupin (1964), the most novel feature of Cosserat theory is the appearance of couple stresses in the equilibrium equations and equations of motion. However, although this theory is a landmark in the development of enhanced elastic theories, it did not receive much attention due to the lack of specic constitutive relations and the non-symmetry of the considered stresses. By the end of the 50s and during the beginning of 60s the subject of the theory of elasticity with couple stresses reopened and a plethora of new couple stresses elastic theories were proposed in the literature (Grioli (1960), Toupin (1964), Mindlin & Tiersten (1962), Koiter (1964)). Most of them explored the special case where the three rotations coincide with the local rotations of classical elasticity leading thus to a couple stresses theory with three independent variables, i.e. the three components of displacement vector. Using this consideration, beyond the six components of strains, other eight of the eighteen components of the rst gradient of strain were inserted
1.1 Linear elastic theories with microstructural eects
in the expression of the strain energy density function. All the components of the rst gradient of the strain were introduced into the strain energy density function, in a non-linear fashion, by Toupin (1964) proposing the strain gradient theory. Considering higher order gradients of strains, Green & Rivlin (1964) developed a very complicated, but the most general enhanced theory of elasticity called multipolar theory of continuum mechanics. In 1964 and 1965 Mindlin developed a general and comprehensive elastic theory with microstructure which is actually the linear version of Toupins strain gradient theory and equivalent to the dipolar gradient theory of Green and Rivlin. In order to balance the dimensions of strains and higher order gradients of strains as well as to correlate the micro-strains with macro-strains, Mindlin (1964) utilized eighteen new constants rendering thus his general theory very complicated from physical and mathematical point of view. In the sequel, considering long wave-lengths and the same deformation for macro and micro structure Mindlin proposed three new simplied versions of his theory, known as Form I, II and III, utilizing in the constitutive equations seven material and internal length scale parameters instead of eighteen employed in his initial model. In Form-I, the strain energy density function is assumed to be a quadratic form of the classical strains and the second gradient of displacement; in Form II the second displacement gradient is replaced by the gradient of strains and in Form III the strain energy function is written in terms of the strain, the gradient of rotation, and the fully symmetric part of the gradient of strain. Although the three forms are equivalent to each other and conclude to the same equation of motion, the Form-II leads to a symmetric total stress tensor, as in the case of classical elasticity, avoiding thus the problems associated with non-symmetric stress tensors introduced by Cosserat and couple stress theories. Almost simultaneously with Mindlin, Eringen (see Eringen (1999)) proposed three general elastic theories with microstructural considerations called micromorphic, microstretch and micropolar theories. The micromorphic continuum is none other than the classical continuum endowed with extra degrees of freedom represented by three deformable directors, which represent the degrees of freedom arising from microdeformations of the physical particle. The linear form of the micromorphic theory (see Eringen (1999)) coincides with the micro-structure theory of Mindlin
1. INTRODUCTION
(1964). In the microstretch version of the above theory, the deformable directors contain only stretches and not microshears, while in the case where the three directors become rigid and represent three independent rotations of the microparticle the micromorphic becomes micropolar theory. Finally, a dierent theory, which takes into account microstructural eects in a complete non-local manner, is the non-local theory of elasticity proposed by Eringen (1992). As it is mentioned in the corresponding works of Eringen, nonlocal continuum mechanics diers from classical and other enhanced continuum mechanics in two basic ways: (a) balance laws are postulated to be nonlocal (global). This is achieved by introducing some nonlocal residuals into localized balance equations. Global (integral) values of these residuals are assumed to vanish; (b) constitutive equations are nonlocal, i.e., they are functionals of the independent variables over all points of the body. Although elegant, its treatment is a very dicult task, due to the integral form of the constituent relations. After the aforementioned pioneering works, the last two decades a plethora of papers dealing with new versions of these enhanced elastic theories as well as with solutions of couple stresses and gradient elastic boundary value problems have appeared in the literature. This published work is so large that it is not possible to be mentioned in this chapter. Since the present thesis is referred to Mindlins Form II gradient elasticity theory, from now and further the literature review will be conned to this kind of theories. One can mention here the simple gradient elasticity theory of Aifantis (1992), the gradient elasticity theory with surface energy of Vardoulakis & Sulem (1995) and the gradient theory of Fleck & Hutchinson (1997) and Fleck & Hutchinson (2001). Aifantis (1992) and Ru & Aifantis (1993) proposed a very simple gradient elastic model requiring only one new gradient elastic constant plus the standard Lam ones. This gradient elastic e model can be considered as the simplest possible special case of Form-II version of Mindlins theory. The main problem with Aifantis model is that due to the complete lack of a variational formulation, the considered boundary conditions are not compatible with the corresponding correct ones provided by Mindlin. The correction on the boundary conditions is made later in the paper of Vardoulakis et al. (1996). The gradient elastic with surface energy theory of Vardoulakis & Sulem (1995) is slightly more complicated than that proposed by Aifantis and
1.2 Numerical solutions in gradient elastic theories
co-workers but it is a direct consequence of the continuum model proposed by Casal (1972) and not a special case of Mindlins general theory. Finally, Fleck & Hutchinson (1997) and Fleck & Hutchinson (2001) decomposed the second gradient of displacement into the stretch gradient and the rotation gradient tensors proposing thus an alternative version of Mindlins Form I gradient elasticity theory.
Composite Materials Foams Polycrystals Metals Bones Concrete Polymers Granular Materials Porous Materials Graphite Lloyd (1994), Nan & Clarke (1996), Groh et al. (2005) Lakes (1983), Lakes (1986), Tekoglou (2007) Smyshlyaev & Fleck (1996), Dillard et al. (2006) Fleck et al. (1994), Nix & Gao (1998) Yang & Lakes (1982), Lakes (1995) Vliet & Mier (1999), Dessouky et al. (2006) Lam et al. (2003), McFarland & Colton (2005), Chen & Lakes (1989), Lakes (1983) Vardoulakis & Sulem (1995) Lakes (1983), Lakes (1986) Tang (1983)
Table 1.1: Works on size eects on specic materials
1.2
Numerical solutions in gradient elastic theories
As in the case of classical elasticity, the solution of gradient elastic problems with complicated geometry and boundary conditions requires the use of numerical methods such as the nite element method (FEM), the boundary element method (BEM), the nite dierences method (FDM) or the meshless local PetrovGalerkin (MLPG) method. The FEM is the most widely used numerical method for solving applied mechanics problems. Shu et al. (1999) were the rst to use the FEM for solving elastostatic problems in the framework of the gradient elasticity theories of Mindlin.
1. INTRODUCTION
Since then, many papers dealing with FEM solutions of gradient elastic problems have appeared in the literature. Here one can mention the FEM formulations of Amanatidou & Aravas (2002), Engel et al. (2002), Tenek & Aifantis (2002), Matsushima et al. (2002), Peerlings & Fleck (2004), Soh & Wanji (2004), Imatani et al. (2005), Askes & Gutierrez (2006), Dessouky et al. (2003), Dessouky et al. (2006), Akarapu & Zbib (2006), Giannakopoulos et al. (2006), Markolefas et al. (2007), Markolefas et al. (2009), Askes et al. (2007), Askes et al. (2008), Papanicolopulos (2008), Papanicolopulos et al. (2009), Zervos et al. (2001), Zervos (2008), Zervos et al. (2009), Bennett & Askes (2009) and Zybell et al. (2009). It should be mentioned that from the above papers only the works of Papanicolopulos (2008), Papanicolopulos et al. (2009) and Zervos et al. (2009) deal with three dimensional problems. The main problem with a conventional FEM formulation is the requirement of using elements with C 1 continuity, since the presence of higher order gradients in the expression of potential energy leads to an equilibrium equation represented by a forth order partial dierential operator. Although a displacement formulation is conceptually simpler and the most convenient for implementation in existing nite element codes, only the works of Akarapu & Zbib (2006) and Papanicolopulos et al. (2009) implement C 1 elements with the later being the most comprehensive and complete, since it derives both two and three dimensional C 1 nite elements. The other works bypass the problem via mixed formulations, Lagrange multipliers and penalty methods. On the other hand, the BEM is a well-known and powerful numerical tool, successfully used in recent years to solve various types of engineering problems (Beskos (1987); Beskos (1997)). A remarkable advantage it oers as compared to other numerical methods, such as the FDM and the FEM, is the reduction of the dimensionality of the problem by one. Thus, three dimensional problems are accurately solved by discretizing only two-dimensional surfaces surrounding the domain of interest. In the case where the problem is characterized by an axisymmetric geometry, the BEM reduces further the dimensionality of the problem, requiring just a discretization along a meridional line of the body. These advantages in conjunction with the absent of C 1 continuity requirements, render the BEM ideal for analyzing gradient elastic problems. Tsepoura et al. (2002) were the rst to use BEM for solving elastostatic problems in the framework of the
1.3 Gradient elastic fracture mechanics
gradient elasticity theories of Mindlin. This work was followed by the publications of Tsepoura & Polyzos (2003), Polyzos et al. (2003), Tsepoura et al. (2003), Polyzos et al. (2005), Polyzos (2005), Karlis et al. (2007), Karlis et al. (2008), which are the only papers dealing with two and three dimensional BEM solutions of static and dynamic gradient elastic and fracture mechanics problems. The present thesis is the continuation of this research to Mindlins Form II gradient elastic theory. Recently, Atluri and co-workers proposed the Local Boundary Integral Equation (LBIE) method (Zhu et al. (1998)) and the Meshless Local Petrov-Galerkin (MLPG) method (Atluri & Zhu (1998)) as alternatives to the BEM and FEM, respectively. Both methods are characterized as truly meshless since no background cells are required for the numerical evaluation of the involved integrals. At the same time the so-called element-free Galerkin methods appear also in the literature Belytschko et al. (1996).In all these methods properly distributed nodal points, without any connectivity requirement, cover the domain of interest as well as the surrounding global boundary instead of any boundary or nite element discretization. All nodal points belong to regular sub-domains (e.g. circles for two-dimensional problems) centered at the corresponding collocation points. The elds at the local and global boundaries as well as in the interior of the subdomains are usually approximated by the Moving Least Squares (MLS) approximation scheme or Radial Basis Functions (RBF). Since mesh-free approximations possess nonlocal properties, they automatically satisfy the higher order continuity requirement. Representative works on the subject are those of Tang & Atluri (2003), Pamin et al. (1998) and Sun & Liew (2008).
1.3
Gradient elastic fracture mechanics
As it is explained in the excellent paper of Exadaktylos & Vardoulakis (2001), in linear elastic fracture analysis, where large strain and stress gradients occur, the gradient elastic theories seem to be ideal for studying the strain and stress elds near the crack tip at the microscale. For this reason many analytical works dealing mainly with two dimensional, gradient elastic, fracture mechanics problems under conditions of plane strain or anti-plane strain have appeared in the literature.
1. INTRODUCTION
One can mention the analytical works of Vardoulakis et al. (1996), Exadaktylos et al. (1996), Vardoulakis & Exadaktylos (1997), Exadaktylos (1998), Huang et al. (1997), Shi et al. (2000), Fannjiang et al. (2002), Georgiadis (2003), Georgiadis & Grentzelou (2006), Tong et al. (2005), Chan et al. (2008), Radi (2008), Giannakopoulos & Gavardinas (2008) and Gourgiotis & Georgiadis (2009). The main conclusion they reach, is that near the crack tip displacements and strains behave as r 3/2 and r 1/2 functions, respectively, with r being the distance from the crack tip, while double stresses and total stresses exhibit a singular behaviour of order r 1/2 and r 3/2 , respectively. The important part of these results is that gradient elastic theories predict the same cusp-like crack shape with Barenblatts cohesive zone theory (Barenblatt (1962)) without demanding extra interatomic forces beyond those imposed by the non-classical boundary conditions. On the other hand, stress elds near to the tip of the crack remain singular. In all the above works no computation of stress intensity factors (SIF) has been reported, because of the complexity of the problem. It is obvious that for the solution of complex gradient elastic fracture mechanics problems, the use of numerical methods is imperative. Amanatidou & Aravas (2002) proposing a two dimensional mixed FEM formulation for Mindlins Form I, II and III theory, solve the mode III crack problem providing results for the antiplane stress and displacement elds around the tip of the crack. Although their ndings are in agreement with the theoretical ones of Georgiadis (2003), there are no results dening explicitly the mode III SIF or correlating the SIF with the constants inserted by the considered gradient elastic model. Imatani et al. (2005) exploiting a mixed FEM formulation for the Mindlins Form II gradient elastic theory solved a plane mode I crack problem providing mainly results concerning the variation of the energy release rate with respect to the length of the crack and for specic values of the gradient elastic constants. Akarapu & Zbib (2006) and Markolefas et al. (2009) forming a mixed FEM formulation for the simplied Form II gradient elastic theory, they calculate stresses and displacements near the tip of a mode I crack without giving any information about the SIF and its dependence on the considered gradient elastic constant. Wei (2006) based on triangular C 1 elements solved Mode I, II and III gradient elastic fracture problems in two dimensions. As previous investigators, he calculated stresses and displacements near to the tip
1.4 Structure of the thesis
of a mode I crack without giving any information about the corresponding SIFs. Finally Askes et al. (2008) based on Ru-Aifantis theorem solved through a direct FEM formulation a Helmholtz type partial dierential equation instead of the forth order equation of gradient elasticity. However, their results are questionable since they satisfy boundary conditions which are dierent from those established in Mindlin theory. Very recently, Karlis et al. (2007) addressed a numerical methodology, which combines the BEM proposed by Polyzos et al. (2003) and Tsepoura et al. (2003) with special crack tip boundary elements for the numerical determination of the Stress Intensity Factor (SIF) in plane mode I and mixed mode (I & II) fracture mechanics gradient elastic problems. Adopting the idea of variable-order singularity boundary elements around the tip of the crack for the evaluation of the corresponding stress intensity factor (SIF) (Lim et al. (2002), Zhou et al. (2005)), a new special variable-order singularity discontinuous element was proposed for the treatment of singular elds around the tip of the crack. The SIFs determination was accomplished by a displacement type of formulation in connection with the multiregion approach. As it is mentioned in the review papers of Beskos (1997), Aliabadi (1997) and Dominguez & Ariza (2003), the displacement based BEM has the disadvantage of subregioning but is associated with lower order singularity kernels, than those of either the traction-based or the dual BEM. Later the same authors extended their work to three dimensional fracture mechanics problems and their results for Mode I cracks are presented in Karlis et al. (2008).
1.4
Structure of the thesis
This thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2 introduces the generalized gradient elasticity theory of Mindlin, which is used throughout this thesis. Furthermore, the simplied versions of his theory, known as Form I, II and III, are mentioned and the second simplied form is derived from the generalized theory. Finally, the integral representation of a Form II gradient elastic boundary value problem is presented. In chapter 3 the Form II boundary element formulation is described, as well as the techniques used therein, i.e. symmetry and subregioning. In addition, the
1. INTRODUCTION
method used for the calculation of the boundary integrals is presented in detail and the chapter closes with numerical examples that are solved and compared to the corresponding analytical solutions. Chapter 4 starts with a brief introduction to fracture mechanics paying special attention to the abrupt changes of the elds that occur near the crack tip. Two new boundary elements are presented, a line and a quadrilateral one, that address the occurring singularities and calculate eciently the unknown elds, as well as the stress intensity factor of the crack. Finally, some numerical examples are presented, regarding mode I and mixed mode I & II cracks in elastic and gradient elastic materials. Chapter 5 concludes this thesis, summarising the presented work and drawing concluding remarks. A discussion on possible future research follows.
1.5
Novelty
This thesis comes as a continuation of the work done in the eld of higher order strain gradient elasticity theories. The rst implementation of such theories in BEM was made by Tsepoura et al. (2002), for the simplest possible case of Mindlins gradient elasticity theory. In the formulation described therein, only one gradient elastic constant has been utilized for the correlation of the microstructure to the characteristic lenght of the structure. After that, the works of Tsepoura & Polyzos (2003), Polyzos et al. (2003), Tsepoura et al. (2003), Polyzos et al. (2005), Polyzos (2005), Karlis et al. (2007) and Karlis et al. (2008) followed, dealing with 2D and 3D gradient elastic and fracture mechanics problems. Throughout the preparation of this thesis a series of new results have been obtained. Since they are not always strongly pointed out in the text, a brief list containing the new results is provided here. 1. The 2D and 3D, static fundamental solutions of Mindlins Form II gradient elasticity theory have been derived. 2. The 2D and 3D BEM integral formulation of a static Form II gradient elastic boundary value problem has been obtained.
10
1.5 Novelty
3. A new three-noded line special element, with variable order of singularity has been developed, for dealing with the unknown elds of classical and gradient elasticity near the tip of the crack in two dimensional fracture mechanics problems. 4. A new eight-noded quadrilateral special element, with variable order of singularity has also been created for treating classical and gradient elasticity near the tip of the crack in 3D. 5. The numerical results presented in Chapter 4, that indicate the accurate calculation of the displacement and traction elds near the crack tip, as well as the calculation of the stress intensity factors in classical and gradient elasticity.
11
1. INTRODUCTION
12
Chapter 2 Mindlins Theory of Elasticity with Microstructure

It is well known that in classical elasticity all the fundamental quantities material constants, displacements, strains and stresses at any point x of the analyzed domain are taken as mean values over very small volume elements around x, the size of which must be suciently large in comparison with the materials microstructure. Exadaktylos & Vardoulakis (2001), based on this assumption, presented a very enlightening and simple example, which reveals the necessity of enhanced elastic theories. They considered a one-dimensional continuum, a point x in it, centered in a small volume element l (Figure 2.1) and the mean value of displacement throughout the element l, i.e.
l/2
u |l;x
1 = l
l/2
u (x + ) d
(2.1)
Taking Taylor expansion of u (x + ) near the point x and keeping only the
Figure 2.1: The one dimensional continuum
13
2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE
constant term u (x + ) one easily obtains from (2.1) that u |l;x = u (x) (2.2)
which means that for constantly varying displacements in l, the aforementioned assumption of classical elasticity is fullled. The same happens when the linear term of Taylors expansion is also kept, i.e. (x + ) = u (x) + u (x) u |l;x = u (x) (2.3)
However, things change when displacements vary quadratically (Figure 2.2(a)) in l and the third term of Taylors expansion, u (x + ) = u (x)+u (x) + 1 u (x) 2 , 2 should be taken into account. In this case, one can nd that u |l;x = u (x) l 2 d2 u 24 dx2 = u (x) l2 de 24 dx (2.4)
x
Relation (2.4) leads to the following very interesting remarks:
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.2: 1D continuum (a) with quadratically varying displacements and (b) smaller element size
i. The main value of displacements is not equal to the displacement at point x. Of course as shown in Figure 2.2(b), one can consider smaller elements l, where displacements vary constantly or linearly. However, in this case l becomes comparable to the microstructure and the assumption the size of l must be suciently large in comparison with the material microstructure is violated.
l de ii. The extra term in relation (2.4) is 24 dx x . This reveals that the locality of de classical elasticity is not able to satisfy the non-local requirements of dx x .
2
14
2.1 General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity
iii. The term
l2 de 24 dx x
indicates that the problem can be solved if one formulates
a new theory of elasticity where higher order gradients of strains are taken into account in the expression of the elastic potential energy density. iv. Finally, the most interesting remark is the appearance of l in (2.4). Actually, l is an internal length scale parameter, which gives a comparison between microstructure and macrostructure. The main conclusion of this example is that in elastic problems where abrupt changes of displacements, strains and stresses occur, a new elastic theory, enhanced by higher order gradient terms and internal length scale parameters, is required. As it is mentioned in the introduction of the present thesis, such a theory, namely the generalized elastic theory with microstructure of Mindlin, is adopted and presented in what follows.
2.1
General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity
2.1.1
Kinematics
In 1964, R.D. Mindlin (Mindlin (1964)) formulated an elastic continuum theory which contained some of the properties of a crystal lattice. This resulted from the theoretical assumption of a unit cell that was incorporated in his theory. The unit cell can be interpreted as a molecule of a polymer, a crystallite of a polycrystal or a grain of a granular material. In short, Mindlin considered a macro-volume V bounded by a surface S and a micro-volume V , included in V , dening that way the macro- and microdisplacements as following ui = xi Xi (2.5) (2.6)
ui = xi Xi
with i = 1, 2, 3 and Xi and xi being the components of the material and spatial position vectors of a material particle with respect to a xed origin. Accord-
15
ingly, Xi and xi are the material and spatial position vectors with respect to a rectangular coordinate system that has its origin xed in the particle. Then, after the macro- and micro-displacements have been dened, he required that their gradients be small (|ui /Xi | |ui /xi | 1, |ui /Xi | |ui /xi | 1), which resulted to uj uj = i uj Xi xi uj uj = i uj Xi xi (2.7) (2.8)
Furthermore, assuming that the micro-displacements can be expressed as a sum of products of functions of xi and other functions of xi and t (time), he wrote the micro-displacement as an approximation, retaining only a single, linear term of the series uj = xk kj (2.9)
The function kj is the micro-deformation. Dierentiating the above equation to obtain the displacement gradient results to i uj = ij (2.10)
which can be interpreted as the micro-deformation ij being homogeneous in the micro-volume V and non-homogeneous in the macro-volume V . The tensor ij can be split into symmetric and antisymmetric parts, dening that way the micro-strain (ij) and the micro-rotation [ij] respectively. In addition, the macro-strain and macro-rotation tensors can be dened as in classical elasticity, 1 (i uj + j ui) 2 1 ij = (i uj j ui ) 2 ij = (2.11) (2.12)
and the relative deformation (the dierence of the macro-displacement gradient and the micro-deformation) can be dened. ij = i uj ij (2.13)
16
Finally, the micro-deformation gradient is dened as the macro-gradient of the micro-deformation. ijk = i jk (2.14)
Note that all three tensors , and are independent of the micro-coordinates xi .
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3: Kinematic parameters of Mindlins theory of elasticity with microstructure
2.1.2
Equations of Equilibrium and Boundary Conditions
The potential energy density is assumed to be a function of ij , ij and ijk . W = W (ij , ij , ijk ) (2.15)
17
Then the following quantities are dened ij = sij ijk ij W = ji ij W = ij W = ijk = ij + sij (2.16) (2.17) (2.18) (2.19)
which correspond to the Cauchy stresses, relative stresses, double stresses and total stresses respectively. As Mindlin (1964) explains, the nature of double stresses can be explained via the Figures 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Typical components of the double stress tensor and gradient microdeformation
18
The variation of the potential energy density function W is written as W = ij ij + ijk ijk = ij i uj + ijk i j uk = j [(jk i ijk ) uk ] j (jk i ijk ) uk + i (ijk j uk ) Utilizing the divergence theorem, the total potential energy becomes W dV =
V S
(2.20)
nj (jk i ijk ) uk dS (2.21) j (jk i ijk ) uk dV +

V S
ni ijk j uk dS
with n being the normal unit vector of the surface S. The form of the above equation, implies the following form for the variation of work done by external forces. W1 =
V
Fj uj dV +
S
jk jk dV +
S
tj uj dS +
S
Tjk jk dS
(2.22)
The denitions of ui and jk , and the fact that the integrands of the volume and surface integrals represent variations of work per unit volume and area, yield the physical signicances of the coecients of ui and jk . jk = i ijk + jk can be interpreted as double force per unit volume, fi is the body force per unit volume, tj the traction vector and Tjk the double forces per unit area. Substituting (2.21) and (2.22) into the equation of equilibrium
t1 t1
t0
W=
t0
W1
(2.23)
and dropping the integration with respect to time, we obtain the variational equation of motion (i ij + i ij + fj ) uj dV
V
+
V
(i ijk + jk + jk ) jk dV [tj ni (ij + ij )] uj dS + (Tjk ni ijk ) jk dS = 0
(2.24)
+
S
19
where ni are the components of the outward pointing unit normal vector of the surface S. From the above equation it is easy to extract the stress equations of equilibrium i ij + fj = 0 i ijk + sjk + jk = 0 and the boundary conditions tj = ni (ij + sij ) = ni ij Tjk = ni ijk (2.26) (2.27) (2.25a) (2.25b)
2.1.3
Constitutive Equations
In order to extract the constitutive equations, Mindlin considered the following quadratic form for the potential energy density function W = 1 1 1 cijkl ij kl + bijkl ij kl + ijklmn ijk lmn 2 2 2 + dijklmij klm + fijklm ijk lm + gijkl ij kl
(2.28)
Taking into account relations (2.16-2.24), the Cauchy stresses, relative stresses, double stresses and total stresses are given by pq = cpqij ij + gijpq ij + fijkpq ijk spq = gpqij ij + bijpq ij + dpqijk ijk pqr = fpqrij ij + dijpqr ij + fpqrijk ijk pq = pq + spq (2.29) (2.30) (2.31) (2.32)
In the case of isotropic material, the coecients dijklm and fijklm vanish, because there are no isotropic tensors of odd rank. Since the most general form of
20
fourth and sixth order isotropic tensors is a linear function of tensor products of Kronecker deltas Lijkl = aij kl + bik jl + cil jk Fijklmn = C1 ij kl mn + C2 ij km ln + C3 ij kn lm + C4 ik jl mn + C5 ik jm ln + C6 ik jn lm + C7 il jk mn + C8 il jm kn + C9 il jn km + C10 im jk ln + C11 im jl kn + C12 im jn kl + C13 in jk lm + C14 in jl km + C15 in jm kl the remaining coecients are written as cijkl = ij kl + 1 ik jl + 2 il jk bijkl = b1 ij kl + b2 ik jl + b3 il jk gijkl = g1 ij kl + g2 ik jl + g3 il jk aijklmn = a1 ij kl mn + a2 ij km nl + a3 ij kn lm + a4 jk il mn + a5 jk im nl + a6 jk in lm + a7 ki jl mn + a8 kijm nl + a9 ki jn lm + a10 il jm kn + a11 jl km in + a12 kl im jn + a13 il jn km + a14 jl kn im + a15 kl in jm (2.33)
Finally taking into account the symmetry of the macro-strain and the commutative property of multiplication, one can see that from the 1458 coecients of eq (2.28) only the 903 are independent. In addition, considering an isotropic material the constants of eqs (2.33) become 1 = 2 = , a1 = a6 , a5 = a7 , g2 = g3 a2 = a9 a11 = a12 (2.34)
21
and the potential energy density function is simplied to W = + + + + + 1 1 1 ii jj + ij ij + b1 ii jj + b2 ij ij + 2 2 2 1 b3 ij ji + g1 ii jj + g2 (ij + ji) ij + 2 1 a1 iik kjj + a2 iik jkj + a3 iik jjk + 2 1 1 a4 ijj ikk + a5 ijj kik + a8 ijikjk + 2 2 1 1 a10 ijk ijk + a11 ijk jki + a13 ijk ikj + 2 2 1 1 a14 ijk jik + a15 ijk kji 2 2
(2.35)
Accordingly, the constitutive equations become pq = pq ii + 2pq + g1 pq ii + g2 (pq + qp ) pq = g1 pq ii + 2g2 pq + b1 pq ii + b2 pq + b3 qp pqr = a1 (iip qr + rii pq ) + a2 (iiq pr + iri pq ) + a3 iir pq + a4 pii qr + a5 (qii pr + ipi qr ) + a8 iqi pr + a10 pqr + a11 (rpq + qrp ) + a13 prq + a14 qpr + a15 rqp (2.38) (2.36) (2.37)
Mindlins theory is not conned to spatially homogeneous material properties. Taking for instance the elastic coecients and the densities to be periodic functions with period 2d, equal to the edge length of the unit cell, would describe the structure of a crystal lattice. However, this would increase the models complexity and would have made it highly intractable. In order to avoid exactly that, Mindlin considered the macro-material to be homogeneous, having in mind that for wavelengths greater than the dimensions of the unit cells it would be a suciently good approximation for demonstrating the main features of his theory. Considering an isotropic macro-material, replacing eqs (2.11), (2.13) and (2.14) into the constitutive equations and inserting them into the equations of equilibrium (2.25), one obtains the equilibrium equations in terms of the displacements. ( + 2g2 + b2 ) j j ui + ( + + 2g1 + 2g2 + b1 + b3 ) i j uj (g1 + b1 ) i jj (g2 + b2 ) j ji (g2 + b3 ) j ij + fi = 0 (2.39a)
22
2.2 Form I, II and III Gradient Elasticity Theories (a1 + a5 ) (k l kl ij + i j kk ) + (a2 + a11 ) (j k ki + i k jk ) + (a13 + a14 ) i k kj + a4 k k ll ij + (a8 + a15 ) j k ik + a10 k k ij + a13 k k ji + g1 k uk ij + g2 (i uj + j ui ) + b1 (k uk kk ) ij + b2 (i uj ij ) + b3 (j ui ji ) + ij = 0 (2.39b)
2.2
Simplied Versions of Mindlins General Theory: Form I, II and III Gradient Elasticity Theories
Mindlin found that the modes that appear in a gradient elastic material due to a micro-vibration, ij = Aij eit , (dilatational, shear, equivoluminal extensional and rotational), are analogous to the thickness modes of vibration that appear in homogeneous plates. Having in mind the derivation of the low frequency approximation in plate theory, he used the same process to simplify his gradient elasticity theory. In homogeneous plates, when the excited frequencies are low compared to the thickness modes of the plate and the wavelengths long compared to the thickness of the plate, the coupling of the exural and extensional modes with the thickness modes is negligible. As the frequencies of the exural and extensional modes approach zero, the thickness-shear deformation approaches zero, but the thickness stretch deformation does not. However, the stress associated to the thickness stretch tends to zero. This means that the symmetric and anti-symmetric parts of deformation and stress have to be treated dierently when deriving the low frequency approximation. To obtain the low frequency approximation for exure in plate theory, the thickness shear deformation is sent to zero and the associated modulus of elasticity is sent to innity. Furthermore, in the case of extension, the thickness stress is set equal to zero and the resulting constitutive equation is used to eliminate the thickness strain from the remaining equations. In both cases, exure and extension, the thickness velocities are set equal to zero in the kinetic energy, because their contribution is negligible.
23
As mentioned earlier, the modes appearing in gradient elasticity can be associated with the ones appearing in homogeneous plate theory. Specically, the micro-modes are analogous to the thickness modes of vibration and the transverse and longitudinal acoustic modes are analogous to the exural and exten sional modes of the plate. Furthermore, the micro-velocities ij correspond to the thickness velocities of the plate and the dimensions of the unit cell 2d are similar to the plate thickness. Finally, the antisymmetric part of the relative deformation [ij] is analogous to the thickness shear deformation, the coecients b2 and b3 of eq. (2.35) correspond to the thickness shear moduli and the symmetric part of the relative stress s(ij) is associated with the stress resulting from the thickness stretch of the plate. Using the above analogies, the assumptions for the derivation of the low frequency approximation in plate theory can be translated in terms of gradient elasticity. s(ij) = 0 [ij] 0 b2 b3 0 (2.40) (2.41) (2.42)
These assumptions form the basic hypothesis for the low frequency approximation of Mindlins theory. Obviously all the above are also valid for static problems. The constitutive equations for the Cauchy and relative stresses (2.36-2.38) become pq = pq ii + 2pq + g1 pq ii + 2g2 pq s(pq) = g1 pq ii + 2g2 pq + b1 pq ii + (b2 + b3 ) (pq) s[pq] = (b2 b3 ) [pq] Equation (2.44) can now be solved for (pq) (pq) = pq ii + (1 ) pq 1 b1 (3g1 + 2g2 ) g1 b2 + b3 3b1 + b2 + b3 2g2 = 1+ b2 + b3 (2.46) (2.43) (2.44) (2.45)
with and depending on the potential energy density function coecients. =
24
2.2 Form I, II and III Gradient Elasticity Theories
Since [pq] has been sent to zero, the symmetric and antisymmetric parts of the micro-deformation are functions of the macro-strains and the macro-rotations respectively. (pq) = pq ii + pq [pq] = pq Accordingly the micro-deformations ijk become ijk ill jk + 1 1 (1 + ) ijk (1 ) ikj 2 2 (2.48) (2.47a) (2.47b)
with ijk = i j uk = jik . This means that in static problems, ijk becomes ijk , a function of the second gradient of displacements. Then the potential energy density function is written 1 W W = ii jj + ij ij + 1 iik kjj 2 + 2 ijj ikk + 3 iik jjk + 4 ijk ijk + 5 ijk kji (2.49)
with the constants , and 1 -5 depending on the potential energy density function coecients as shown in Appendix A. This is the rst form for the potential energy density function, also referred to as Form I. The components ijk may be arranged in tensors, whose components are inde pendent linear combinations of i j uk in more than one ways, resulting in dierent forms of he potential energy density function. Specically, arranging the terms in such a way that the gradient of strain is formed, leads to the second form of Mindlins gradient elasticity theory. ijk i jk = 1 (i j uk + i k uj ) = ikj 2 (2.50)
Then, the potential energy density becomes 1 W W = ii jj + ij ij + 1 iik kjj 2 + 2 ijj ikk + 3 iik jjk + 4 ijk ijk + 5 ijk kji (2.51)
with = , = and 1 -5 presented in Appendix A. This form is refereed to as Form II.
25
Finally, separating the curl of the strain ij from the second gradient of dis placements results to the third form, which is refereed to as Form III. 1 ij ejlm l mi = ejlm i l um (2.52) 2 1 1 1 ijk = ijk + eilj kl + eilk jl = (i j uk + k i uj + j k ui ) (2.53) 3 3 3 1 1 ijk = ijk eilj kl eilk jl (2.54) 3 3 The potential energy density expression for Form III is now expressed as a function of ij and ijk . 1 W W = ii jj + ij ij + 2d1 ij ij + 2d2 ij ji 2 3 + 1 iij kkj + 2 ijk ijk + f eijk ij kll 2 with the constants d1 , d2 , 1 , 2 and f presented in Appendix A.
(2.55)
2.3
Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory
In this section the equilibrium equations corresponding to Mindlins Form II gradient elasticity theory are derived. As mentioned earlier, the potential energy density function W of the gen eral gradient elasticity theory becomes W in the case of the Form II, when the components i j uk are arranged in such a way that the gradient of strains is formed. 1 W = ii jj + ij ij + 1 iik kjj 2 + 2 ijj ikk + 3 iik jjk + 4 ijk ijk + 5 ijk kji The stresses are now dened with respect to W as ij = ijk W = ji ij W = = ikj ijk (2.57a) (2.57b) (2.56)
26
2.3 Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory
Theory General Strain Gradient Elasticity Theory
Potential Energy Density function

1 1 W = 1 ii jj + ij ij + 2 b1 ii jj + 2 b2 ij ij + 2 1 2 b3 ij ji + g1 ii jj + g2 (ij + ji ) ij + a1 iik kjj + a2 iik jkj + 1 a3 iik jjk + 1 a4 ijj ikk + a5 ijj kik + 2 2 1 1 1 a8 iji kjk + 2 a10 ijk ijk +a11 ijk jki + 2 a13 ijk ikj + 2 1 1 2 a14 ijk jik + 2 a15 ijk kji
Mindlins Form I
1 W = 2 ii jj + ij ij + 1 iik kjj + 2 ijj ikk + 3 iik jjk + 4 ijk ijk + 5 ijk kji
Mindlins Form II
1 W = 2 ii jj + ij ij + 1 iik kjj + 2 ijj ikk + 3 iik jjk + 4 ijk ijk + 5 ijk kji
Mindlins Form III
1 W = 2 ii jj + ij ij + 2d1 ij ij + 2d2 ij ji + 3 2 1 iij kkj + 2 ijk ijk + f eijk ij kll
Simple Gradient Elasticity theory Simple Gradient Elasticity theory with Surface Energy
1 1 W = 2 ii jj + ij ij + 2 g2 ijj ikk + g2 ijk ijk
1 1 2 W = 2 ii jj + ij ji + 2 k ii k jj + 2 k ij k ji + 1 k k (ii jj ) + k k (ij ji ), : 2 characteristic length of the material, k : surface energy characteristic directors
Table 2.1: The renumbering of the element nodes, so that the crack front always resides on the rst side.
27
and after some calculations they nally become pq = pq ii + 2pq 1 pqr = 1 (pq rii + 2qr iip + rp qii ) + 22 qr pii 2 + 3 (pq iir + pr iiq ) + 24 pqr + 5 ( rpq + qrp ) or in vector notation = ( u) + (u + u) I 1 = 1 2 u + u + u + u I I I I 2 + 22 u I (2.59a)
213
(2.58a) (2.58b)
213 1 I I I + u I + 3 2 u + u + 2 u 2 1 + 4 (u + u) + 5 (2u + u + u) 2
213
(2.59b)
variation of the potential energy density function (2.56) is written as W = ij ij + ijk ijk = ij i uj + ijk i j uk
where = ij xi xj , a b = ai bj xi xj and (a b c)213 = b a c. The I
(2.60)
= j [(jk i ijk ) uk ] j (jk i ijk ) uk + i (ijk j uk ) Utilizing the divergence theorem, the total potential energy becomes W dV =
V S
nj (jk i ijk ) uk dS (2.61) j (jk i ijk ) uk dV +

V S
ni ijk j uk dS
with n being the normal unit vector of the surface S. Mindlin assumed that the surface S is composed of two portions, S1 and S2 , that intersect forming an edge C. In that context, he used the Stokes theorem and tensor manipulations that resulted to the following expression for the total
28
2.3 Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory
potential energy. These calculations are presented in detail in Appendix B. W dV =

V V
j (jk i ijk ) uk dV [nj jk ni nj D ijk 2ni Di ijk + (ni nj Dl nl Dj ni ) muijk ] dS

S
+ +
S
ni nj ijk Duk dS +
C
ni mj ijk uk dS
(2.62) with D nl l , Dj (jl nj nl ) l , mj = emlj sm nl and sm being the components
of the unit vector that is tangent to the edge C, whereas the double brackets This suggests the following form for the variation of the work done by external forces. W1 =
V
indicate the dierence between the values of the enclosed quantities on S1 and S2 .
Fk uk dV +
S
Pk uk dS +
S
Rk Duk dS +
C
Ek uk ds
(2.63)
where Fk , Pk dS, Rk dS, Ek dS are external body forces, surface forces, double surface forces and jump line forces, respectively. Equilibrating (2.62) with (2.63) one obtains the following fundamental relations. i. The relative and total stresses tensors are sjk = i ijk or in vector notation = s ii. The equation of equilibrium is i (jk i ijk ) + Fk = 0 ( ) + F = 0 or (2.66) and = (2.65) and jk = jk i ijk (2.64)
29
iii. The essential boundary conditions, concerning the determination of the kinematic variables and the external boundary are uk = u0 on S, and/or k uk = qk , on S n nj jk ni nj D ijk (nj Di + ni Dj ) ijk + (ni nj Dl nl Dj ni ) ijk = Pk (2.67)
iv. The natural boundary conditions dealing with stress type variables are (2.68)
with Pk representing the traction vector. The above boundary conditions is written in vector form as n (n n) : n (S ) n S 213 n + (S n) (n n) : (S n) : = P
where the inner product (:) is dened as a b : c d = (b c) (a d) and S = n n . Also I ni nj ijk = Rk or ( n) : = R on S n and
ni mj ijk
(2.69)
= Ek
or
with Rk , Ek representing the double traction and jump traction vectors, respectively. It is worth noting that since ijk = ikj , the term (jk i ijk ) in the stress equation (2.66) is symmetric, which simplies the introduction of an Airy stress function. The equilibrium equation in terms of displacements is derived by substituting eqs (2.50) and (2.11) into (2.58) and the latter in the stress equations of motion (2.66). + 2 1 1 i i j k uk 1 2 i i ejmn enpq m p uq + Fj = 0 (2.71) l2 l2 1 1 2 u 1 2 2 u + F = 0 l2 l2 (2.72)
(m n)
: = E on S
(2.70)
or vector notation + 2
with 1 = 2 ( 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 ) / + 2 , 2 = (3 + 24 + 5 ) /2. l2 l2
30
2.4 Integral Representation of the Form II Gradient Elastic Problem
2.4
Integral Representation of the Form II Gradient Elastic Problem
2.4.1
Reciprocal Integral Identity
In the previous section, the tilde ( has been used to describe the elds related )
to the Form I gradient elasticity theory, in accordance to Mindlin (1964). From
second or higher order.
now on, the tilde ( will be used over a symbol to specify that it is a tensor of ) In order to proceed with the integral representation of a static Form II gra-
dient elastic problem, a reciprocal integral identity must be derived, analogous to Bettis reciprocal identity for the classical elasticity (Brebbia & Dominguez (1992)). Consider a gradient elastic material with volume V and surrounding surface S. Also consider two dierent deformation states for this material, denoted as (u, ) and (u , ) with u, u being the displacement vectors and , being the total stress tensors of the rst and second deformation state respectively. Bettis theorem for classical elasticity states that the work done by the external forces of the rst state in the displacements of the second state is equal to the work of the external forces of the second state in the displacements of the rst state. In order to derive an identity analogous to Bettis the same procedure as followed by Polyzos et al. (2003) is applied. First, a vector w involving the two deformation states is dened. w = u u (2.73)
Replacing the total stresses from eq (2.65), calculating the divergence of w and yields exploiting the identities ( u) = ( ) u + : u and : u : u = 0 w = ( ) u [ ( )] u ( ) : u + ( ) : u
(2.74)
31
Now, applying the Gauss divergence theorem for w over the volume V produces the following: [ ( )] u [ ( )] u dV
V
( ) : u ( ) : u dV [n ( )] u [n ( )] u dS
S
(2.75)
Using the equilibrium equation (eq (2.66)) for both deformation states with forces f and f respectively, the above integral equation becomes: f u f u dV
V
(2.76) ( ) : u ( ) : u dV =
V S
t u t u dS
with t = n ( ) and t = n ( ) being the traction vectors for the two states, acting on the boundary surface S. Furthermore, using eq (2.65) and Greens integral identity, the second volume integral of the above equation can be written as a surface integral over S (Polyzos et al. (2003)). ( ) : u( ) : u dV =
V S
(n ) : u(n ) : u dS (2.77)
In view of the above, eq (2.76) becomes f u f u dV

V
(2.78) (n ) : u (n ) : u dS =
S S
t u t u dS
Finally, using the identities n : u = (n n) (n u ) + (n ) : S u (2.79)
32
S [(n ) u ] = n S [n (n u )] + [(S n) (n n) : ] u (2.81) the reciprocal integral identity becomes f u f u dV +

V S
(n ) : S u = S [(n ) u ] S n : + n S 213
(2.80)
P u P u dS (2.82)
a
=
S
u u R dS + R n n
E u E u dC
Ca
with P = n (n n) : R = (n n) : E = (m n) : n (S ) n S 213 n + (S n) (n n) : (S n) :
(2.83) (2.84) (2.85)
and a being the total number of edges Ca of the surface S. It must be noted here, that in the two dimensional case, the line integral of eq (2.82) reduces to a sum of distinct values, over the corners of S. It should also be mentioned here that Giannakopoulos et al. (2006) have also derived the same reciprocity relation in their paper dealing with the Saint-Venant principle for linear strain-gradient elastic bodies.
2.4.2
2D and 3D Fundamental Solutions
The fundamental displacement is dened as the displacement of point x due to a unit excitation (x, y) at point y. This means that the fundamental solution I u (x, y) of the Form II gradient elasticity is a tensor satisfying the following partial dierential equation. + 2 1 1 2 u (r) 1 2 2 u (r) = (r) (2.86) l2 l2 I
with r = |x y| and (r) being the Dirac delta function.
33
It is worth noting here, that using the identity 2 = + and after some calculations we end up with a more familiar form of eq (2.86). 1 2 2 u (r) + + 2 l2 2 2 2 ( u (r)) = (r) I l2 l1 (2.87)
with = 2 + + being the dierential operator of classical elas ticity. The Dirac delta function in eq (2.86) may be replaced by the Laplacian of a scalar function (r), which has the following form: (r) =
1 ln 2 1 , 4r 1 r
, for 2D for 3D
(2.88)
(r). Furthermore, Dassios & Lindell (2001) have proven that any second order tensor can be decomposed in three parts. The rst is the gradient of the gradient of a scalar function (r), the second is the gradient of the curl of a vector function A (r) and the last part is the curl of the curl of a dyadic function G (r). u (r) = (r) + A (r) + G (r) replacing all the above in eq (2.86), the latter becomes + + 2 + 2 2 (r) 1 4 (r) l2 2 A (r) 1 4 A (r) l2 = (r) (r) I I (2.90) (2.89)
since (r) is the fundamental solution of the Laplacian operator, i.e. 2 (r) =
Utilizing the identity 2 (r) = (r) (r) , and I I I
+ 2 G (r) 2 4 G (r) l2
For the above equation to hold true each part of the left hand side must be equated to the corresponding part on the right hand side. + 2 + 2 2 (r) 1 4 (r) l2 2 A (r) 1 4 A (r) l2 = (r) = 0 = (r) I (2.91) (2.92) (2.93)
2 G (r) 2 4 G (r) l2
34
The radial nature of the fundamental solution exists only when A = 0. The order of eqs (2.91) and (2.93) can be reduced by replacing f (r) = 2 (r) and g (r) = 2 G respectively. + 2 f (r) 1 2 f (r) l2 g (r) 2 2 g (r) l2 = (r) = (r) I (2.94) (2.95)
For the 3D case, the last two equations admit solutions of the form f (r) = (r) =
2
1 4 + 2 1 4
1 er/l1 r r
(2.96)
g (r) = 2 G (r) = which yield (r) = 1
1 er/l2 r r
(2.97)
4 + 2
l2 r 1 2 er/l1 l1 2 r r
(2.98)
1 G (r) = 4
l2 r 2 2 er/l2 + l2 2 r r
(2.99)
Accordingly for the 2D case, the corresponding functions (r) and G (r) are found to be r2 1 2 (ln r 1) + 1 ln r + 1 K0 l2 l2 4 (1 ) 4 2 r 1 r (ln r 1) + 2 ln r + 2 K0 l2 l2 I G (r) = 2 2 4 l (r) = r 1 l (2.100) (2.101)
with 2 = / + and K0 () the modied Bessel function of the second kind and zeroth order. Substituting the above results for (r), A (r) and G (r), into the decomposed expression for the displacement (eq (2.89)) we end up with the nal form of the displacement fundamental solution. u (r) = 1 (r) X (r) I r r (a 1) 8 (1 ) (2.102)
35
with a being equal to the problem spatial dimensions, i.e. two for 2D and three for 3D, and X (r), (r) being scalar functions. For the three dimensional case, X (r) and (r) are 1 1 X (r) = + 2 (1 2) r r 4 (1 ) (r) = (3 4) 1 r l 31 l2 31 31 l2 + + 1 er/l1 2 r2 r r l 32 l2 32 32 l2 + + 1 er/l2 2 r2 r r 2 1 l1 l + 2 r r er/l1
(2.103)
1 1 + 2 (1 2) r r 4 (1 ) 1 r
2 l1 r2 (2.104)
2 2 2 l l l2 + + 1 er/l2 2 2 r r r2
whereas for the two dimensional case the corresponding functions are given below. X (r) = 1 + 2 (1 2) +4 ( 1) 21 l2 + K2 r2 22 l2 + K2 r2 r 1 l r 2 l r 1 l r 2 l K2 + K2 r 1 l r 2 l (2.106) (2.105)
(r) = (3 4) ln r + (2 1) +2 ( 1)
21 l2 + K0 r2 22 l2 + K0 r2
2.4.3
Boundary Integral Representations
The integral representation of a Form II gradient elastic problem is obtained by means of the reciprocal integral identity derived in the previous section. Assuming that the second deformation state (u , ) has an excitation of the form f (y) = (x y) e (2.107)
36
with e being a unit constant vector at point y. Then the displacement vector u is given by u (y) = u (x, y) e (2.108) Replacing the above equation into the reciprocal integral identity and assuming zero body forces f = 0, we get
V
(x y) u (y) dVy e
= +
PT (x, y) u (y) u (x, y) P (y) dSy e qT (x, y) R (y) RT (x, y) q (y) dSy e u (x, y) E (y) ET (x, y) u (y) dCy e
(2.109)
a C a
with qT (x, y) = u (x, y) /ny and q (y) = u (y) /ny . Since eq (2.109) must hold for every possible e and u (x, y) is symmetric, the following integral equation is obtained. c (x) u (x) +
S
PT (x, y) u (y) u (x, y) P (y) dSy (2.110)
=
S
qT (x, y) R (y) RT (x, y) q (y) dSy u (x, y) E (y) ET (x, y) u (y) dCy
+
a C a
with c (x) being the jump tensor used in the classical elasticity case (Brebbia & Dominguez (1992)) taking the values 0, I, (x) = c 1 I, 2 x (R3 V ) xV xS
and the kernels u , q , P , R and E as presented in Appendix C.
37
The above equation has ve unknown elds, i.e. u (y), P (y), q (y), R (y) and E (y). Since there are three boundary conditions available, one more equation is required to evaluate the unknown elds. This equation is obtained by applying the dierential operator /nx on the rst boundary integral equation. (x) c u (x) + nx u PT (x, y) u (y) (x, y) P (y) dSy nx nx (2.111)
=
S
RT qT (x, y) R (y) (x, y) q (y) dSy nx nx ET u (x, y) E (y) (x, y) u (y) dCy nx nx

+
a C a
The kernels u /nx , q /nx , P /nx , R /nx and E /nx are given in Appendix C. The integral equations (2.110) and (2.111), along with the classical boundary conditions ( u or P prescribed) and the non-classical boundary conditions (q or R prescribed and E prescribed) form the integral representation of a Form II gradient elastic problem.
38
Chapter 3 Boundary Element Formulation

3.1 BEM Formulation
Consider a volume V composed of a gradient elastic material and surrounded by a surface S. The boundary integral equations that describe the problem are (x) u (x) + c
S
PT (x, y) u (y) u (x, y) P (y) dSy (3.1a)
=
S
qT (x, y) R (y) RT (x, y) q (y) dSy u (x, y) E (y) ET (x, y) u (y) dCy u PT (x, y) u (y) (x, y) P (y) dSy nx nx
+
a C a
c (x)
u (x) + nx
=
S
RT qT (x, y) R (y) (x, y) q (y) dSy nx nx ET u (x, y) E (y) (x, y) u (y) dCy nx nx
(3.1b)
+
a C a
If we discretize the domain into E boundary elements then equations (3.1) can
39
3. BOUNDARY ELEMENT FORMULATION
be written in discretized form

E
(x) u (x) + c
E
e=1 S
PT (x, ye ) u (ye ) u (x, ye ) P (ye ) dSye

e
=
e=1 E Se
qT (x, ye ) R (ye ) RT (x, ye ) q (ye ) dSye u (x, ye ) E (ye ) ET (x, ye ) u (ye ) dCye
E
(3.2a)
+
e=1 C
e
u (x) (x) + c nx
E
e=1
Se
u PT (x, ye ) u (ye ) (x, ye ) P (ye ) dSye nx nx
=
e=1 S E
e
RT qT (x, ye ) R (ye ) (x, ye ) q (ye ) dSye nx nx ET u (x, ye ) E (ye ) (x, ye ) u (ye ) dCye nx nx (3.2b)
+
e=1 Ce
with Se and Ce being the surface and the boundary of element e respectively. Supposing that element e has S sides, then its boundary Ce can be expressed as a sum of the boundaries of each side Ce = eqs (3.2) become respectively u (x, ye ) E (ye ) ET (x, ye ) u (ye ) dCye
Ce S S i=1 i Ce . Then, the last integrals of
(3.3a)
i u (x, y ) E (y ) ET (x, ye ) u (ye ) dCye e e
i Ce
=
i=1
Ce
ET u (x, ye ) E (ye ) (x, ye ) u (ye ) dCye nx nx

S
=
i=1
i Ce
ET u i (x, ye ) E (ye ) (x, ye ) u (ye ) dCye nx nx
(3.3b)
40
3.1 BEM Formulation
Since each integral of the above involves only one side of each element and E is expressed as a dierence between two sides of two adjacent elements, if the elements are coplanar, E becomes equal to zero on their common side. For a smooth domain boundary and a dense discretization this is a good approximation. However, in the case of a non-smooth domain boundary or a coarse mesh, the above line integrals must be taken into account. Before proceeding with the discretization of the integrals, some aspects of the elements must be discussed. In order to treat all elements in a unied manner, they are represented parametrically with the aid of a transformation. This transformation involves the shape functions of the element. If the element is quadrilateral, it is transformed to a square on the plane 1 , 2 with 1 1 1 equilateral triangle represented on a skew coordinate system dened by its two sides as shown in Figure 3.1(b). and 1 2 1 (Figure 3.1(a)). If it is triangular, it is transformed to an
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.1: Transformation of (a) a quadrilateral, (b) a triangular and (c) a line element from the global to their local coordinate systems
41
The location of a point on the element with local coordinates (1 , 2 ) can be used to calculate its coordinates in the global coordinate system, by computing the sum of the shape functions of the element multiplied by the coordinates of the corresponding geometrical node, over all element nodes.
Ag
x (1 , 2 ) =
i=1
i (1 , 2 ) xi
(3.4)
Ag is the number of geometrical nodes of the element, i (1 , 2 ) the shape function of the element that corresponds to the i-th geometrical node and xi the location vector of the i-th geometrical node expressed in global coordinates. The shape functions of the element are usually polynomial functions of the variables 1 , 2 that are linearly independent with one another, equal to one on the corresponding node and zero on all other geometrical nodes. This is called the delta property. Furthermore, their sum is always equal to one and the sum of their derivatives with respect to any of the varialbes 1 , 2 over the geometrical nodes is equal to zero. In order to calculate the elds at any point of the element, the elements interpolation functions are used. Specically, the value of a eld at any point on the element is approximated by the sum of the interpolation functions multiplied by the corresponding functional node of the element.
Af
u (x) =
i=1 Af
N i (1 , 2 ) ui N i (1 , 2 ) qi
i=1 Af
(3.5)
q (x) =
(3.6)
P (x) =
i=1 Af
N i (1 , 2) Pi N i (1 , 2) Ri
i=1 Af
(3.7)
R (x) =
(3.8)
E (x) =
i=1
N i (1 , 2) Ei
(3.9)
42
3.1 BEM Formulation
with Af being the number of functional nodes of the element, N i (1 , 2 ) the interpolation function of the element that corresponds to the i-th functional node and ui , qi , Pi , Ri and Ei the values the eld u, q, P, R and E on the i-th functional node respectively. The interpolation functions of the element are also linearly independent with one another, have the delta property and their sum as well as the sum of their derivatives are equal to one and zero respectively. Since an element is used to interpolate the geometry as well as the elds, it can be considered as being a geometrical and a functional element at the same time. However, its geometrical nodes are independent of its functional ones. In the present work, the geometrical nodes reside on the elements boundaries making it geometrically continuous. On the other hand, its functional nodes may or may not reside on the elements boundaries. In cases where the prescribed elds are dierent for two adjacent elements or the boundary forms an edge or a corner, causing the normal vector to be discontinuous on the nodes residing there, the functional nodes of that side are slightly retracted towards the elements center. Then the element is said to be functionally discontinuous. More than one sides of the element are allowed to be discontinuous at the same time. In the present work, since no geometrically discontinuous elements are used, the functionally discontinuous elements will be referred to simply as discontinuous. Placing discontinuous elements over an edge of the boundary has also the advantage that the tensor c (x) of eqs (3.2) is easier to calculate since no edges ared contained in the boundary and it is considered smooth. A thorough description of all the elements used can be found in Appendix D. The integrals of eqs (3.2) are calculated using numerical integration. If the problem is 3D, the integrals over Se and Ce are surface and line integrals respectively. In the two dimensional case however, the integrals over Se reduce to line integrals and the ones over Ce reduce to a sum of distinct values, one for each side of the line element e. It is possible to write the integral equations (3.2) for a random node k of the boundary, with 1 k L and L being the total number of nodes of the discretized boundary. To this end, we replace eqs (3.5-3.8) into (3.2) and the
43
nodal eld values are moved outside of the integrals.

E Ae f
xk uk + c
E
e=1 a=1 Ae f
Hk uk Gk Pk ea ea
E Ae f
(3.10a) Kk Ek Lk uk ea ea
=
e=1 a=1 E
k Rk Jk qk + Iea ea
Ae f
e=1 a=1
xk qk + c
E
e=1 a=1 Ae f
Nk uk Mk Pk ea ea
E Ae f
(3.10b) k Tk Ek Vea uk ea
=
e=1 a=1 k k k
Ok Rk Sk qk + ea ea
k k
e=1 a=1
Here, u , q , P , R and E are the values of the elds on node k, Ae is the f k , Hk , k , Jk , Kk , Lk , Mk , number of functional nodes of element e and Gea ea Iea ea ea ea ea Nk , Ok , Sk , Tk and Vk are the integrals
ea ea ea ea ea 1 1
Gk ea
=
1 1 1 1
u xk , ye (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1d2
(3.11)
Hk ea
=
1 1 1 1
PT xk , ye (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1 d2
(3.12)
k Iea
=
1 1 1 1
qT xk , ye (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2) JL (1 , 2) d1 d2
(3.13)
Jk = ea
1 1 S
RT xk , ye (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1 d2
bi
(3.14)
Kk = ea
i=1 a i
u xk , ye (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) N a (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) JL (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) |i (ti )| dti (3.15) ET xk , ye (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) N a (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti ))
i=1 a i
bi
Lk ea
JL (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) |i (ti )| dti (3.16)
44
3.1 BEM Formulation
Mk ea
=
1 1 1 1
u k e x , y (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1 d2 nx PT k e x , y (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1d2 nx qT k e x , y (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1 d2 nx RT k e x , y (1 , 2 ) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1d2 nx u k e x , y (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) N a (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) nx
(3.17)
Nk ea
=
1 1 1 1
(3.18)
Ok ea
=
1 1 1 1
(3.19)
Sk ea
=
1 1 S
(3.20)
bi
Tk = ea
i=1 a i
bi
JL (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) |i (ti )| dti (3.21) ET k e x , y (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) N a (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) nx JL (1 (ti ) , 2 (ti )) |i (ti )| dti (3.22)
k Vea
=
i=1 a i
Note that the Jacobian of the transformation from the global coordinate system to the element local coordinate system JL is present in the above integrals. In the case of triangular elements, the limits of the above integrals, instead of 1 and 1 become 0 and 1 respectively. Furthermore the integrals Kk , Lk ,
ea ea
k Tk and Vea of eqs (3.15-3.16) and (3.21-3.22) correspond to the line integrals ea that appear in the boundary integral equations. For each element, these integrals
are written as a sum over the elements sides. Since they are line integrals, the local variables 1 and 2 are expressed as functions of the parameter ti , 1 (ti ) = 1 (i (ti )) and 2 (ti ) = 2 (i (ti )), with i being the parametric representation of the i-th element side ti [ai , bi ] i. For the two dimensional case, the above surface integrals become line integrals k and the line integrals Kk , Lk , Tk and Vea reduce to a sum of distinct values. ea ea ea
1
Gk ea
=
1
u xk , ye () N a () JL () d
(3.23)
45
Hk ea
=
1 1
PT xk , ye () N a () JL () d
(3.24)
k Iea
=
1 1
qT xk , ye () N a () JL () d
(3.25)
Jk ea
=
1 S
RT xk , ye () N a () JL () d
(3.26)
Kk = ea
i=1 S
u xk , ye () N a () ET xk , ye () N a ()
i=1 1
(3.27) (3.28)
Lk = ea Mk = ea
1 1
u k e x , y () N a () JL () d nx PT k e x , y () N a () JL () d nx qT k e x , y () N a () JL () d nx RT k e x , y () N a () JL () d nx u k e x , y () N a () nx ET k e x , y () N a () nx
(3.29)
Nk = ea
1 1
(3.30)
Ok ea
=
1 1
(3.31)
Sk ea
=
1 S
(3.32)
Tk = ea
i=1 S
(3.33) (3.34)
k Vea =
i=1
Assuming a smooth boundary the boundary integral equations (3.10) are sim-
46
3.2 Symmetry and antisymmetry
plied to
E Ae f
c xk uk + =
e=1 a=1 E Ae f
Hk uk Gk Pk ea ea k Rk Jk qk Iea ea Nk uk Mk Pk ea ea Ok Rk Sk qk ea ea
(3.35a)
e=1 a=1 E Ae f
xk qk + c =
e=1 a=1 E Ae f
(3.35b)
e=1 a=1
Collocating the above equations for all nodes k of the boundary to a linear system of 2 3 L scalar equations that have 3 4 L unknowns in total. Utilizing
the boundary conditions that are prescribed on every node (one classical and one non-classical) the number of unknowns reduces to 3 2 L, leading to a linear system with that many unknowns as the number of equations. The matrix of the linear system is fully populated and the system can be solved using the LU decomposition. The solution of the system contains the values of the unknown elds on the nodes of the discretized boundary.
3.2
Symmetry and antisymmetry
It is well known that a symmetric geometry combined with symmetric boundary conditions yields a symmetric solution. The analogous statement is true for antisymmetry. This means that symmetry and antisymmetry can be exploited to reduce the utilized memory and the computational time required to solve a symmetric or antisymmetric problem. In order to take advantage of a symmetry relative to a plane, only the one half of the domain needs to be discretized. The other half of the domain is constructed on demand using projections with respect to the symmetry plane. The boundary integral equations are calculated over the whole domain, but the
47
degrees of freedom of the symmetric part are expressed with respect to the degrees of freedom of the discretized part. Consider a plane of symmetry/antisymmetry located at the center of the global Cartesian coordinate system and parallel to the plane formed by any two of the unit normal vectors ei of the the global coordinate system. Then, the values of any eld f l on a node l can be expressed with respect to the eld values f k of its symmetric/antisymmetric counterpart, i.e. node k, as Symmetric case: Antisymmetric case: fil = ci fik fil = ci fik (3.36)
with i = 1, , 3 and ci =
1, if ei plane of symm./antisymm.; 1, otherwise.
3.3
Subregioning
Subregioning is a simple technique based on the assumption that a domain with one region can be solved equivalently by dividing it into subregions and applying appropriate boundary conditions on their interfaces. This technique is used in a variety of scenarios. For instance when the material properties of the domain change from one subregion to another or when the domain contains cracks. In the latter case, there are nodes that belong to dierent crack faces, but reside on the same location, aecting the condition of the nal matrix. This problem is addressed by dividing the domain into two subregions is such a way that the two crack faces belong to dierent subregions. The idea behind the subregioning technique is that all regions are discretized retaining common discretization on their interfaces with other subregions. Then each subregion is collocated separately and its equations are added to the nal linear system after continuity conditions have been applied on its interfaces. The nal matrix is sparse instead of fully populated and can be solved faster. The boundary conditions that have to be satised on the interface, for the
48
3.4 Numerical Integrations
coupling of the two subregions are uRegion1 = uRegion2 qRegion1 = qRegion2 (3.37a) (3.37b) (3.37c) (3.37d)
RRegion1 = RRegion2
PRegion1 = PRegion2 .
3.4
Numerical Integrations
The fundamental solutions of the employed gradient elasticity theory depend on the distance r of the node k, for whom the integral representation is written, from the node a of the element we are integrating over. The integrals involved can be divided into three categories depending on the distance of the current node k from the current element node a (see eqs (3.35)). The rst category contains all the integrals that their node k is far from their element node a, with far meaning a distance greater than the elements sides. The integrals of this category are called normal, they possess no singularities and can be integrated with a simple Gauss-Legendre quadrature. The second category includes the integrals that their node k coincides with their element node a. These integrals are called singular, because the fundamental solutions involved contain several negative powers of the distance r (O (1/r), O (1/r 2), O (1/r 3)), that tend to innity when r tends to zero. The last category contains the integrals that have a distance r not equal to zero, but equal or smaller than their elements sides. In these cases, the calculations of negative powers of r lead to abrupt changes of the fundamental solutions over the element causing instabilities. These integrals are called nearly singular. The singular and nearly singular integrals have been treated semi-analytically following the methodology proposed by Guiggiani (1992, 1998); Guiggiani & Gigante (1990). The numerical integrations have been performed with GaussLegendre quadrature, using points optimally distributed according to Bu (1997).
49
3.4.1
Normal and nearly singular integration
As mentioned above the Gauss-Legendre quadrature has been utilized to calculate the values of the integrals. In order to calculate the value of a typical one dimensional integral I the following procedure is followed.
b
I=
a
f (u) du
(3.38)
The st step is to compute the Gauss points and weights. This is done using the method of Bu (1997) which dictates that in order to compute the above integrals with an error less than 0.01% the required number of Gauss points is given by Gi = 1 + 2.8 R Li
0.8
(3.39)
with R being the distance of the current node from the current element and Li the characteristic length of the element, measured in the i-th direction. The second step is to transform the integral from [a, b] to the interval [1, 1], taking into account the Jacobian of the transformation Ju
b 1
f (u) du =
a 1
f () Ju d
(3.40)
Then, the value of the integral is given by the sum of the integrands, evaluated at the Gauss points, multiplied by the corresponding Gauss weights
1 G
f
1
() Ju
d =
i=1
f (i) Ju (i ) w i
(3.41)
points and the corresponding weights. In the case of surface integrals the procedure is basically the same, but the integration is conducted in two dimensions.
b d 1 1 f (1 , 2) Ju d1 d2 1 1 G1
with G being the number of gauss points and i , w i, i = 1, , G being the Gauss
f (u1 , u2) du1 du2 =

a c
(3.42)
i j f (i , j ) Ju (i , j ) w1 w2
G2
=
i=1 j=1
50
where G1 , G2 are the number of Gauss points in the 1 and 2 directions, respec tively, Ju is the Jacobian of the transformation from (u1 , u2) to (1 , 2 ) and w i, w j are the Gauss weights in the two directions. In the present work, for a typical normal integral over an element, the function f is equal to the product of a fundamental solution and an interpolation function and the Jacobian Ju is the Jacobian of the transformation from the global coordinate system to the element local coordinate system. Since the local variables of the element (1 , 2 for quadrilateral and for line) already belong in the interval [1, 1], no extra transformation in required and Ju = 1. However, in the case of a triangular element, an additional transformation has to be performed. This is due to the fact that the local coordinates 1 , 2 of the element belong in the interval [0, 1]. Thus, in order to apply the Gauss-Legendre quadrature a transformation : [0, 1] [0, 1] [1, 1] [1, 1] is introduced.
Then, the local coordinates of the element are related to the transformed coordinates 1 , 2 according to the following relations 1 = 1 (1 + 1) (1 2 ) 4 2 =
1 4
(3.43a) (3.43b) (3.43c)
(1 + 1) (1 + 2 )
1 d1 d2 = 8 (1 + 1) d1 d2
For example, the integral Gk (eq (3.11)) over a triangular element becomes ea
G1 G2 i j w1 w2 u xk , ye (1 (gi ) , 2 (gj )) i=1 j=1
Gk = ea
(3.44) 1 N a (1 (gi ) , 2 (gj )) JL (1 (gi ) , 2 (gj )) (gi + 1) 8
i with gi and w1 being the gauss points and the gauss weights in the 1 direction j and gj and w2 the gauss points and weights in the 2 direction. It should be noted that the method of Bu (1997) works well also for the nearly
singular integrals, allowing a unied treatment for both cases ( normal and nearly singular). More details about the Gauss-Legendre quadrature and the determination of Gauss points can be found in Bu (1997) and Press et al. (2007).
51
3.4.2
Singular Integration
Singular integrals are categorized according to their order of singularity. Namely, the integrals with singularity order O (1/r) are called weakly singular, the integrals with order O (1/r 2 ) are said to possess a strong singularity and the ones with singularity O (1/r 3) are called hypersingular integrals. 3.4.2.1 Treating weak singularities
In order to treat a weak singularity, it is a common practice to introduce a transformation from the local element coordinate system to a local polar coordinate system, centered at the point of singularity, i.e. the current node k (see eqs (3.35)). Then, as explained below, the Jacobian of the transformation cancels out the singularity. For a quadrilateral element the transformation from the local coordinate system (1 , 2 ) to the new, local polar coordinate system (R, ) is straightforward
k 1 = 1 + R cos k 2 = 2 + R sin
(3.45a) (3.45b) (3.45c)
d1 d2 = RdRd
k k with 1 , 2 being the coordinates of the singular point.
For a triangular element however, an intermediate transformation is required in order to make the transaction from the skew coordinate system of the element (1 , 2 ) to an orthonormal one (1 , 2 ) 1 = 1 2 tan (/6) 2 2 = cos (/6) 1 d1 d2 d1 d2 = cos (/6) (3.46a) (3.46b) (3.46c)
After that, the transformation to the polar coordinate system, centered at the singular point can be performed to the new coordinates (1 , 2 )
k 1 = 1 + R cos
(3.47a)
52
k 2 = 2 + R sin
(3.47b) (3.47c)
d1 d2 = RdRd
k k with 1 , 2 being the coordinates of the singular point expressed in orthonormal coordinates.
At this point, it is easy to see why the transformation to polar coordinates can treat weak singularities. After the transformation, since the distance r has become a function of the radius R, the singularity has also become a function of R, retaining however its order (O (1/R)).It is due to the Jacobian of the transformation, which multiplies the integrand with R, that the singular term is eliminated. In order to demonstrate the details of this technique, the integral Gk (eq (3.11))
ea
is presented as an example, for a triangular element.

2 Rmax ()
Gk = ek
0 0
u xk , ye (R, ) N a (R, ) JL (R, ) J R dRd
(3.48)
In the above integral, J is the Jacobian of the transformation (3.46) from the
skew coordinate system (1 , 2 ) to the orthonormal one (1 , 2 ). This Jacobian is absent in the case of a quadrilateral element, since no intermediate transformation is required. In order to proceed with the numerical integration, the range of the polar radius R must be determined. Since the elements are not symmetric around the singular point, the radius is a function of the polar angle R (). In addition, the element is broken down into triangles, so that each triangle has one of its vertices on the singular point, according to gure 3.2. Now the singular integral over the element can be written as a sum of integrals over the triangles.
Te
t 2 Rt () max
Gk = ek
t=1
t 1
u xk , ye (R, ) N a (R, ) JL (R, ) J R dRd 0
(3.49)
with Te being the total number of triangles in the element. The advantage of this technique, is that there are no abrupt changes of R over a single triangle, making thus the integrals easy to calculate even with few Gauss
53
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.2: (a) A quadrilateral and (b) a triangular element broken down to triangles points. Extensive details about the calculation of Rmax () for quadrilateral and triangular elements are given in Appendix E. 3.4.2.2 Treating strong and hyper singularities
An integral is characterized as strongly singular when it possesses a singularity of the order of O (1/R2 ), with respect to the variable of integration R, within the interval of integration. Similarly, hypersingular is the integral whose dominant term is of the order of O (1/R3 ). In order to treat these integrals, the methodology of Guiggiani (1998) is used for the unied treatment of strong and hypersingular integrals. The basic idea behind Guiggianis technique is that the singular parts of the kernels are rst subtracted from the integrals; then the integrals are computed as normal ones, using the Gauss-Legendre quadrature and the integrals of the singular parts are added back after having been analytically computed. Consider an integral of the form
1 1
Nk = ea
1 1
PT k e x , y (1 , 2) N a (1 , 2 ) JL (1 , 2 ) d1 d2 nx
(3.50)
with PT /nx being the fundamental solution for the normal derivative of tractions. Assume that the kernel of integral (3.50) possesses two kinds of singularity,
54
O (1/R3 ) and O (1/R2 ). In that case, the integral is transformed from the local element coordinate system (1 , 2 ) to a local polar coordinate system (R, ) and broken down to a sum of integrals over a set of triangles, as in the previous section. Each of these integrals is of the form
2 Rmax ()
I=
1 0
PT k e x , y (R, ) N a (R, ) JL (R, ) J R dRd nx
(3.51)
with N a (R, ) being the a-th interpolation function of the element e, written in terms of the new polar coordinates and k being the current node, which coincides
with the node a of the current element. Furthermore, J is the Jacobian of the transformation (3.46) if the element e is triangular and it is equal to 1 if the
element is quadrilateral. After the transformation to the local polar coordinates, the kernel of the integral (3.51),
K (R, ) = PT /nx xk , ye (R, ) N a (R, ) JL (R, ) J R,
still possesses two kinds of singularities, but of lower order than before, O (1/R2 ) and O (1/R). In order to proceed the kernel K (R, ) must be expanded with respect to the polar radius R. To this end, the position vector r can be written as a Taylor expansion around the singular point xk .
k k r = ye (1 (R, ) , 2 (R, )) xk 1 , 2
=R + R2
y e (1 , 2 ) 1
cos +
=xk
y e (1 , 2 ) 2
sin
=xk
2 y e (1 , 2 ) 2 1
=xk
2 y e (1 , 2 ) cos2 + 2 1 2 + 2 y e (1 , 2 ) 2 2
cos sin
=xk
(3.52)
=xk
sin2 2
+ O R3
= RA () + R2 B () + O R3 Since y e can be written as a sum of the elements shape functions i multiplied by the i-th geometrical node, the functions A () and B () can easily be calculated. This calculation can be found in Appendix F.
55
Furthermore, all quantities included in the integral (3.50) can be expressed in terms of their expansions around the singular point k . PT A () B () = + + O(1) nx R3 R2 a a N a (1 , 2 ) = N0 + RN1 + O R2 JL = JL0 + RJL1 + O R2 (3.53) (3.54) (3.55)
It is easy to see from the above, that the whole kernel, due to the transformation to the local polar coordinate system, has a singularity of the order of O (1/R2 ). K (R, ) = A () a N0 JL0 J 2 R 1 a a a + B () N0 JL0 J + A () N1 JL0 J + N0 JL1 J R K2 () K1 () + + O (1) = R2 R
+ O (1)
(3.56)
The next step is to subtract the singular part of the kernel and calculate the integral over the remaining terms as normal. The integrals of the singular parts are then added back. R
2 max
I=
K (R, )
K2 () K1 () dR + R2 R
Rmax
K2 () K1 () + dR d R2 R
(3.57)
The rst integral of the above equation has a singularity of the order of O (1). The second integral can be calculated analytically. Namely, according to Guiggiani (1998) the integral becomes
Rmax
K2 () K1 () + dR R2 R
Rmax
= K2 () lim
()0 ()
1 dR + K1 () lim ()0 R2
Rmax
1 dR R (3.58)
()
= K1 () ln
Rmax () K2 () ()
() 1 + 2 () Rmax ()
56
with () = 1/ |A ()| and () = (A () B ()) / |A ()|4 . The integral I of eq (3.57) is now equal to Rmax () 2 K2 () K1 () I = dR K (R, ) R2 R
1 0
+ K1 () ln
Rmax () K2 () ()
() 1 + 2 () Rmax ()
(3.59)
For the 2D case, the process is basically the same. A similar technique is used for treating weakly and strongly singular integrals. However, there is a signicant dierence. Two cases have to be considered, depending on the location of the singular point with respect to the current element. If the singular point lies inside the element, then a line integral like (3.30) would be treated for singularities according to the following formula.
1
I =
1
K k,
K2 k ( k )2
K1 k d k 1 1 + 1 k 1 k (3.60)
2
+ K1 k ln
1 k + K2 k 1 + k
coordinate of the singular point expressed in the local element coordinate system. If the singular point resides between two adjacent elements, then both elements must be taken into account for the treatment of the singularity. 2 1 m m K2 k K1 k m k d I = K , k ( k )2
m=1 1 m + K1 k ln
with K1 k and K2 k corresponding to the coecients of the 1/ k and 1/ k singularities of the integrand, respectively and (1, 1) being the
2 sgn k m ( k )
m K2 k
sgn k
m k 1 + k) m ( 2
(3.61)
with k = 1 if m = 1, k = 1 if m = 2, m k = 1/ |A|, m k = A B/ |A|4 and A, B being the coecients of the Taylor expansion of the distance between
57
the current point x from the current singular point y. xi yi = dxi d

k
= k
d2 xi + d 2
= Ai k + Bi
= k k 2
k 2
+ ... (3.62)
+ ...
, i=1,2
3.5
Numerical Examples
This section contains some numerical examples, in 2D and 3D, that demonstrate the accuracy of the above methodology.
3.5.1
Hollow Cylinder under pressure
Consider a hollow cylinder with internal radius ri = 1.05m and external radius ro = 2.1m. The cylinder has the material characteristics shown in Table 3.1.
Youngs modulus Poissons ratio Mindlins 1 Mindlins 2 Mindlins 3 Mindlins 4 Mindlins 5 4.0 GPa 0.4 13.86 MNt 11.240 MNt 7.226 MNt 8.252 MNt 4.31 MNt 4.0 GPa 0.4 1.264 MNt 1.424 MNt 1.36 MNt 1.376 MNt 5.504 MNt 4.0 GPa 0.4 2.0 KNt 1.553 KNt 0.1 KNt 1.63 KNt 0.1 KNt
Table 3.1: Material constants for the hollow cylinder In order to model the cylinder in 2D, quarter symmetry has been used and the problem was solved as plane strain, for which an analytical solution is available ( Papanicolopulos (2008) and Zervos et al. (2009)). Specically, the analytical solution for the displacements has radial symmetry and is given by ur (r) = C1 r + C2 + C3 1 I1 l r r 1 l + C4 1 K1 l r 1 l (3.63)
with I1 () and K1 () being the modied Bessel functions of the rst and second kind respectively and of order one. The constants C1 C4 are provided in Appendix G.
58
3.5 Numerical Examples
the internal and external of the cylinder respectively. The double tractions R are considered to be equal to zero on the boundary. Internal points have been placed in the center of the cylinder, along the radial direction. Figure 3.4 shows the
Radial tractions Ti = 100KP a and To = 200KP a have been applied to
Figure 3.3: The hollow cylinder
radial displacements on the internal points of the hollow cylinder with respect to the distance r from the center of the cylinder as compared to the analytical solution.
0.080
2D Form II
Radial displacement of internal points
Analytical solution
0.075
l l l
l l l
0.1 0.05 0.001
0.070
0.065
0.060
0.055 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Radial distance r
Figure 3.4: Radial displacement of the internal points
59
The percentage error of the applied BEM methodology as compared to the mesh density is presented in Table 3.2 for the rst material case (l1 l2 0.1).
Elements 12 17 26 50 % Error 0.173 0.120 0.069 0.028
Table 3.2: Average percentage error w.r.t. the analytical solution of Zervos et al. (2009)
3.5.2
Radial deformation of a Sphere
A gradient elastic sphere of radius = 0.5m is subjected to a uniform displacement on its boundary ur = 0.01m. The material characteristics of the sphere are the same used in the previous example and are presented in Table 3.1. In order to model the problem, octant symmetry has been used and the same classical and non-classical boundary conditions have been applied to all elements. Namely, (ur , u , u ) = (1.0e02, 0, 0) and (qr , q , q ) = (0, 0, 0), with the subscripts r, and indicating the coecients of a spherical coordinate system located at the center of the sphere. A set of internal points have been deployed inside the sphere, along its radius. The analytical solution was given in Tsepoura et al. (2003). ur (r) = C1 r + C2 with C1 = C2 = 21 u0 cosh(/1 ) 21 u0 sinh(/1 ) u0 2 sinh(/1 ) l l l2 l l 31 cosh(/1 ) + 32 sinh(/1 ) + 2 sinh(/1 ) l l l l l
1
sinh(r/1 ) cosh(r/1 ) l l 1 l2 + l1 2 r r
(3.64)
(3.65) (3.66)
u0 2
31 cosh(/1 ) + 31 sinh(/1 ) + 2 sinh(/1 ) l l l2 l l
Figure 3.5 shows the radial displacement on the internal points with respect to their distance from its center as compared to the analytical solution. In Table 3.3
60
0.010
Radial displacement of internal points
0.008
0.006
2D Form II
0.004
Analytical solution l ~=l ~=0.1

1 2
l ~=l ~=0.05
0.002
1 2
l ~=l ~=0.001
1 2
0.000 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial distance r
Figure 3.5: Radial displacement of the internal points
the average relative error of the internal radial displacement is presented with respect to the analytical solution for various mesh sizes is examined for the rst material case (l1 l2 0.1).
Elements 7 12 48 75 % Error 0.312 0.205 0.056 0.038
Table 3.3: Average percentage error w.r.t. the analytical solution of Tsepoura et al. (2003)
3.5.3
Tension of a bar
Consider a 2D gradient elastic bar of length h = 1.2m, width d = 4.2m and rounded edges with radius re = 0.05m (Figure 3.6). The material characteristics of the bar are those presented in Table 3.4. Note that Mindlins Form II theory is equivalent to the simplied Form of Mindlins theory with gradient elastic
61
Figure 3.6: The gradient elastic bar
E a1 a2 a3 a4 a5
2.0e+05 P a 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.0KNt 0.0
Table 3.4: The material characteristics used in the hollow cylinder
62
coecient g = 1 = 2 when a1 , a3 and a5 are set equal to zero and a2 = g 2 /2 l l and a4 = g 2. The analytical solution of the gradient elastic bar, with Poisson ratio = 0, in the context of the simplied version of Mindlins Form II theory are given in Tsepoura et al. (2003) and Tsepoura et al. (2002). u (x) = T0 g T0 |x| + e|x|/g e|x|/g , E 2E cosh(h/2g) |x| h 2 (3.67)
The bar is subjected to tension T0 = 200KP a on its top and bottom sides. The non classical boundary condition applied to the top and bottom faces of the bar is (qx , qy ) = (0, 0). The sides of the bar are left traction free by imposing (Tx , Ty ) = (0, 0) and (Rx , Ry ) = (0, 0). In order to solve the problem quarter symmetry has been used, requiring thus only the one fourth of the domain to be discretized. A set of internal points has been placed along the central vertical axis of the bar.
0.40
0.35
Axial displacement u
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
2D Form II Analytical Solution
0.05
BEM
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Figure 3.7: Axial displacement of the internal points
In Figure 3.7 the axial displacements of the internal points are presented. For all the displayed results, the relative error with respect to the analytical solution (provided by Tsepoura et al. (2003)) is provided in Table 3.5.
63
Elements 6 19 54
% Error 0.108 0.104 0.043
Table 3.5: Average percentage error w.r.t. the analytical solution of Tsepoura et al. (2003)
64
Chapter 4 Fracture Mechanics in Elasticity with Microstructure

It is well known that in classical elastic fracture mechanics exist mainly two approaches: the energy approach and the stress intensity factor (SIF) approach. The rst concerns energy theorems dealing mainly with the concept of energy release rate and it is association with the J-integral, while the second approach concerns the evaluation of critical parameters, like Stress Intensity Factors (SIFs), near to the tip of the crack via classical stress and strain analysis. First Grith (1924) utilized the idea of energy release rate in order to explain crack growth. In many situations the energy and stress intensity approaches are equivalent and give the same predictions. Especially in linear elastic fracture mechanics the energy release rate is explicitly associated to SIFs corresponding to three fundamental crack modes, i.e. Mode I, II and III. However, as it is pointed out in ODowd (2002), it is important to be familiar with both approaches. The energy approach is appropriate mainly for elastic materials while the SIF approach can be applied to a wider range of materials. As it is expected, in linear gradient elastic fracture mechanics both approaches have appeared so far in the literature. Most of these results can be found in the theoretical papers of Vardoulakis et al. (1996), Exadaktylos et al. (1996), Vardoulakis & Exadaktylos (1997), Exadaktylos (1998), Huang et al. (1997), Shi et al. (2000), Fannjiang et al. (2002), Georgiadis (2003), Georgiadis & Grentzelou (2006), Tong et al. (2005), Chan et al. (2008), Radi (2008), Giannakopoulos
65
4. FRACTURE IN ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE
& Gavardinas (2008)and Gourgiotis & Georgiadis (2009) and the numerical of Amanatidou & Aravas (2002), Imatani et al. (2005), Akarapu & Zbib (2006), Markolefas et al. (2009), Wei (2006) and Askes et al. (2008). As mentioned in the introduction, the main conclusion they reach is that near the crack tip displacements and strains behave as r 3/2 and r 1/2 functions, respectively, with r being the distance from the crack tip, while double stresses and total stresses exhibit a singular behaviour of the order r 1/2 and r 3/2 , respectively. The important fact about these results is that gradient elastic theories predict the same cusp-like crack shape with Barenblatts cohesive zone theory (Barenblatt (1962)) without demanding extra interatomic forces, beyond those imposed by the non-classical boundary conditions. On the other hand, stress elds near to the tip of the crack remain singular. However, although there are results concerning the J-integral dened in a closed line around the crack tip, there are no results dealing with the determination of SIFs and its association with the energy release rate. The goal of the present section is to give a numerical estimation of SIFs for two and three dimensional mode I and mode II cracks in gradient elastic medium, via the BEM formulation described in Chapter 3.
4.1
Displacement and Stress Fields near the Crack
Consider a crack in a linear elastic material. It is convenient to dene a polar coordinate system centered on the crack tip, as show in Figure 4.1. The crack faces are considered to be stress free, having (r, ) = 0 r (r, ) = 0 (4.1) (4.2)
For a linear elastic material, this problem can be solved using an Airy stress function. In short, the stress eld is represented as an innite series (r, ) =
i=1
Ai r i fi () .
(4.3)
If sucient terms are taken, the exact solution of any linear elastic problem can be obtained. However, the possible values of i reduce down to only one, i = 1/2.
66
4.1 Displacement and Stress Fields near the Crack
Figure 4.1: Rectangular components of the crack tip stresses
This happens due to the fact that all positive values are excluded, because as r tends to zero, r i tends to zero, if i > 0. Additionally, if i = 1, limr0 r i = 1, excluding thus all non-negative values for i . On the other hand, values less 1 are also discarded because they lead to an unbounded form of the strain energy on the crack tip. Consequently, the only possible choices for i lie in the interval (1, 0). However, the only acceptable value is that of 1/2, because it is the
only one in (1, 0) that satises the equilibrium conditions. The stress eld can now be approximated as A (4.4) f () + . . . . r Conventionally, the constant A is called Stress Intensity Factor and is denoted by KI , KII or KIII , depending on the type of loading; tension, shear or anti-plane shear respectively, which also characterizes the crack as Mode I, Mode II or Mode III. The displacements and stresses in classical elasticity are of the order of r 1/2 and r 1/2 respectively, for all three crack modes. Specically, setting = (3 ) / (1 + ) , = (3 4) , xx yy xy KI (2r)1/2 = 0 and = and = , for plane stress = 0, for plane strain (4.5) (4.6)
the Cartesian coecients of the stresses and the displacements are given by Mode I: = cos (/2) [1 sin (/2) sin (3/2)] cos (/2) [1 + sin (/2) sin (3/2)] sin (/2) cos (/2) cos (3/2)
67
Figure 4.2: Mode I: Opening or tensile mode; Mode II: Sliding or in-plane shear mode; Mode III: Tearing or anti-plane shear mode
zz = (xx + yy ) xz = yz = 0 KI r 1/2 (1 + ) [(2 1) cos (/2) cos (3/2)] ux = uy (1 + ) [(2 + 1) sin (/2) sin (3/2)] 2E 2 z uz = (xx + yy ) E sin (/2) [2 + cos (/2) cos (3/2)] xx KII yy sin (/2) cos (/2) cos (3/2) = (2r)1/2 xy cos (/2) [1 sin (/2) sin (3/2)] zz = (xx + yy ) xz = yz = 0 KII r 1/2 (1 + ) [(2 + 3) sin (/2) + sin (3/2)] ux = uy 2E 2 (1 + ) [(2 3) cos (/2) + cos (3/2)] z uz = (xx + yy ) E KIII sin (/2) xz = 1/2 yz cos (/2) (2r) xx = yy = zz = 0
Mode II:
Mode III:
68
4.2 Crack Elements for Linear and Gradient Elastic Fracture ux uy uz 0 0 4KIII r 1/2 [(1 + ) sin (/2)] = E 2
where E is the Youngs modulus, the Poissons ratio, KI , KII and KIII the SIFs for the mode I, II and III respectively. On the other hand, this is not the case for gradient elasticity theories. According to Vardoulakis et al. (1996), Exadaktylos et al. (1996), Vardoulakis & Exadaktylos (1997), Exadaktylos (1998), Shi et al. (2000), Fannjiang et al. (2002) and Georgiadis (2003) the elds u, q, R and P vary near the crack as r 3/2 , r 1/2 , r 1/2 and r 3/2 respectively,with r being the distance from the crack tip or front. Since the elements that are typically used in BEM interpolate the unknown elds either linearly or quadratically, the behavior of the elds near the crack can never be represented correctly. To this end, two new boundary elements have been designed, a line and a quadrilateral element, that take the above eld singularities into account by incorporating them into their interpolation functions, as explained in the next section. Note that these elements have variable order of singularities, which means that they can be used in classical as well as in gradient elasticity.
4.2
Crack Elements for Linear and Gradient Elastic Fracture
In this section, adopting the idea of using boundary elements of variable-order of singularity around the tip of the crack, for the description of the near tip behavior and the evaluation of the corresponding SIFs (Lim et al. (2002) and Zhou et al. (2005)), a new special, discontinuous element with variable order of singularity has been designed. The advantage of this approach is that the elds around the tip of the crack are treated in a unied manner. Furthermore, the side of the element that resides on the crack is always discontinuous avoiding that way the calculation of the elds on the crack tip or front, where they become innite.
69
4.2.1
Two dimensional crack element
In this special element, the functional nodes are identical to those of a classical discontinuous three-noded quadratic line element, with one geometrical node residing always at the crack tip. The main advantage of using discontinuous elements is that no functional nodes are located at the tip of the crack and thus, despite the singularity of R and P at the tip, their nodal values are nite and can be computed.
Figure 4.3: Variable order of singularity discontinuous boundary element and its transformation
or at = 1 for the special element being to the left or right of the tip. In order to unify these two possible cases, a new variable p is introduced via the linear transformation p= 1 + c 2 (4.7)
As shown in Figure 4.3, the tip of the crack can be located either at = 1
with c = 1 for the tip located at = 1, respectively. Thus, the tip of the crack is always located at p = 0 and the interval [1, 1] is transformed into the interval p [0, 1]. Consider a point x (p) on the element and a point y (0)
70
4.2 Crack Elements for Linear and Gradient Elastic Fracture
located at the crack tip. The elds of interest F at the point x, can be expressed in terms of the asymptotic solution as F = Kr 1 + Lr 2 + C (4.8)
where K, L and C are constant vectors to be determined. Vector F could represent u, q, R or P and thus 1 and 2 take the values displayed in Table 4.1. Considering that suitable interpolation functions N i exist, elds F can be approximated as F = N i Fi , i = 1, 2, 3 (4.9)
with Fi being the three nodal values of F. In view of eq (4.8) N i should have the form N i (r, p, 1 , 2 ) = ai r 1 + bi r 2 + di (4.10)
tip, as illustrated in Figure 4.4, while the vectors K, L and C of eq (4.8) are given by K = ai Fi L = bi Fi C = diFi The constants ai , bi , di can be easily obtained by solving a set of three linear systems, consisting of three equations each, which arise from the requirement that each interpolation function must satisfy the relations N i (p corresponding to node j) = ij , where ij is the Kronecker delta. The coecients ai , bi and di have been found to be a1 = a2 =
r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1 r2 1 r3 2 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1 + r1 1 r2 2 r3 2 + r1 2 r2 1 + r3 1
where r = |xj (p) y (0)| is the distance of the functional node j from the crack
(4.11)
i, j = 1, 2, 3
(4.12)
(4.13) (4.14)
r1 1 r3 2 r1 2 r3 1 + r2 2 r3 1 + r1 1 r2 2 + r3 2 + r1 2 r2 1 r3 1
71

r1 1 r2 2 r1 2 r2 1 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1 + r1 1 r2 2 r3 2 + r1 2 r2 1 + r3 1 1 1 1 2 2 r1 r2 + r1 r2 r2 1 r3 1 / r2 2 + r3 2 1 r1 1 + r2 1 + r1 2 r2 2 r1 1 r3 1 / r1 2 r3 2 1 1 1 1 1 r1 + r3 + r1 r2 r1 2 r3 2 / r1 2 r2 2 1 2 2 1 1 r1 r2 + r1 r2 r2 2 r3 2 / r2 1 + r3 1 1 2 2 1 1 r1 + r2 + r1 r2 r1 2 r3 2 / r1 1 r3 1 1 2 2 2 2 r1 + r3 + r1 r2 r1 1 r3 1 / r1 1 r2 1
a3 = b1 = b2 = b3 = d1 = d2 = d3 =
(4.15) (4.16) (4.17) (4.18) (4.19) (4.20) (4.21)
It can be veried that N i = 1 for all the combinations of 1 , 2 provided in Table 4.1. Finally it should be mentioned that in the present 2D boundary element formulation the distance r between points x and y (Figure 4.4) is taken as a straight line between these points as it should be and not as a curved one along the coordinate p.
F u q R P 1 3/2 1/2 1/2 3/2 2 1 1 1 1/2
Table 4.1: Orders of magnitude of the asymptotic elds
4.2.2
Integrations over a three noded quadratic line special element
In the boundary integral equations (3.35), the integrals involving the elds P and R and dened over the special boundary elements, in addition to the usual fundamental solution type of singularities (Tsepoura et al. (2003)), exhibit an extra
72
Figure 4.4: A 2D discontinuous variable order of singularity element
singularity due to the singular behavior of the interpolation functions (4.10) near the tip of the crack. Thus, even in cases where the source point does not reside in the element, i.e. in cases where a so-called regular integration is performed, there is always a singularity present near the tip of the crack. The methodology for the treatment of these integrals deals rst with the handling of the singularities coming from the interpolation functions of the special element and then addresses any possible singularities that are introduced by the fundamental solutions (in case the source point resides in the element). 4.2.2.1 Integrals involving the eld R
The integrals involving the eld R and dened over a special boundary element, appear in the boundary integral equations as
1
u (x () , y) N i (p () , 1 , 2 ) Je d ny
(4.22a)
2 u (x () , y) N i (p () , 1 , 2 ) Je d nx ny
(4.22b)
where N i is the i-th interpolation function, with the parameters 1 and 2 being equal to 1/2 and 1, respectively (Table 4.1) and Je is the Jacobian of the transformation from the global coordinates to the intrinsic local coordinate .
73
Applying the transformation (4.7) to the integrals (4.22), one obtains them in the form
1
u (x (p) , y) N i (p, 1 , 2 ) Je Jp dp ny
(4.23a)
2 u (x (p) , y) N i (p, 1 , 2 ) Je Jp dp nx ny
(4.23b)
with Jp = 2c being the Jacobian of the transformation. In order to overcome the singularities introduced by the interpolation functions near the crack tip, the non-linear transformation 1+s = pa , 2 (4.24)
due to Zhou et al. (2005) is applied to the integrals (4.23), where the parameter a > 0 remains to be determined. Thus, integrals (4.23) become
1
u (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jp Jnl ds ny
(4.25a)
2 u (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jp Jnl ds nx ny
(4.25b)
with Jnl being the Jacobian of the non-linear transformation (4.24) reading 1 Jnl = 2a 1+s 2
1 1 a
1 1a p . 2a
(4.26)
According to eq (4.10), the interpolation functions N i , for the eld R can be written in the general form 1 N i p, , 1 2 = ai p1/2 + O (1) (4.27)
Substituting eqs (4.26) and (4.27) into integrals (4.25), it is easily observed that the singularity of the interpolation function is cancelled out when a takes values in the interval 1 0<a . (4.28) 2
74
The value of a = 1/2 is adopted. As long as the singular behavior of the interpolation functions has been overcome, integrals (4.25) are treated in the same manner as the ones corresponding to non-special elements. 4.2.2.2 Integrals involving the eld P
The integrals involving the eld P and dened over a special boundary element, appear in the boundary integral equations as
1
u (x () , y) N i (p () , 1 , 2 ) Je d
1 1
(4.29a)
u (x () , y) N i (p () , 1 , 2 ) Je d nx
(4.29b)
ble 4.1). To overcome the singularities of the interpolation functions appearing followed for the eld R, in the previous section, would be adequate. However, taking into account that the interpolation functions for P can be written as 1 N i p, , 1 2 = ai p3/2 + bi p1/2 + O (1) .
where the parameters 1 and 2 are equal to 3/2 and 1/2, respectively (Ta-
in the integrals 4.29, one would expect that a methodology, similar to the one
(4.30)
Substituting eqs (4.26) and (4.30) into eq (4.29), one can observe that there is no any value of the parameter a that completely removes the interpolation function singularities. Nevertheless, the non-linear transformation (4.24) is used again with a = 1/2 and a reduction of the order of the interpolation functions singularity from O p3/2 to O (p1 ) is achieved. Thus, the integrals (4.29) take the form
1
u (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jp Jnl ds

1 1
(4.31a)
u (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jp Jnl ds nx
(4.31b)
75
a singular behavior of O (p1 ) and are evaluated by applying the methodology for direct treatment of singular integrals due to Guiggiani & Gigante (1990). According to this methodology, the kernels of the integrals are expanded asymptotically in power series with respect to the local coordinate s around the singular point. Then the divergent part of the integrals becomes regular by subtracting the corresponding singular terms that were produced during the expansion. These subtracted terms are nally added back after having been calculated by analytical integration. Applying the above briey described procedure, the integrals (4.31) take the form
1
At the tip of the crack, located at s = 1, the integrals (4.31) still exhibit
u (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 )
1
1+s 2 ds
2
Je (s) Jp
u |s=1 ai Jp Je |s=1
1+s 2
1
(4.32a) ds
+ u |s=1 ai Jp Je |s=1 lim

1
0 1+
1+s 2
u (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) nx ai Jp Je |s=1 1+s 2

1 2
1+s 2 ds
2
Je (s) Jp
u nx
(4.32b) ds
s=1
u nx
s=1
ai Jp Je |s=1 lim
0 1+
1+s 2
where is the radius of a circle including the tip of the crack. The analytical calculation of the last integrals appearing in eq (4.32) yields
1
lim
0 1+
1+s 2
ds = lim
0
4 1+s
1 1+
(4.33)
4 = 2 + lim . 0
76
Considering the contribution of all elements around the tip of the crack with the same size of , the last term in eq (4.33) must be zero (Guiggiani & Gigante (1990)). As long as the singular behavior of the interpolation functions has been overcome, the integrals (4.32) are treated in the same way as the ones corresponding to non-special elements. 4.2.2.3 Integrals involving the eld q
The integrals involving the eld q and dened over a special boundary element, appear in the boundary integral equations as
1
RT (x () , y) N i (p () , 1 , 2 ) Je d
1 1
(4.34a)
RT (x () , y) N i (p () , 1 , 2 ) Je d nx
(4.34b)
where the parameters 1 and 2 are equal to 1/2 and 1, respectively (Table 4.1). The interpolation functions involved in integrals (4.34) do not exhibit any singularity as one approaches the crack tip. Thus, one would expect that a standard Gauss quadrature would be adequate for an accurate integration. However, a slow convergence was observed due to the order O p1/2 of the interpolation functions. In order to achieve a better convergence, the non-linear transformation (4.24) is used again with a = 1/2, this time in an eort to increase the order of the integrand from O p1/2 to O p3/2 . Thus the integrals (4.34) nally become
1
RT (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jp Jnl ds

1 1
(4.35a)
RT (x (s) , y) N i (p (s) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jp Jnl ds, nx
(4.35b)
where Jnl is the Jacobian of the non-linear transformation given by (4.26).
77
4.2.3
Three dimensional crack element
As in the 2D case, case, near the crack front, the elds u, q, R and P vary as r 3/2 , r 1/2 , r 1/2 and r 3/2 respectively, with r being the distance from the crack front. Once more, adopting the idea of using variable-order continuous elements (Lim et al. (2002), Zhou et al. (2005)), a new discontinuous, quadrilateral, eight-nodded element with variable-order singularity has been constructed for the treatment of the elds around the crack front. In this special element, the crack side is always discontinuous, while discontinuity on the other sides is optional. The main advantage of using discontinuity on the crack side is that no functional nodes are located on the crack front and thus, despite the singularity of R and P there, the eld nodal values are nite and can be computed. The local coordinates of the functional nodes are identical to those of a classical, partially or fully discontinuous, eight-noded, quadratic, quadrilateral element. Practically, the crack front can be located at any of the elements sides. In order to be able to deal with all the possible cases of the crack front location, the local numbering of the element nodes is changed, so that the crack front always resides on the rst side of the element. The result of the local renumbering is described in Table 4.2 for all the possible cases. An example of an element having the crack front located at its third side is illustrated in Figure 4.5.
Nodes Node Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5 Node 6 Node 7 Node 8 Local coord. 1 Local coord. 2 1 Side 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2
Crack on: Side 2 Side 3 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 2 6 7 7 8 8 5 5 6 2 1 1 2
Side 4 4 1 2 3 8 5 6 7 2 1
Table 4.2: The renumbering of the element nodes, so that the crack front always resides on the rst side.
78
Figure 4.5: Transition from the real 3D space to the parametric representation of the element and nodal renumbering, for the case of a fully discontinuous element
Consider a point x (1 , 2 ) on the element and a point y (1 , 1) located at the crack front having the same 1 -coordinate as x, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Projection of point x to the crack front
The eld of interest F at the point x, can be expressed in terms of the asymptotic solutions as
F (1 , r) = K (1 ) r 1 + L (1 ) r 2 + C (1 )
(4.36)
1 , 2 take the values of Table 4.1. In addition, the elds F can be approximated using the interpolation functions N i and their corresponding nodal values Fi as follows
F (1 , r) = N i (1 , r) Fi ,
where r is the distance r = |x y|, the symbol F represents u, q, R and P and
i = 1, . . . , 8
(4.37)
79
Combining eqs (4.36) and (4.37) and assuming a quadratic behaviour for the functions K (1 ), L (1 ) and C (1 ), the interpolation functions N i should be of the form
N i (1 , r) = 2 ei + ei 1 + ei 1 r 1 1 2 3 2 + ei + ei 1 + ei 1 r 2 4 5 6 2 + ei + ei 1 + ei 1 7 8 9
(4.38)
where ei , for j = 1, . . . , 9 are constants to be determined. Due to the use of j eight-noded elements, one of the nine terms of the above expression must be omitted. Here, having in mind that the coecients of r 1 and r 2 will be used for the SIF calculation, this term is taken to be ei . The remaining eight constants 9 i ej can be easily obtained by solving a set of eight linear systems, consisting of eight equations each, which arise from the requirement that each interpolation function N i must satisfy the relations
j N i 1 , r j = ij ,
i, j = 1, . . . , 8
(4.39)
j j j j j where ij is the Kronecker delta, r j = x 1 , 2 y 1 , 1 and 1 , 2 are the local coordinates of the j functional node. The interpolation functions N i
have been calculated and are presented in Appendix H. It can be veried that N i = 1 for all the combinations of 1 , 2 provided in Table 4.1.
4.2.4
Integrations over an eight-noded quadrilateral special element
In this section, the treatment of the integrals appearing in the boundary integral equations for the 3D case is explained. The integrals involving the elds P and R and dened over the special boundary elements, in addition to the usual fundamental solution type of singularities (section 3.4.1, Tsepoura et al. (2003)), exhibit an extra singularity due to the singular behavior of the interpolation functions near the crack front. Thus, even in cases where the source point does not reside in the element, i.e., in cases where a so-called regular integration is performed, there is always a singularity present near the front of the crack. The methodology for the treatment of these integrals deals rst with the handling of
80
the singularities coming from the interpolation functions of the special element and then addresses any possible singularities that are introduced by the fundamental solutions (in case the source point resides in the element). Without loss of generality, one can assume that the crack front resides at the rst side of the element. If it does not, one can renumber the element nodes so that it does. This assumption is useful for the simplication of the following paragraphs. 4.2.4.1 Integrals involving the eld R
The integrals involving the eld R are dened over a special boundary element and appear in the discretized form of the boundary integral equations as
1 1
1 1 1
u (x (1 , 2 ) , y) N i (1 , r (1 , 2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je d1 d2 ny
(4.40a)
1 1
2 u (x (1 , 2 ) , y) N i (1 , r (1 , 2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je d1 d2 nx ny
(4.40b)
where N i is the i-th interpolation function given by eqs (4.38), with the parameters 1 and 2 being equal to 1/2 and 1, respectively (Table 4.1) and Je is the
Jacobian of the transformation from the global coordinates to the intrinsic local coordinates 1 , 2 . It is important to see that there is a singularity of the form
r is of the following form
r 1/2 , attributed to the new interpolation functions (4.38). If r is expanded in series with respect to 2 , around the singular point 2 = 1 it is easy to see that s1 = 1 s2 = 2 1 + 2 2
a
(4.41a) 1 (4.41b)
which was introduced by Zhou et al. (2005) and the integrals (4.40) become
1 1
1 1 1
u (x (s1 , s2 ) , y) N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jnl ds1 ds2 ny
(4.42a)
1 1
2 u (x (s1 , s2 ) , y) N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jnl ds1 ds2 nx ny
(4.42b)
81
where Jnl is the Jacobian of the non-linear transformation (4.41) of the form 1 Jnl = a 1 + s2 2
(1a)/a
(4.43)
and the parameter a > 0 is a constant to be determined. For 0 < a 1/2, the transformation completely removes the interpolation function singularity. The value a = 1/2 has been chosen. As long as the singular behavior of the interpolation functions has been overcome, integrals 4.42 are treated in the same way as the integrals corresponding to non-special elements (section 3.4.1, Tsepoura et al. (2003)).
4.2.4.2
Integrals involving the eld P
The integrals involving the eld P and dened over a special boundary element, appear in the discretized form of the boundary integral equations as
1 1
u (x (1 , 2 ) , y) N i (1 , r (1 , 2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je d1 d2
1 1 1 1
(4.44a)
1 1
u (x (1 , 2 ) , y) N i (1 , r (1 , 2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je d1 d2 nx
(4.44b)
ble 4.1). This time to deal with the interpolation function singularities, the aforementioned non-linear transformation is not adequate. Since the singulari-
where the parameters 1 and 2 are equal to 3/2 and 1/2, respectively (Ta-
ties introduced by the interpolation functions are more than one (of the orders of r 3/2 and r 1/2 ), the non-linear transformation raises their order only partially. Again, expanding r 3/2 in series around the singular point 2 = 1, one can see that r is given by
r = f (1 ) (2 + 1)3/2 + g (1 ) (2 + 1)1/2 + O (2 + 1)1/2
(4.45)
82
After applying the nonlinear transformation (4.41) the integrals (4.44) become
1 1
u (x (s1 , s2 ) , y) N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jnl ds1 ds2

1 1 1 1
(4.46a)
1 1
u (x (s1 , s2 ) , y) N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jnl ds1 ds2 nx
(4.46b)
Observing the transformation, one can notice that there is no value for the parameter a that raises the order of both interpolation function singularities. However, by choosing a = 1/2 one can reduce the singularities to the order of r 1 . To address this type of singularity one also applies the methodology for direct treatment of singular integrals, introduced by Guiggiani & Gigante (1990). In short, the kernels of the integrals are expanded asymptotically to power series with respect to the local coordinate s2 around the point s2 = 1. Then the singular
terms of the divergent part of the integrals are subtracted and the integral is calculated with the Gauss quadrature, as it is now regular and nally the subtracted
terms are added, after integrating them analytically. Applying the above briey described procedure, the integrals (4.46) take the form 1 1 u N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) 1 + s2 Je (s1 , s2 ) 2
1 1
u |s2 =1 f (s1 ) Je |s2 =1 +
1 + s2 2
1
ds2
2
(4.47a) ds2 ds1 Je (s1 , s2 )
u |s2 =1 f (s1 ) Je |s2 =1 lim

1
0 1+
1 + s2 2
u i N (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) nx f (s1 ) Je |s2 =1 1 + s2 2

1
1 + s2 2
2
u nx
ds2
2
(4.47b)
s2 =1
u nx
s2 =1
f (s1 ) Je |s2 =1 lim
0 1+
1 + s2 2
ds2 ds1
83
where is the radius of a sphere including the singular point, which resides on the crack front. The analytical calculation of the last integrals appearing in eqs (4.47) yields
1
lim
0 1+
1 + s2 2
ds2 = lim
4 1 + s2
1 1+
(4.48)
= 2 + lim
4 0
Considering the contribution of all elements around the singular point within a neighbourhood of size , the last term in eq (4.48) must be zero (Guiggiani & Gigante (1990)). As long as the singular behavior of the interpolation functions has been overcome, the integrals (4.47a) and (4.47b) are treated in the same way as the integrals corresponding to non-special elements (section 3.4.1, Tsepoura et al. (2003)). 4.2.4.3 Integrals involving the eld q
The integrals involving the eld q and dened over a special boundary element, appear in the discretized form of the boundary integral equations as
1 1
RT (x (1 , 2 ) , y) N i (1 , r (1 , 2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je d1 d2
1 1 1 1
(4.49a)
1 1
RT (x (1 , 2 ) , y) N i (1 , r (1 , 2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je d1 d2 nx
(4.49b)
where the parameters 1 and 2 are equal to 1/2 and 1, respectively (Table 4.1). The interpolation functions involved in integrals 4.50 do not exhibit any singularity as one approaches the crack front. Thus, one would expect that a standard Gauss quadrature would be adequate for an accurate integration. However, a slow convergence was observed due to the O r 1/2 term of the interpolation functions. In order to achieve a better convergence, the non-linear transformation (4.41) is used again with a = 1/2, this time in an eort to increase the order of the
84
4.3 BEM Stress Intensity Factor Calculation
integrand from O r 1/2 to O r 3/2 . Thus the integrals (4.50) nally become
1 1
RT (x (s1 , s2 ) , y) N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jnl ds1 ds2

1 1 1 1
(4.50a)
1 1
RT (x (s1 , s2 ) , y) N i (s1 , r (s1 , s2 ) , 1 , 2 ) Je Jnl ds1 ds2 nx
(4.50b)
where Jnl is the Jacobian of the non-linear transformation given by (4.43).
4.3
BEM Stress Intensity Factor Calculation
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the goal of the BEM is to solve numerically the well-posed boundary value problem described by the boundary integral equations (2.110), (2.111) and the corresponding boundary conditions. To this end the global boundary S is discretized into quadratic, continuous and discontinuous isoparametric boundary elements, while special variable-order singularity, discontinuous elements are placed on both sides of the crack tip or crack front as it is illustrated in Figure 4.7(a). Note that in order to calculate the SIFs the problem domain must be divided into two subregions, created by extending the crack plane. For the 2D case the domain is divided by extending the crack line from both crack tips (Figure 4.7(b)). Once the boundary value problem has been solved, the calculation of SIFs is done via the nodal traction values of the special elements. eq (4.8) for the 2D case and eq (4.36) for the 3D case, admits a representation of the form P= K1 (P1 , . . . , PN ) K2 (P1 , . . . , PN ) lim r 3/2 + lim r 1/2 + C (P1 , . . . , PN ) r0 r0 2 2 (4.51) Approaching the crack tip or front (r 0), the traction P, according to
where N = 3 for 2D and N = 8 for 3D. Taking into account relations (4.11) and (4.38) the stress intensity factors corresponding to x, y and to x, y and z
85
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.7: (a) Position of the variable singularity order elements w.r.t. the crack and (b) domain division and element positioning in 2D directions for 2D and 3D respectively, are obtained by K1 = K2 = and K1 (1 ) = K2 (1 ) =
2 2 D1 + 1 D2 + 1 D3 2 2 D4 + 1 D5 + 1 D6
2K = 2L =
2aj Pj
(4.52a) (4.52b)
2bj Pj
(4.53a) (4.53b)
with j = 1, 2, 3 for two dimensions and Di = ej Pj , i = 1, . . . , 6 and j = 1, . . . , 8 i for three dimensions and aj , bj , ej taking values from eqs (4.13-4.18) and (H.2i H.65) respectively.
4.4
Numerical Examples
This section contains three numerical examples regarding a 2D mode I, a 2D mixed-mode (I & II) and a 3D mode I crack, that demonstrate the accuracy of the above methodology and lead to interesting conclusions regarding the nature of the stress intensity factors and the stress eld around a crack in a microstructured material.
86
4.4.1
Square plate with horizontal line crack under tension
Consider a square gradient elastic plate with rounded corners of very small radius of curvature (in order to have a smooth boundary) in a state of plane stress. The plate contains a central horizontal line crack and is subjected to a uniform tensile traction P0 = 100MP a applied normal to its top and bottom sides, as shown in Figure 4.8. The crack length is chosen to be equal to 2a = 1m and the side of the square plate is L = 16a. The Young modulus and the Poissons ratio of the gradient elastic plate are E = 210GP a and = 0.2, respectively. The constants a1 , a3 and a5 were set equal to zero and the constants a2 and a4 were 2 2 set equal to g /2 and g , for various values of g (0.01, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5).Then, the gradient coecients 1 and 2 become equal to each other and equal to g l l and Form II gradient theory is downgraded to its simplied version. Due to the double symmetry of the problem, only one quarter of the plate is discretized, with the following boundary conditions along the axes of symmetry: P (0, y) = 0 and R (0, y) = 0 for 0 y < a, uy (0, y) = 0 and R (0, y) = 0 for a y L/2 and ux (x, 0) = 0 and R (x, 0) = 0 for 0 x L/2. Figure 4.9 displays the upper-
Figure 4.8: Gradient elastic plate with a horizontal line crack
87
right-quarter of the crack opening displacement prole obtained by the present BEM for the aforementioned values of the coecient g (0.01, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5). In the same gure, the crack prole provided by the classical elasticity theory is also shown. As it is apparent, the crack prole in the gradient elastic case remains sharp at the crack tip and is not blunted as in the classical case. This cusp type of prole is identical to the one coming out of Barenblatts (Barenblatt (1962)) cohesive zone theory. Barenblatt explains that the two faces of the crack, right at the tip, are subjected to very strong interatomic forces. Thus, considering these atomic attraction forces as compressive stresses larger than the tensile ones due to external loading, he obtained a cusp-like crack opening near the tip of the crack. The important conclusion here is that the results depicted in Figure 4.9 are fully compatible with Barenblatts ndings without, however, to consider other forces than those implied by the Mindlins Form II gradient elasticity theory. Also, it should be noted that as the coecient g increases, i.e. the gradient coecients 1 , 2 increase, the l l crack becomes stier.
(normal to the crack)
0.0005
classical g = 0.01 g = 0.1
0.0004
g = 0.3 g = 0.5
0.0003
Displacement u
0.0002
0.0001
0.0000 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Distance from the origin (crack tip at x=0.5)
Figure 4.9: Upper right quarter of the COD prole
In order to assess the accuracy of the computed SIFs by the proposed method, a convergence analysis of the results with mesh renement is performed. The problem is solved using a large number of uniform discretizations with the crack
88
half-length to special boundary element length ratio a/le varying from 1 to 50. The computed SIFs for the classical elastic and the gradient elastic case with three characteristic values of the coecient g (0.01, 0.05 and 0.3) are listed in Tables 4.3 and 4.4, respectively. In addition, Table 4.3 also lists the percentage error of the results for the case of classical elasticity in comparison with the available analytical solution (Broek (1974)). Regarding classical elasticity, the mesh convergence analysis reveals that for a wide range of ratios a/le (from 3 to 50) the percentage error is below 1% and the convergence appears to be aected insignicantly by the element size. A ratio of a/le = 5 leads almost to the exact result. As far as the gradient elasticity is concerned, the computed SIF (KI )1 values converge as the ratio a/le increases independently of g, while the SIF (KI )2 values appear to be sensitive to the element size, especially as the coecient g increases. Specically, for the worst possible case here of g = 0.3, there is a narrow range of ratios a/le (from 2 to 5) where the SIF (KI )2 indicates a subtle convergence, while for greater ratios tends to zero, which is obviously not correct. As described in the previous section, the SIFs are computed as functions of the nodal traction values (P1 , P2 , P3 ) corresponding to one of the two special elements attached to the crack tip. As it is obvious, the smaller the size of the special element is, the closer to the tip of the crack its nodes reside. As mentioned earlier the traction eld P on the special element, varies as (KI ) (KI ) P = 1 r 3/2 + 2 r 1/2 + C. 2 2 (4.54)
In the neighborhood of the crack tip, i.e. for small values of r, the rst term of eq (4.54) becomes dominant and the contribution of the second term to the traction P is insignicant. As a result, decreasing the size of the special element with its nodes residing in the area of domination of the rst term, makes (KI )2 dicult to calculate. In the extreme case, where all the nodes of the special element are located in the area of domination of the rst term, the computed (KI )2 tends to zero, as it is evident from Table 4.4. However this extreme case of high values of g, like g = 0.3 may not be realistic and one should pay more attention to results corresponding to smaller values of g, like g = 0.01, for which the results are very good.
89

a/le KI / (P0 a) % Error 1 0.95428 5.4938 2 0.99058 1.89815 3 1.00165 0.80192 4 1.00691 0.28108 5 1.00996 0.02114 6 1.01195 0.21778 7 1.01354 0.37577 8 1.01457 0.47768 10 1.01599 0.61817 12 1.01692 0.71029 14 1.01745 0.76248 18 1.01832 0.84831 24 1.01903 0.91854 30 1.01945 0.96109 50 1.01961 0.97629 Analytical solution: 1.00975 Broek (1974)
Table 4.3: SIF convergence for the classical elastic case One can observe from Tables 4.3 and 4.4 that gradient elastic SIFs are smaller than those of the classical elastic case, especially for increasing values of g. This is in agreement with many other studies (Ru & Aifantis (1993), Chang & Gao (1997), Tsepoura et al. (2002), Papargyri-Beskou et al. (2003b), PapargyriBeskou et al. (2003a), Georgiadis et al. (2004), Giannakopoulos & Stamoulis (2007)) indicating a stiness increase in gradient elasticity. Tables 4.3 and 4.4 also indicate that gradient elasticity requires a slightly denser mesh around the tip of the crack, compared to the classical elasticity. This is due to the higher order of singularity (r 3/2 ). The results that follow have been obtained with a/le = 8. In Figures 4.10(a) and 4.10(b) the two mode-I SIFs for the gradient elastic case, (KI )1 and (KI )2 , are plotted versus the coecient g. The interesting remark here is that the SIF (KI )1 tends to zero as g tends to zero. As a result of that, eq (4.51) becomes Py = (KI )2 / 2 limr0 r 1/2 with (KI )2 being the mode-I SIF as dened in classical elasticity theory. Moreover, Figure 4.10(b) depicts the behavior of the SIF corresponding to r 1/2 traction term as a function of the
90
a/le
g = 0.01 (P0 a) 0.95428 0.99058 1.00165 1.00691 1.00996 1.01195 1.01354 1.01457 1.01599 1.01692 1.01745 1.01832 1.01903 1.01945 1.01961
(KI )1
g = 0.05 (P0 a) 5.4938 1.89815 0.80192 0.28108 0.02114 0.21778 0.37577 0.47768 0.61817 0.71029 0.76248 0.84831 0.91854 0.96109 0.97629
(KI )1
g = 0.3 (P0 a) 5.4938 1.89815 0.80192 0.28108 0.02114 0.21778 0.37577 0.47768 0.61817 0.71029 0.76248 0.84831 0.91854 0.96109 0.97629
(KI )1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 18 24 30 50
(P0 a) 5.4938 1.89815 0.80192 0.28108 0.02114 0.21778 0.37577 0.47768 0.61817 0.71029 0.76248 0.84831 0.91854 0.96109 0.97629
(KI )2
(P0 a) 5.4938 1.89815 0.80192 0.28108 0.02114 0.21778 0.37577 0.47768 0.61817 0.71029 0.76248 0.84831 0.91854 0.96109 0.97629
(KI )2
(P0 a) 5.4938 1.89815 0.80192 0.28108 0.02114 0.21778 0.37577 0.47768 0.61817 0.71029 0.76248 0.84831 0.91854 0.96109 0.97629
(KI )2
Table 4.4: SIFs convergence for the gradient elastic case (g = 0.01, 0.05 and 0.3)
coecient g. It should be noted that for g greater than 0.1, the contribution of this term is much smaller than that of the term corresponding to r 3/2 . For this reason the evaluation of the SIF (KI )2 for large g requires further investigation. However, for small g it is apparent from Figure 4.10(b) that as g approaches zero (KI )2 becomes dominant and goes to the classical elastic case. However, the most important observation here is that the SIF (KI )1 takes only negative values. This means that in gradient elasticity the stresses near the crack tip not only go to innity with a dierent order (r 3/2 ) than those of classical elasticity (r 1/2 ), but are also compressive and not tensile as in classical elasticity. This explains the dierent shapes of the crack prole in gradient and classical elasticity theories, as shown in Figure 4.9. This behaviour becomes more pronounced in Figure 4.11 where the traction eld near to the crack tip, for various values of the gradient coecient g is displayed.
91
0.00
-0.02
(Order of singularity:
-3/2
K /[P (pa)
1/2
-0.04
0 I
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
-0.12 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Gradient coefficient
0.30
0.35
0.40
(a)
1.10
(
1.05
(Order of singularity:
-1/2
1.00
K /[P (pa)
1/2
]
I
0.90 0.85 0.80 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
0.95
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
(b)
Figure 4.10: SIFs (a) (KI )1 and (b) (KI )2 as functions of the coecient g
92
4.00E+008 2.00E+008 0.00E+000 -2.00E+008

Tractions
classical g=0.01 g=0.1 g=0.3
-4.00E+008 -6.00E+008 -8.00E+008 -1.00E+009 -1.20E+009 -1.40E+009
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.48
Distance from crack tip
Figure 4.11: Traction values near the crack tip
4.4.2
Square plate with diagonal line crack under tension
The square plate of the previous example with an inclined at an angle of 45 deg central slant crack is analyzed here again by the proposed method. This is a mixed mode (I & II) crack problem. The plate domain is divided here into two
Figure 4.12: Gradient elastic plate with a central diagonal line crack
93
subregions, as shown in Figure 4.12, which are both treated by the BEM and combined together through the continuity and equilibrium eqs (3.37) at their interface, except of course the crack faces, that are left traction free. This is necessary in view of the displacement based BEM employed here (Beskos (1997), Aliabadi (1997), Dominguez & Ariza (2003)). A traction based BEM would probably be a better choice as not requiring subregioning, but this is associated with higher order kernel singularities (Beskos (1997), Aliabadi (1997), Dominguez & Ariza (2003)). In Figures 4.13(a) and 4.13(b) the SIFs, (KI )1 , (KII )1 and (KI )2 , (KII )2 , respectively, are plotted as functions of the gradient coecient g and exhibit decreasing values for increasing values of g. Similarly to the mode I case, the SIFs (KI )1 , (KII )1 tend to zero as the gradient coecient g tends to zero and take only negative values.
4.4.3
Cube with central horizontal rectangular crack
Consider a gradient elastic cube with rounded corners of very small radius of curvature (in order to have a smooth boundary). The cube contains a central horizontal rectangular crack and is subjected to a uniform tensile traction P0 = 100MP a applied normal to its top and bottom sides. The side of the cube L is Figure 4.14(a). The Young modulus and the Poisson ratio of the gradient elastic plate are E = 210GP a and = 0.2, respectively. chosen to be equal to 16a = 8 and the crack dimensions are 2a L, as shown in
Due to the octant symmetry of the problem, the analysis is performed by taking into account two Cartesian symmetries with respect to the X-Z and Y-Z planes, while on the X-Y symmetry plane the following boundary conditions are and uz (x, y, 0) = 0 and R (x, y, 0) = 0 for a x L/2 and a y L/2. The crack surface. considered: P (x, y, 0) = 0 and R (x, y, 0) = 0 for 0 x < a and 0 y < L/2
mesh used is shown in Figure 4.14(b), where 4 8 elements are placed at the Figure 4.15 displays the lower right of the crack opening displacement prole, at y = 0 , obtained by the present 3D BEM for four dierent values of the gradient coecient g (0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5), as well as the prole corresponding to
94
0.00
(
-0.01
(
K K
II
) ,(K ) / [P (
-0.02
Order of singularity:
1/2
-3/2
)
II 1
-0.03
-0.04
K
-0.05 -0.06 -0.07 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
0.25
0.30
(a)
0.54
(
0.52
K K
II
1/2
0.50
Order of singularity:
0.48
-1/2
) / [P ( ) ,( (
0.46
2 II
0.44
K
0.42
K
0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
0.25
0.30
(b)
Figure 4.13: SIFs (a)(KI )1 , (KII )1 and (b)(KI )2 , (KII )2 as functions of the gradient coecient g for the mixed mode (I & II) crack
95
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.14: (a)The gradient elastic cube with a central horizontal rectangular crack and (b) the discretized domain (one eighth of the cube)
0.0
g=0.5
-4
-1.0x10
at y=0
g=0.3
Displacements u
-2.0x10
-4
-3.0x10
-4
g=0.1
-4.0x10
-4
g=0.05
2D BEM 3D BEM
Linear
-5.0x10
-4
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Distance from the origin (crack front at x=0.5)
Figure 4.15: Shape of mode I crack for dierent values of the gradient coecient g compared to the 2D case
96
the classical elastic case (g = 0). The proles are compared to the 2D ones of Figure 4.9 and found to be the same as expected. The same conclusion is valid for the calculated (KI )1 and (KI )2 SIFs plotted in Figures 4.16(a) and 4.16(b) respectively for dierent gradient coecient g.
0.00
-0.02
-3/2
1/2
Component: r
]
-0.04
2D SIF (K )
I
K /[P (
3D SIF (K )
I
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
-0.12 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
Gradient coefficient g
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.16: SIFs (a)(KI )1 and (b)(KI )2 SIFs as functions of the gradient coecient g for the 3d mode I crack
97
98
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Future Work

In the context of this thesis, Bettis reciprocal identity has been obtained, as well as the 2D and 3D fundamental solutions of a Form II gradient elastic problem. Furthermore, the integral formulation of the problem has been derived and the corresponding integral kernels have been calculated. A displacement based BEM has been employed for the solution of 2D and 3D static Form II gradient elastic problems. It has been veried that for appropriate values of the gradient constants 1 5 of Form II, it is downgraded to its simplied version with only one gradient coecient g and if g is sent to zero, the classical elasticity theory is obtained as well. Two new elements have been created; a three noded line and an eight noded quadrilateral element. Both of them have been equipped with interpolation functions that adapt themselves to the eld singularities. These elements have been used to calculate the unknown elds near the crack and to evaluate the cracks stress intensity factor in elastic materials with and without microstructural effects. This approach requires the use of subregions, but is associated with lower order kernel singularities than other approaches, such as the traction based BEM or the dual (traction/displacement) BEM. The employed BEM requires a discretization which is restricted only to the boundaries and possible interfaces of the domain considered. The new elements were placed on the crack tip (or front) and the SIF was calculated by means of the elements nodal traction values. Very accurate results, with respect to
99
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
the analytical solutions, have been obtained in the context of both classical and Mindlins Form II gradient elasticity theories. One can notice that a hardening eect is introduced due to the microstructure, which makes the crack stier than that of classical elasticity. Furthermore, the gradient Form II results have been found to be more physically acceptable then those of the classical elastic case. Namely, in contrast to the classical elasticity, the crack prole remains sharp and is not blunted, as illustrated in Figure 5.1. This result can also be observed in the
Figure 5.1: Crack opening displacements (CODs) and tractions near the crack tip for gradient and classical elasticity
traction eld, where near the crack tip, the stresses become compressive. These results are fully compatible with Barenblatts ndings, without however considering other forces than those implied my Mindlins Form II gradient elasticity theory. Finally, the calculated SIFs indicate that when Form II approaches classical elasticity, the gradient elasticity SIF (coecient of the term r 3/2 ) becomes small compared to the coecient of the term r 1/2 , which becomes dominant and tends to the classical elasticity SIF. In the near future, the following two issues will be addressed:
100
The calculation of the stress tensor on the domain boundary, which involves the evaluation of hypersingular integrals. The enhancement of the current BEM formulation so that it is applicable to non-smooth domains, by taking into account the extra boundary condition E = prescribed, as proposed by Mindlin.
101
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
102
Appendix A Form I, II & III Constants

This section contains all the constants used in Mindlins Form I, II and III gradient elasticity theories. = 1 b1 (3g1 + 2g2 ) g1 b2 + b3 3b1 + b2 + b3 2g2 = 1+ b2 + b3 (A.1) (A.2)
A.1
Form I
1 = 1 (1 + ) (3 + ) 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 2 2 1 (1 + ) (1 2 ) 3 (1 ) (3 + ) 5 2 1 (1 ) (1 + 2 + ) 8 + 211 (1 ) 14 2 + (1 + ) 15 2 = 1 2 (1 2 ) (3 + ) 1 1 1 (2 + )2 2 2 (A.3)
1 + (1 2 )2 3 + (3 + )2 4 4
103
A. FORM I, II & III CONSTANTS 1 (1 + 2 + )2 8 4 + (3 + 2) 10 + 2 ( + ) 11 + (3 + 2) 13 (A.4) (A.5)
+ (3 + ) (1 + 2 + ) 5 +
+ (1 + + ) 14 (1 ) 15 3 = 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 + (1 + )2 3 + (1 )2 8 4 2 2 1 1 = 1 + 2 10 1 2 (a11 + a13 ) + (1 + )2 14 4 2 1 + (1 )2 15 2 1 = 1 2 10 + 1 + 3 2 11 + 1 + 2 13 4 1 1 1 + 2 3 2 14 1 2 3 2 15 2 2
2 (3g1 + 2g2 )2 8g2 3 (b2 + b3 ) 3 (3b1 + b2 + b3 )
(A.6)
(A.7) (A.8) (A.9)
+ 2 = + 2
2 2g2 = b2 + b3
A.2
Form II
1 = 21 43 2 = 1 + 2 + 3 3 = 23 4 = 34 5 5 = 24 + 25
(A.10) (A.11) (A.12) (A.13) (A.14)
104
A.3 Form III
A.3
Form III
18d1 = 21 + 42 + 3 + 64 35 18d2 = 21 42 3 31 = 2 ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) 2 = 4 + 5 3f = 1 + 42 23 (A.15) (A.16) (A.17) (A.18) (A.19)
105
A. FORM I, II & III CONSTANTS
106
Appendix B Form II: Total Potential Energy Calculation

As mentioned in section 2.3 the total potential energy is the integral over the volume V of the variation of the potential energy density function W . W dV =
V S
nj (jk i ijk ) uk dS (B.1) j (jk i ijk ) uk dV +

V S
or in vector notation W dV =
V S
ni ijk j uk dS
n ( ) u dS (B.2) ( ) u dV +
V S
n : u dS
The second term of the rst surface integral of eq (B.1) can be written as nj i ijk = nj Di ijk + ni nj D ijk (B.3)
107
B. FORM II: TOTAL POTENTIAL ENERGY CALCULATION
In addition, the integrand of the last integral may be broken down into two parts; a tangential and a normal to the surface S. ni ijk j uk = ni ijk Dj uk + ni ijk nj Duk (B.4)
of the above equation can be written as a sum of three terms:
Where Dj (jl ni nl ) l and D nl l . The rst term in the right hand side ni ijk Dj uk = Dj (ni ijk uk ) ni Dj ijk uk Dj ni ijk uk (B.5)
On the surface S, the rst term of the right hand side of eq (B.5) can be further decomposed Dj (ni ijk uk ) = (Dl nl ) nj ni ijk uk + nq eqpm p (emlj nl ni ijk uk ) (B.6)
Utilizing the Stokes theorem, the integral of the last term of eq (B.6) over a smooth surface vanishes. If however the surface S has an edge C, formed by the intersection of two portions S1 and S2 , then the Stokes theorem for the last term gives nq eqpm p (emlj nl ni ijk uk ) dS =
S C
ni mj ijk uk ds
(B.7)
with mj = emlj sm nl , sm the components of the unit vector tangential to C and the brackets indicating that the enclosed quantity is the dierence between the values on S1 and S2 . Substituting all the above equations into eq (B.1) we end up to the nal expression for the total potential energy. W dV =
V V
j (jk i ijk ) uk dV [nj jk ni nj D ijk 2nj Di ijk + (ni nj Dl nl Dj ni ) ijk ] uk dS

S
+ +
S
ni nj ijk Duk dS +
C
ni mj ijk uk ds
(B.8)
108
Appendix C Mindlins Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory: Integral Representation Kernels

In this section, the expressions for the fundamental quantities q , R , P and E are given, as well as their normal derivatives u /nx , q /nx , R /nx and P /nx . First some basic quantities are dened, that will simplify the formulas that follow. The constant a indicates the dimensionality of the problem. a= 2, for 2D 3, for 3D (C.1)
Furthermore, the constant b is dened to be: b= 1 (a 1) 8 (1 ) (C.2)
Then the quantities J1 (r), J2 (r), K1 (r), K2 (r) and L1 (r)-L3 (r) can be dened. J1 (r) = (r) a1 2X (r) (r) r r2 (C.3)
109
C. MINDLINS FORM II: KERNELS
J2 (r) = X (r) + K1 (r) = K2 (r) = L1 (r) = L2 (r) = L3 (r) =
2aX (r) a1 X (r) + (C.4) r r2 a2 X (r) 1 X (r) + 2 (a 1) 2 (C.5) (r) (r) X (r) r r r (r) X (r) a 1 X (r) (C.6) r r r 5X (r) 8X (r) + (C.7) X (r) r r2 X (r) 2X (r) (C.8) r r2 (r) (C.9) (r) r
Then the scalar functions A1 (r)-A3 (r), B1 (r)-B10 (r) and C1 (r)-C9 (r) are dened as: 2X (r) r X (r) A2 (r) = b (r) r A1 (r) = 2b X (r) (a 1) X (r) A3 (r) = b (r) X (r) r 2 X (r) r (C.10) (C.11) (C.12)
B1 (r) = 2 (4 + a5 ) bL1 (r) a 1 1 B2 (r) = b a3 J2 (r) + (1 + a3 ) K1 (r) 2 (4 + a5 ) L2 (r) a a 2 2 1 1 B3 (r) = b a1 J2 (r) + (1 + 42 ) K1 (r) 2 (4 + a5 ) L2 (r) a a a 2 2 1 1 (24 + a5 ) L3 (r) (24 + 35 ) L2 (r) a a a B4 (r) = b 2 2 B5 (r) = B2 (r) B6 (r) = b [ (24 + a5 ) L2 (r) + a5 L3 (r)] a 1 1 a a a B7 (r) = b (24 + 35 ) L2 (r) + (24 + a5 ) L3 (r) 2 2 1 1 B8 (r) = b a3 J1 (r) + (1 + a3 ) K2 (r) a 2 2 (r) 1 X (r) 1 a (24 + 35 ) 2 a a + (24 + a5 ) 2 r 2 r B9 (r) = B8 (r)
(C.13) (C.14) (C.15) (C.16) (C.17) (C.18) (C.19)
(C.20) (C.21)
110
B10 (r) = b
1 1 a1 J1 (r) + (1 + 42 ) K2 (r) a a 2 2 X (r) (r) (24 + a5 ) 2 + a5 a r r 4B1 (r) r
(C.22)
C1 (r) = B1 (r)
(C.23)
C2 (r) = A1 (r) 2B1 (r) +
C3 (r) = C4 (r) =
C5 (r) = C6 (r) =
C7 (r) = C8 (r) =
C9 (r) =
2B1 (r) B1 (r) 2 (a 1) r r 2B3 (r) 2B5 (r) 2B2 (r) B3 (r) + B5 (r) + B2 (r) + r r r 2B7 (r) 2B6 (r) B7 (r) + (C.24) B6 (r) + r r 2B4 (r) (C.25) B4 (r) r B3 (r) 2B4 (r) B4 (r) A2 (r) 2B4 (r) + 2 (a 1) r r r B5 (r) B6 (r) B7 (r) B8 (r) (C.26) r r r 2B3 (r) 2B5 (r) B1 (r) + B3 (r) + B5 (r) (C.27) r r r B2 B3 A3 (r) B3 (r) (a 1) r r B5 (r) B9 (r) B10 (r) (C.28) B5 (r) (a 1) r 2B6 (r) 2B7 (r) B1 (r) + B6 (r) + B7 (r) (C.29) r r r B2 (r) B6 (r) A2 (r) B6 (r) (a 1) r r B7 (r) B9 (r) B10 (r) (C.30) B7 (r) (a 1) r B3 (r) B5 (r) B6 (r) B7 (r) + + + + B9 (r) + B10 (r) (C.31) r r r r
As shown in section 2.4.2, the fundamental displacement for both the 2D and the 3D cases is u = b (r) X (r) I r r (C.32) with X (r) and (r) being scalar functions that are dierent for the 2D and 3D cases (see eqs (2.103-2.106)). Based on the fundamental displacement, all other
111
quantities can be calculated.
q (x, y) =
u ny (C.33)
2X (r) ( ) n r r r r X (r) + b (r) ( ) b n r I ( + n) n r r r = b X (r)
(x, y) = B1 (r) r r r r + B2 (r) I r r + B3 (r) r I r + B4 (r) r r I
+ B5 (r) I r r + B6 (r) I r r + B7 (r) I r r + B8 (r) I I + B9 (r) I I + B10 (r) I I

1324
1324 1342 3142
(C.34)
3124
R (x, y) = ( n) : n = [B1 (r) ( ) + B2 (r)] n r r r + B4 (r) ( )2 + B8 (r) n r I + [B3 (r) + B5 (r)] ( ) n n r r + [B6 (r) + B7 (r)] ( ) n n r r + [B9 (r) + B10 (r)] n n
(C.35)
112
(x, y) = n + ( n) : n ( ) P n n n n 2134 + (S n) ( n) : (S n) : = + B1 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) ( )2 n r C3 (r) ( )2 + C4 (r) ( ) n r n r C1 (r) ( )2 + C2 (r) ( ) n r n r
B1 (r) [(aS ) (aS ) + (bS ) (bS )] r r r r r r + + B4 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) ( )2 n r C5 (r) ( )2 + C6 (r) n r
B4 (r) [(aS ) (aS ) + (bS ) (bS )] r r r r I + + + [B3 (r) + B5 (r)] (aS aS + bS bS ) ( ) n n r r + [B6 (r) + B7 (r)] (aS aS + bS bS ) ( ) n n r r + + [B9 (r) + B10 (r)] (aS aS + bS bS ) n n C9 (r) ( ) n r C7 (r) ( )2 + C8 (r) n r (C.36)
B3 (r) [(aS ) aS + (bS ) bS ] r r r r
B5 (r) [(aS ) aS + (bS ) bS ] r r r r
B6 (r) [(aS ) aS + (bS ) bS ] r r r r B9 (r) [aS aS + bS bS ]
B7 (r) [(aS ) aS + (bS ) bS ] r r r r B10 (r) [aS aS + bS bS ] r n r r r r r r I = B1 (r) (m ) ( ) + B4 (r) (m ) ( ) r r + B5 (r) (m ) n + B3 (r) ( ) m n r r r r + B6 (r) (m ) n + B7 (r) ( ) m n r r + B9 (r) n m + (r) B10 m n (C.37)
E (x, y) = (m n) :
u (x, y) = b nx
X (r)
2X (r) r
( x ) n r r r
X (r) + ( x + r nx ) (r) ( x ) n r r n r I r
(C.38)
113
C. MINDLINS FORM II: KERNELS q (x, y) = b nx
[L1 (r) ( x ) ( ) + L2 (r) ( x n)] n r n r n r r + L2 ( ) ( x + nx ) n r n r r + L2 ( x ) ( + n) n r n r r X (r) + ( x n + n nx ) n r2 (r) + (r) ( x ) ( ) n r n r r (r) ( x n) n I r (C.39)
R (x, y) = nx
B1 (r)
2B1 (r) 4B1 (r) ( x n) ( ) + n n r ( x n) ( ) n n r r r 2B2 (r) B2 (r) ( x ) n r r r r 2B4 (r) 2B4 (r) ( x ) + n r ( x n) ( ) n n r B4 (r) r r B8 (r) ( x ) n r I
B2 (r) B1 (r) ( )2 ( x + nx ) n r n r r r r 2B3 (r) B3 (r) + B3 (r) ( x ) ( ) + n r n r ( x n) n r r B5 (r) 2B5 (r) ( x ) ( ) + n r n r ( x n) n B5 (r) r r 2B6 (r) B6 (r) + B6 (r) ( x ) ( ) + n r n r ( x n) n r r B7 (r) 2B7 (r) ( x ) ( ) + n r n r ( x n) n B7 (r) r r B3 (r) + B5 (r) + ( ) n nx n r r B6 (r) + B7 (r) ( ) nx n n r + r + [ (B9 (r) + B10 (r)) ( x )] n n n r +
( ) n r
( ) n r
(C.40)
114
P (x, y) = nx
3C1 (r) 5C1 (r) ( x ) ( )3 n r n r ( x n) ( )2 C1 (r) n n r r r 3C2 (r) C2 (r) C2 (r) ( x ) ( ) n r n r ( x n) n r r 4B1 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) B1 (r) ( x ) ( )2 n r n r r 2B1 (r) ( x n) ( ) n n r (aS aS + bS bS ) r 4B1 (r) + [(aS ) (aS ) + (bS ) (bS )] ( x ) B1 (r) r r r r n r r B1 (r) B1 (r) + ( x aS ) (aS ) + n r ( x aS ) (aS ) n r r r B1 (r) B1 (r) ( x bS ) (bS ) + n r ( x bS ) (bS ) n r r r + r r C1 (r) C2 (r) B1 (r) + ( )3 n r ( ) (aS aS + b bS ) n r ( )2 n r r r r B1 (r) B1 (r) (aS ) (aS ) + r r (bS ) (bS ) ( nx + nx ) r r r r + r r 3C5 (r) + C5 (r) ( x ) ( )2 n r n r r C6 (r) 2C5 (r) ( x ) n r ( x n) ( ) C6 (r) n n r r r (aS aS + bS bS ) (B3 (r) + B5 (r)) ( x ) ( ) n r n r B3 (r) + B5 (r) + (aS aS + bS bS ) 2 ( x ) ( ) n r n r r B3 (r) + B5 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) ( x n) ( ) n n r r 3C7 (r) ( x ) ( )2 n r n r + C7 (r) r 2C7 (r) C8 (r) ( x ) n r ( x n) ( ) C8 (r) n n r r r (aS aS + bS bS ) (B6 (r) + B7 (r)) ( x ) ( ) n r n r B6 (r) + B7 (r) + (aS aS + bS bS ) 2 ( x ) ( ) n r n r r B6 (r) + B7 (r) ( x n) ( ) n n r (aS aS + bS bS ) r (C.41)
115
C6 (r) B3 (r) + B5 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) ( ) ( nx ) n r n r r B6 (r) + B7 (r) C8 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) ( ) ( x n) n r n + C7 (r) ( )2 n r r r C9 (r) C9 (r) + C9 (r) ( x ) ( ) n r n r ( x n) n r r + C5 (r) ( )2 n r
(aS aS + bS bS ) (B9 (r) + B10 (r)) ( x ) ( n) n r n + C3 (r)
3C3 (r) 3C3 (r) ( x ) ( )3 n r n r ( x n) ( )2 n n r r r C4 (r) C4 (r) ( x ) ( ) n r n r ( x n) n C4 (r) r r 2B4 (r) (aS aS + bS bS ) B4 (r) ( x ) ( )2 n r n r r 2B4 (r) ( x n) ( ) n n r + r 2B4 (r) + B4 (r) [(aS ) (aS ) + (bS ) (bS )] ( x ) r r r r n r r B4 (r) + [ ( x aS ) (aS ) + ( x aS ) (aS ) n r n r r + ( x bS ) (bS ) + ( x bS ) (bS )] n r n r I
+ + + + + + +
B3 (r) 2B3 (r) (aS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x aS ) aS n r r r 2B3 (r) B3 (r) B3 (r) (bS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x bS ) bS n r r r B3 (r) [(aS ) (aS nx ) + (bS ) (bS nx )] r r r B7 (r) [(aS ) ( x aS ) + (bS ) ( x bS )] r n r n r B5 (r) [(aS ) (aS nx ) + (bS ) (bS nx )] r r r B6 (r) [(aS ) ( x aS ) + (bS ) ( x bS )] r n r n r B5 (r) 2B5 (r) (aS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x aS ) aS n r B5 (r) r r
B3 (r)
(C.40)
116
B5 (r) 2B5 (r) (bS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x bS ) n r r 2B7 (r) B7 (r) + B7 (r) (aS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x aS ) n r r 2B7 (r) B7 (r) + B7 (r) (bS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x bS ) n r r B6 (r) 2B6 (r) (aS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x aS ) n + B6 (r) r r 2B6 (r) B6 (r) + B6 (r) (bS ) ( x ) + r n r ( x bS ) n r r B10 (r) ( x ) (aS aS + bS bS ) n r +
B5 (r)
bS r aS r bS r aS r bS r
(C.40)
E (x, y) = nx
B9 (r) ( x ) (aS aS + bS bS ) n r B1 (r)
4B1 (r) r
( x ) ( ) (m ) n r n r r
B1 (r) [( x m) ( ) + ( x n) (m )] n n r n r r r r 2B4 (r) ( x ) ( ) (m ) n r n r r + B4 (r) r B4 (r) [( x m) ( ) + ( x n) (m )] n n r n r I r 2B5 (r) B5 (r) B5 (r) ( x ) (m ) + n r r ( x m) n n r r r B6 (r) 2B6 (r) ( x ) (m ) + n r r ( x m) n n r B6 (r) r r 2B3 (r) B3 (r) B3 (r) ( x ) ( ) + n r n r ( x n) m n r r r B7 (r) 2B7 (r) ( x ) ( ) + n r n r ( x n) m n r B7 (r) r r B1 (r) r n r n (m ) ( ) ( x + nx ) r r r (B9 (r) + B10 (r)) ( x ) ( m + m n) n r n B5 (r) + B6 (r) r n (m ) ( nx + nx n) r B3 (r) + B7 (r) ( ) (m nx + nx m) n r r (C.42)
117
118
Appendix D Boundary Elements

D.1
D.1.1
Surface Elements
Eight Noded Quadratic Quadrilateral Element
(a)
(b)
Figure D.1: (a) The geometrical and (b) functional nodes of an eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element This element has eight geometrical and eight functional nodes. It can be
119
D. BOUNDARY ELEMENTS
discontinuous at any number of sides. The coordinates of the geometrical nodes of the element, expressed in its local coordinate system, are given in Table D.1.
Geom. node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 coord. 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 2 coord. 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0
Table D.1: The geometrical node coordinates of an eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element The functional node coordinates of the element are given in Table D.2. Note that if one or more bi are equal to zero, the corresponding element sides are continuous. The shape and interpolation functions of an eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element are quadratic functions of the local variables 1 , 2 . 1 (1 , 2 ) = 2 (1 , 2 ) = 3 (1 , 2 ) = 4 (1 , 2 ) = 5 (1 , 2 ) = 6 (1 , 2 ) = 7 (1 , 2 ) =
2 (1 + 1 )(1 + 1 1 2 2 ) 4 2 (1 + 1 )(1 + 1 1 2 + 2 ) 4 2 (1 + 1 )(1 + 1 + 1 2 + 2 ) 4 2 (1 + 1 )(1 + 1 + 1 2 2 ) 4 (1 + 1 1 ) (1 + 2 ) 2 2 (1 + 1 )(1 2 ) 2 (1 1 1 )(1 + 2 ) 2
(D.1) (D.2) (D.3) (D.4) (D.5) (D.6) (D.7)
120
D.1 Surface Elements
Func. node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 coord. 1+b4 1b2 1b2 1+b4 0 0 1+b4 1b2
2 coord. 1+b1 1+b1 1b3 1b3 1+b1 0 0 1b3
Table D.2: The functional node coordinates of a discontinuous eight noded quadratic quadrilateral element
2 (1 + 1 )(1 + 2 ) 2
8 (1 , 2 ) =
(D.8)
N 1 (1 , 2) = N 2 (1 , 2) = N 3 (1 , 2) = N 4 (1 , 2) = N 5 (1 , 2) = N 6 (1 , 2) = N 7 (1 , 2) = N 8 (1 , 2) =
(1 2 ) (2 + 3 ) (1 4 + 1 1 + 2 4 ) 1 4 (1 + 3 ) (2 + 4 ) (1 + 4 ) (2 3 ) (1 2 1 1 + 2 2 ) 1 2 (1 + 3 ) (2 + 4 ) (1 + 4 ) (2 + 1 ) (2 3 + 1 3 + 2 2 ) 2 3 (1 + 3 ) (2 + 4 ) (1 + 2 ) (2 + 1 ) (3 4 1 3 + 2 4 ) 3 4 (1 + 3 ) (2 + 4 ) (1 2 ) (1 + 4 ) (2 3 ) 2 4 (1 + 3 ) (1 + 4 ) (2 + 3 ) (2 + 1 ) 1 3 (2 + 4 ) (1 + 2 ) (1 + 4 ) (2 + 1 ) 2 4 (1 + 3 ) (1 2 ) (2 + 1 ) (2 3 ) 1 3 (2 + 4 )
(D.9) (D.10) (D.11) (D.12) (D.13) (D.14) (D.15) (D.16)
with i = (1 bi ) , i = 1, . . . 4.
121
D.1.2
Six Noded Quadratic Triangular Element
(a)
(b)
Figure D.2: (a) The geometrical and (b) functional nodes of a six noded quadratic triangular element This element has six geometrical and six functional nodes. It can be discontinuous at any number of sides. The coordinates of the geometrical nodes of the element, expressed in its local coordinate system, are given in Table D.3.
Geom. node 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 coord. 0.0 1.0 0.0 1/2 1/2 0.0 2 coord. 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1/2 1/2
Table D.3: The geometrical node coordinates of a six noded quadratic triangular element The functional node coordinates of the element are given in Table D.4. Note that if one or more bi are equal to zero, the corresponding element sides are
122
D.1 Surface Elements
continuous. with b4 = 1 b1 b2 b3 . The shape and interpolation functions

Func. node 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 coord. b3 b3 + b4 b3 (b3 + b4 ) /2 (b3 + b4 ) /2 b3 2 coord. b1 b1 b1 + b4 b1 (b1 + b4 ) /2 (b1 + b4 ) /2
Table D.4:
The functional node coordinates of a discontinuous six noded
quadratic triangular element of a six noded quadratic triangular element are quadratic functions of the local variables 1 , 2 . 1 (1 , 2 ) = (1 21 22)(1 1 2 ) 3 (1 , 2 ) = 2 (1 + 22 ) 4 (1 , 2 ) = 41(1 1 2 ) 5 (1 , 2 ) = 412 6 (1 , 2 ) = 4(1 1 2 )2
1 b3 )(21 +22 N 1 (1 , 2) = (b2 1+1 +2 )[(1b)(1+b1 +b2 +b3b1 b3 )21 b31)22 b3 ] (1+2b1 +b3 3 )(1+b1 +2b
(D.17) (D.18) (D.19) (D.20) (D.21) (D.22)
2 (1 , 2 ) = 1 (1 + 21 )
(D.23) (D.24) (D.25) (D.26) (D.27) (D.28)
2 +b1 (3+3b +4 N 2 (1 , 2 ) = (b3 1 )[(1+b2 )(1+21 )2b2 2 )(1+b1 +b22+b3 )1 +22 )] (1+2b1 +b2 )(1+b1 +2b 1 +22 )+b3 (3+21 N 3 (1 , 2) = (b1 2 )[122 +b2 (1+3b3 22 +b3 )(1+b2 +2b3 ) +42 )] (1+b1 +b2 +b3 )(1+2b
N 4 (1 , 2 ) = N 5 (1 , 2 ) = N 6 (1 , 2 ) =
4(b3 1 )(1+b2 +1 +2 ) (1+b1 +2b2 )(1+b1 +2b3 ) 4(b3 1 )(b1 2 ) (1+2b1 +b2 )(1+b2 +2b3 ) 4(b1 2 )(1+b2 +1 +2 ) (1+2b1 +b3 )(1+2b2 +b3 )
123
D.2
D.2.1
Line Elements
Three Noded Quadratic Line Element
(a)
(b)
Figure D.3: (a) The geometrical and (b) functional nodes of a three noded quadratic line element This element has three geometrical and three functional nodes. It can be discontinuous at any number of sides. The coordinates of the geometrical nodes of the element, expressed in its local coordinate system, are given in Table D.5.
Geom. node 1 2 3 coord. 1.0
1.0 0.0
Table D.5: The geometrical node coordinates of a three noded quadratic line element The functional node coordinates of the element are given in Table D.6. Note that if one or more bi are equal to zero, the corresponding element sides are continuous. with i = (1 bi ) , i = 1, 2. The shape and interpolation functions of a three noded quadratic line element are quadratic functions of the local variable . ( 1) 2
() =
(D.29)
124
D.2 Line Elements
Func. node 1 2 3
coord. 1 2 0.0
Table D.6: The functional node coordinates of a discontinuous three noded quadratic line element ( + 1) 2 () = 1 2
() =
(D.30) (D.31)
( 2 ) 1 (1 + 2 ) ( + 1 ) N 2 () = 2 (1 + 2 ) ( + 1 ) (2 ) N 3 () = 1 2 N 1 () =
(D.32) (D.33) (D.34)
125
126
Appendix E Diving elements into triangles

As mentioned in Chapter 3, in order to integrate numerically weakly singular integrals over an element, a transformation from the element local coordinate system to a local polar coordinate system centered at the point of singularity, is used. The Jacobian of this transformation cancels out the singularity of the integral and it can be calculated with high accuracy using Gauss-Legendre quadrature. The integrals are broken down in triangles, so that each has one of its vertices on the singular point (Figure E.1). Then, the singular integral is written as a sum of integrals over these triangles. The polar radius R of the latter transformation is a function of the polar angle . The determination of the maximum radius Rmax () as a function of the polar angle is the subject of this section.
E.1
E.1.1
Quadrilateral Elements
Triangle 1
1 = 0 2 = arctan Rmax () =
k 1 1 cos
(E.1a) 1 1
k 2 k 1
(E.1b) (E.1c)
127
E. DIVING ELEMENTS INTO TRIANGLES
(a)
(b)
Figure E.1: (a) A quadrilateral and (b) a triangular element broken down to triangles
Figure E.2: A random triangle of a quadrilateral element with [1 , 2 ] and R [0, Rmax ()]
128
E.1 Quadrilateral Elements
E.1.2
Triangle 2
k 1 2 1 = arctan k 1 1 2 = 2 k 1 1 Rmax () = cos
(E.2a) (E.2b) (E.2c)
E.1.3
Triangle 3
2 k pi 1 + 1 2 = + arctan k 2 1 2 k 1 + 1 Rmax () = cos 1 = (E.3a) (E.3b) (E.3c)
E.1.4
Triangle 4
k 1 2 pi + arctan k 2 1 + 1 2 = 2 k 1 2 Rmax () = cos
1 =
(E.4a) (E.4b) (E.4c)
129
E.1.5
Triangle 5
1 = 2 2 = + arctan Rmax () =
k 1 + 2 cos
(E.5a) 1+ 1+
k 1 k 2
(E.5b) (E.5c)
E.1.6
Triangle 6
1 = + arctan 3 4 k 1 + 1 Rmax () = cos 2 =
k 1 + 2 k 1 + 1
(E.6a) (E.6b) (E.6c)
E.1.7
Triangle 7
3 4 k 1 1 3 + arctan 2 = k 4 1 + 2 k 1 1 Rmax () = cos 1 = (E.7a) (E.7b) (E.7c)
E.1.8
Triangle 8
1 =
k 3 1 + 2 + arctan k 4 1 1
(E.8a)
130
E.2 Triangular Elements
2 = 2 k 1 + 2 Rmax () = cos
(E.8b) (E.8c)
E.2
Triangular Elements
Figure E.3: A random triangle of a triangular element with [1 , 2 ] and R [0, Rmax ()]
E.2.1
Triangle 1
1 = 2 = /6 Rmax () = B cos (2 ) (E.9a) (E.9b) (E.9c)
with = arcsin(A) k 2 cos(/6) A = C B = C sin (/3 )
131
C =
k k k k k 1 + 1 1 2 + 2 (1 2 sin (/6)) + 21 2 sin (/6)
E.2.2
Triangle 2
6 2 = + arctan (A) 6 B Rmax () = cos ( 1 ) 1 = (E.10a) (E.10b) (E.10c)
with 1 C cos (/3 ) C sin (/3 ) B = C sin (/3 ) A = C =

k k k k k 1 + 1 1 2 + 2 (1 2 sin (/6)) + 21 2 sin (/6)
= arcsin (D) k cos (/6) D = 2 C
E.2.3
Triangle 3
arctan (A) 6 2 = 6 B Rmax () = cos (2 ) 1 = (E.11a) (E.11b) (E.11c)
with A = 1 C cos (/3 ) C sin (/3 )
132
E.2 Triangular Elements
B = C sin (/3 ) C =
k k k k k 1 + 1 1 2 + 2 (1 2 sin (/6)) + 21 2 sin (/6)
= arcsin (D) k cos (/6) D = 2 C
E.2.4
Triangle 4
6 2 = + 3 o W Rmax () = cos ( 1 ) 1 = (E.12a) (E.12b) (E.12c)
with
k 2 cos (/6) C B = C sin (/3 )
A =
C =
k k k k k 1 + 1 1 2 + 2 (1 2 sin (/6)) + 21 2 sin (/6)
= arcsin (A)
E.2.5
Triangle 5
1 = + 3 2 = 2 A Rmax () = cos (2 ) (E.13a) (E.13b) (E.13c)
133
with
k A = 2 cos (/6) k k B = 2 sin (/6) + 1
= arctan (A/B)
E.2.6
Triangle 6
3 2 3 2 = + arctan 2 A Rmax () = cos ( 1 ) 1 = (E.14a) B A (E.14b) (E.14c)
with
k A = 2 cos (/6) k k B = 1 2 sin (/6) 1
134
Appendix F Taylor expansion of the position vector

As discussed in section 3.4.2.2, the vector r is the position vector of the current integration point ye with respect to the singular point xk . In order to proceed with the integrations, r is expanded in Taylor series around xk .
k k r = ye (1 (R, ) , 2 (R, )) xk 1 , 2
=R + R2
y e (1 , 2 ) 1
y e (1 , 2 ) cos + 2 =xk
sin
=xk
2 y e (1 , 2 ) 2 1
=xk
2 y e (1 , 2 ) cos2 + 2 1 2 + 2 y e (1 , 2 ) 2 2
cos sin
=xk
(F.1)
=xk
sin2 2
+ O R3
= RA () + R B () + O R
In the above equation, the point ye can be written as the sum of the elements shape functions i , since it resides inside the element, multiplied by the corree sponding geometrical node of the element yi . Then the coecients A () and
135
F. TAYLOR EXPANSION OF THE POSITION VECTOR
B () become
e A () = yi
i (1 , 2 ) 1
cos +
=xk
i (1 , 2 ) 2
sin
=xk
(F.2)
e B () = yi
2 i (1 , 2 ) 2 1
=xk
cos2 2 sin2 2
2 i (1 , 2 ) + 1 2
2 i (1 , 2 ) cos sin + 2 2 =xk
(F.3)
=xk
In the case of a quadrilateral element, the partial derivatives of the shape functions with respect to 1 and 2 are equal to the corresponding derivatives with respect to 1 and 2 . In the case of a triangular element however, where the transformation (3.46) is used, the chain rule must be applied to calculate the partial derivatives. i (1 , 2 ) 1 (1 , 2 ) i (1 , 2 ) 2 (1 , 2 ) i (1 , 2 ) = + 1 1 1 2 1 i (1 , 2 ) = 1 i i (1 , 2 ) 1 (1 , 2 ) i (1 , 2 ) 2 (1 , 2 ) (1 , 2 ) = + 2 1 2 2 2 i i (1 , 2 ) 1 (1 , 2 ) tan + = 1 6 2 cos (/6) 2 i (1 , 2 ) 2 i (1 , 2 ) = 2 2 1 1 2 i (1 , 2 ) 2 i (1 , 2 ) 1 2 i (1 , 2 ) = tan2 + 2 2 2 2 (/6) 2 1 6 2 cos 2 i 2 i (1 , 2) (1 , 2 ) tan (/6) + 1 2 2 1 cos (/6) 2 i 2 i 2 i (1 , 2 ) (1 , 2 ) 1 (1 , 2 ) tan + = 2 1 2 1 6 1 2 cos (/6)
(F.4)
(F.5)
(F.6)
(F.7) (F.8)
136
Appendix G Hollow Cylinder Under Pressure: Analytical solution constants

In this section the constants C1 -C4 regarding the analytical solution of a hollow cylinder under pressure are presented, as provided in Papanicolopulos (2008). First the following expression are dened. pa = Ti pb = To ri = 1 l ro = 1 l a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 = a4 + a5 1 = 2+ = 3 + 2 I1 () 2 I0 () = 3 + 2 K1 () + 2 K0 () = 3 + 2 K1 () + 2 K0 () = 3 + 2 I1 () 2 I0 () (G.1) (G.2) (G.3) (G.4) (G.5) (G.6) (G.7) (G.8) (G.9) (G.10)
137
G. HOLLOW CYLINDER UNDER PRESSURE: ANALYTICAL SOLUTION CONSTANTS
1 1 2 2
( ) +
I1 () I1 () ( ) K1 () K1 () ( )
(G.11)
Then the constants C1 -C4 are give by pb I1 () pa pb 1 ( ) + ( ) + 2 2( + ) 2( + ) K1 () ( ) pa pb C2 = 1 l2 4( + ) pa pb C3 = 2( + ) pa pb C4 = 2( + ) C1 =
(G.12) (G.13) (G.14) (G.15)
138
Appendix H Interpolation functions of the eight noded quadrilateral element with variable order of singularity
As mentioned in Chapter 4, the interpolation functions for an eight noded quadrilateral element with variable order of singularity are given by
N i (1 , r) = 2 ei + ei 1 + ei 1 r 1 1 2 3 2 + ei + ei 1 + ei 1 r 2 4 5 6 + ei + ei 1 . 7 8
(H.1)
The constants ei with i, j = 1, . . . , 8 are given by j e1 = 1 e1 = 2

pd2 r4 1 r8 2 r4 2 r8 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) W1 pd2 r5 2 r7 2 r4 1 r8 2 r4 2 r8 1 pd2 r5 1 r7 1
(H.2) (H.3) (H.4) (H.5)
(pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
e1 = 3 e1 = 4
r4 1 r8 2 + r4 2 r8 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) W1
(pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r4 1 r8 2 r4 2 r8 1
139
H. EIGHT NODED SPECIAL ELEMENT: INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS

pd1 r5 2 r7 2 pd1 r5 1 r7 1 r4 1 r8 2 r4 2 r8 1 + pd2 W2
e1 5
pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
(H.6) (H.7) (H.8) (H.9) (H.10)
e1 = 6 e1 7
pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1 W2 = 1 2 pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 r7 r5 2 r7 1 W4
r4 1 r8 2 r4 2 r8 1 + pd2 W3
e1 = 8 e2 = 1 e2 = 2
r4 2 r5 1 + r7 1 r8 1 + r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 r8 1 + r4 1 W5 pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
pd1 r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 pd1 r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1
(pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 pd1 r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1
r5 2 r7 2 r5 1 r7 1
(H.11) (H.12) (H.13)
e2 = 3 e2 = 4 e2 = 5 e2 = 6 e2 7 e2 8 e3 1 e3 2 e3 3
r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 pd2 r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1
(pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
pd1 r2 1 r6 2 r2 2 r6 1 = (pd1 + pd2 ) W9 pd1 r2 1 r6 2 r2 2 r6 1 r5 2 r7 2 = (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W7 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W8 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
pd2 r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1
pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
r5 2 r7 2 + pd1 W7 r5 1 r7 1 + pd1 (W8 )
(H.14) (H.15) (H.16) (H.17) (H.18) (H.19) (H.20) (H.21)
pd1 r2 1 r6 2 r2 2 r6 1
e3 = 4
r2 1 r6 2 r2 2 r6 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) W9
(pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
r5 1 r7 1
140
e3 5
pd2 r2 1 r6 2 r2 2 r6 1 pd2 r2 1 r6 2 r2 2 r6 1
pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
r5 2 r7 2 + pd1 W10
(H.22) (H.23) (H.24) (H.25) (H.26) (H.27) (H.28) (H.29) (H.30) (H.31) (H.32) (H.33) (H.34) (H.35) (H.36) (H.37) (H.38)
e3 = 6 e3 7 e3 8 e4 1 e4 2 e4 3 e4 4 e4 5 e4 6
pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W10 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W11 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 pd2 r1 1 r8 2 r1 2 r8 1 = (pd1 + pd2 ) W4 pd r 2 r7 2 r1 1 r8 2 r1 2 r8 1 = 2 5 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r5 1 r7 1 + pd1 W11
pd2 r5 1 r7 1
r1 1 r8 2 + r1 2 r8 1 = (pd1 + pd2 ) W4 pd1 r5 2 r7 2 r1 1 r8 2 r1 2 r8 1 + pd2 W12 = pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
(pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r1 1 r8 2 r1 2 r8 1
pd1 r5 1 r7 1
e4 = 7 e4 = 8
r1 1 r5 2 r7 2 r8 2 + r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 r8 2 + r1 2 W14 r1 2 r5 1 r7 1 r8 1 + r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 r8 1 + r1 1 W15 pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1 pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r1 1 r8 2 r1 2 r8 1 + pd2 W13
e5 = 0 1 e5 = 2 e5 = 3 1
r5 1 r5 2
r5 2 r7 2 +1
1
r5 1 r7 2 1
e5 = 0 4 e5 = 5
(pd1 + pd2 ) r7 2 pd1 pd2 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
141

pd1 r7 1 pd2 r7 1 = pd1 pd2 r5 1 r7 2 pd1 pd2 r5 2 r7 1 1 = 1 pd1 pd2 r5 + pd1 pd2 r5 2 r7 2 +1 1 = 2 pd1 pd2 r5 + pd1 pd2 r5 1 r7 2 1 pd1 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 pd1 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1
e5 6 e5 7 e5 8
(H.39) (H.40) (H.41) (H.42)
e6 = 1 e6 = 2
(pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 pd1 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1
r5 2 r7 2 r5 1 r7 1
(H.43) (H.44) (H.45) (H.46) (H.47) (H.48) (H.49) (H.50) (H.51) (H.52) (H.53) (H.54) (H.55) (H.56)
e6 = 3 e6 4 e6 5 e6 6 e6 7 e6 8
r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1 = (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 pd2 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1 r5 2 r7 2 + pd1 W16 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
(pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
e7 = 0 1 e7 = 2 e7 = 3 e7 4 e7 5 e7 6 e7 7
pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W16 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W17 = pd2 (pd1 + pd2 ) W6 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1
pd2 r2 1 r3 2 r2 2 r3 1
r5 1 r7 1 + pd1 W17
1
r5 2 +1 r7 2 + r7 1
r7 2 r5 2 1 r7 1 = 0 pd1 r5 2 pd2 r5 2 = pd1 pd2 r5 1 r7 2 pd1 pd2 r5 2 r7 1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 = pd1 pd2 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 1 = 2 +1 2 pd1 pd2 r5 r7 pd1 pd2 r7 1
142
e7 = 8 e8 = 1 e8 = 2
1
pd1 pd2 r7 2 + pd1 pd2 r5 2 1 r7 1 pd2 r1 1 r4 2 r1 2 r4 1
(H.57) (H.58) (H.59) (H.60) (H.61) (H.62) (H.63) (H.64) (H.65)
pd2
(pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1 pd2 r1 1 r4 2 r1 2 r4 1
(pd1 + pd2 ) W1 r1 1 r4 2 r1 2 r4 1
r5 2 r7 2
e8 = 3 e8 4 e8 5 e8 6 e8 7 e8 8
r1 1 r4 2 + r1 2 r4 1 = (pd1 + pd2 ) W1 pd1 r1 1 r4 2 r1 2 r4 1 r5 2 r7 2 + pd2 W18 = pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
(pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r5 1 r7 1
= =
pd1 r1 1 r4 2 r1 2 r4 1
pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1 W19 = pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r1 1 r4 2 r5 2 + r7 2 + r4 2 r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 + r1 2 W20
pd1 (pd1 + pd2 ) r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W1
r5 1 r7 1 pd2 W19
with Wk , k = 1, . . . , 20 being
W1 = r4 1 r8 2 r4 2 r8 1 + r1 1 r4 2 r8 2 + r1 2 r4 1 + r8 1 W2 = r4 1 r5 2 r7 2 r8 2 + r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 r8 2 +r4 2 r5 1 r7 2 + r7 2 r8 1 + r5 2 r7 1 r8 1
(H.66)
(H.67)
W3 = r4 2 r5 1 r7 1 r8 1 + r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 r8 1 W4 = r4 1 r8 2 + r4 2 r8 1 + r1 1 r4 2 + r8 2 + r1 2 r4 1 r8 1 (H.69) W5 = r5 2 r7 1 r7 1 r8 2 + r5 1 r7 2 + r8 2 +r4 1 r5 2 r7 1 + r7 1 r8 2 + r5 1 r7 2 r8 2
(H.68) (H.70) (H.71) (H.72)
W6 = r3 1 r6 2 r3 2 r6 1 + r2 1 r3 2 r6 2 + r2 2 r3 1 + r6 1 W7 = r3 1 r6 2 r5 2 + r7 2 + r6 2 r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 +r3 2 r5 1 r7 2 r6 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r6 1 r7 1
W8 = r3 2 r6 1 r5 1 + r7 1 + r6 1 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 +r3 1 r5 2 r7 1 r6 2 r7 1 + r5 1 r6 2 r7 2
(H.73)
143
W10 = r2 1 r6 2 r5 2 r7 2 + r6 2 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 r2 2 r6 1 r5 1 r7 1 r6 1 r5 1 r7 2
W9 = r3 1 r6 2 + r3 2 r6 1 + r2 1 r3 2 + r6 2 + r2 2 r3 1 r6 1 (H.74) +r2 2 r5 1 r7 2 + r6 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r6 1 + r7 1
(H.75) (H.76)
W11 =
W12 = r1 1 r5 2 + r7 2 r8 2 + r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 r8 2 W13 = r1 2 r5 1 + r7 1 r8 1 + r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 r8 1 + r1 1 W5 +r1 2 r5 1 r7 2 r7 2 r8 1 + r5 2 r7 1 + r8 1
+r2 1 r5 2 r7 1 + r6 2 r7 1 + r5 1 r6 2 + r7 2
r5 2 r7 1
(H.77) (H.78) (H.79) (H.80)
W16 = r2 1 r3 2 r5 2 + r7 2 + r3 2 r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 W17 = r2 2 r3 1 r5 1 + r7 1 + r3 1 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 W18 = r1 1 r4 2 r5 2 r7 2 + r4 2 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 r1 2 r4 1 r5 1 r7 1 r4 1 r5 1 r7 2 +r2 1 r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 + r3 2 r5 1 r7 1 +r2 2 r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 + r3 1 r5 2 r7 2
W15 = r5 2 r7 1 + r7 1 r8 2 + r5 1 r7 2 r8 2
W14 = r5 1 r7 2 + r7 2 r8 1 + r5 2 r7 1 r8 1
(H.81) (H.82)
+r1 2 r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 + r4 1 r5 2 + r7 2
(H.83)
W19 =
W20 = r5 1 r7 2 r5 2 r7 1 + r4 1 r5 2 r7 2
+r1 1 r5 1 r7 2 + r5 2 r7 1 + r4 2 r5 1 r7 1
r5 2 r7 1
(H.84) (H.85)
144
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Gkarlis-BEM Solutions For Linear Elastic and Fracture Mechanics Problems With Micro Structural Effects

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Gkarlis-BEM Solutions For Linear Elastic and Fracture Mechanics Problems With Micro Structural Effects

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BEM Solutions for Linear Elastic and Fracture Mechanics Problems with Microstructural Eects

I would like to dedicate this thesis to my loving parents and brother.

Integrations over a three noded quadratic line special element 71

Integrations over an eight-noded quadrilateral special element 78

5 Conclusions and Future Work A Form I, II & III Constants

F Taylor expansion of the position vector

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Subscripts L[i,j] The anti-symmetric part of second order tensor L

L(i,j) The symmetric part of second order tensor L

1.1 Linear elastic theories with microstructural eects

1.2 Numerical solutions in gradient elastic theories

Table 1.1: Works on size eects on specic materials

Numerical solutions in gradient elastic theories

1.3 Gradient elastic fracture mechanics

Gradient elastic fracture mechanics

1.4 Structure of the thesis

Structure of the thesis

Chapter 2 Mindlins Theory of Elasticity with Microstructure

Figure 2.1: The one dimensional continuum

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

Relation (2.4) leads to the following very interesting remarks:

2.1 General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity

iii. The term

indicates that the problem can be solved if one formulates

General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

2.1 General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity

Figure 2.3: Kinematic parameters of Mindlins theory of elasticity with microstructure

Equations of Equilibrium and Boundary Conditions

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

2.1 General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity

nj (jk i ijk ) uk dS (2.21) j (jk i ijk ) uk dV +

(i ijk + jk + jk ) jk dV [tj ni (ij + ij )] uj dS + (Tjk ni ijk ) jk dS = 0

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

2.1 General Strain Gradient Theory of Elasticity

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

with and depending on the potential energy density function coecients. =

2.2 Form I, II and III Gradient Elasticity Theories

with = , = and 1 -5 presented in Appendix A. This form is refereed to as Form II.

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory

2.3 Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory

Theory General Strain Gradient Elasticity Theory

Potential Energy Density function

Mindlins Form III

1 W = 2 ii jj + ij ij + 2d1 ij ij + 2d2 ij ji + 3 2 1 iij kkj + 2 ijk ijk + f eijk ij kll

1 1 W = 2 ii jj + ij ij + 2 g2 ijj ikk + g2 ijk ijk

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

where = ij xi xj , a b = ai bj xi xj and (a b c)213 = b a c. The I

nj (jk i ijk ) uk dS (2.61) j (jk i ijk ) uk dV +

2.3 Form II Gradient Elasticity Theory

potential energy. These calculations are presented in detail in Appendix B. W dV =

j (jk i ijk ) uk dV [nj jk ni nj D ijk 2ni Di ijk + (ni nj Dl nl Dj ni ) muijk ] dS

(2.62) with D nl l , Dj (jl nj nl ) l , mj = emlj sm nl and sm being the components

2. MINDLINS THEORY OF ELASTICITY WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

2.4 Integral Representation of the Form II Gradient Elastic Problem

Integral Representation of the Form II Gradient Elastic Problem

Reciprocal Integral Identity

to the Form I gradient elasticity theory, in accordance to Mindlin (1964). From

second or higher order.