BM2203 SENSORS AND MEASUREMENTS

Assignment No.1 UNIT I: SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENTS 2 Marks 1. What is measurement? What are the two basic requirements of any measurement? Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a predefined standard. Requirements The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

2. What is measurement and how it is classified. Direct method measurand value compared with standard quantity Indirect method- measurand value compared indirectly with standard quantity 3. Draw the block diagram of a measurement system giving the function of each block.

4. List the advantages of an electronic measurement. Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the electrical or electronic signals. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured.

The measurement signals can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for automatic analysis and recording.

5. How the performance characteristics of an instrument are classified? Static characteristics for the instruments for the input changes slowly with time; constant input Dynamic - characteristics for the instruments for the input changes rapidly with time

The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behavior between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady value in response. As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic characteristics quoted in instrument data sheets only apply when the instrument is used under specified environmental conditions. 6. Define and explain the following static characteristics of an instrument Accuracy Degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of quantity to be measured. Precision: degree of freedom from random errors (confused with accuracy!) Repeatability: closeness to output when input is repeated ( same conditions. e.g. instrument, observer, location) Reproducibility : repeatability if conditions vary Static error :Deviation from true value of measured value Resolution-Smallest measurable change, Minimum input produces detectable change in output. Sensitivity-Change in output at a given input change : scale deflection/value of measurand producing deflection = slope of fitted line Threshold smallest measuranle input for which system responds Zero drift-slow variation in output even when input does not change Linearity- maximum deviation in output from fitted line (% full scale) Stability- ability to maintain or retain its performance throughout its life.

7. Differentiate precision and accuracy of measurement system with example. Precision: degree of freedom from random errors (confused with accuracy!) Accuracy Degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of quantity to be measured.

8. Differentiate zero drift and span drift.

9. How the instruments are classified? Explain with suitable examples. Transducers are classified according to their application, method of energy conversions and nature of the output signal. Active and passive instruments Null-type and deflection-type instruments Analogue and digital instruments Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output Smart and non-smart instruments

10. Define a dynamic response of an instrument. The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behavior between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady value in response. Such response is called dynamic response. 11. What are the two basic factors in specifying the dynamic performance of an instrumentation system? Fidelity Speed of response Measuring lag

Rapidly varying input

12. A 0 150V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent full scale reading. The voltage measured by this instrument is 93 V. Calculate the limiting error in percent.

13. The value of International ampere was based on what phenomenon. One ampere is the current flowing through two infinitely long parallel conductors of negligible cross-section placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum and producing a force of 2 10 7 newtons per metre length of conductor 14. Define a Transducer. A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, Electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer (for example, pressure sensors). 15. How are transducers, classified based on physical effect? Types of transducers: Electromagnetic:

Antenna - converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and vice versa. Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts electrical signals into visual form Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts electrical power into visible light Magnetic cartridge - converts motion into electrical form Photodetector or Photoresistor (LDR) - converts changes in light levels into resistance changes Tape head - converts changing magnetic fields into electrical form Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic field level into electrical form only. Electrochemical: pH probes Electro-galvanic fuel cell Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called actuators):

Electroactive polymers Galvanometer ,MEMS ,Rotary motor, linear motor ,Vibration powered generator ,Potentiometer when used for measuring position Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauge Accelerometer Strain gauge String Potentiometer Electroacoustic: Geophone - convert a ground movement (displacement) into voltage Gramophone pick-up Hydrophone - converts changes in water pressure into an electrical form Loudspeaker, earphone - converts changes in electrical signals into acoustic form Microphone - converts changes in air pressure into an electrical signal Piezoelectric crystal - converts pressure changes into electrical form Tactile transducer Photoelectric: Laser diode, light-emitting diode - convert electrical power into forms of light Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier tube - converts changing light levels into electrical form Electrostatic: Electrometer Thermoelectric: RTD Resistance Temperature Detector Thermocouple Peltier cooler Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor) Radioacoustic: Geiger-Mller tube used for measuring radioactivity. Receiver (radio) 16. Define primary and secondary transducers with application examples.

The instrument which gives the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of the physical constants of the instrument,is called primary transducer. Ex.Tangent galvanometer The instrument in which the reading shown by the instrument gives directly the measurement of the quanity to be measured is called secondary transducer.Ex.Ammeter 17. Differentiate active and passive instruments. Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source. This is illustrated by examples. An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device. The pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure measured: there are no other energy inputs to the system. An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level indicator. Here, the change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer. The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source: the primary transducer float system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external power source. In active instruments, the external power source is usually in electrical form, but in some cases,it can be other forms of energy such as a pneumatic or hydraulic one. 18. A 0-10 A ammeter has an accuracy of 1.5%of full scale reading .The current indicated by the ammeter is 2.5 A. Calculate the limiting values of current and percentage limiting error.

20. A 0- 150 V voltmeter reads 90V, find the percentage limiting error if the instrument has the limiting error if the limiting error of 1%.Find the limiting error if the meter reads 70V.

21. Discuss the classes of systematic errors giving suitable example for each type. Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a measurement system that are consistently on one side of the correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are positive or they are all negative. Systematic errors in the output of many instruments are due to factors inherent in the manufacture of the instrument arising out of tolerances in the components of the instrument. They can also arise due to wear in instrument components over a period of time. In other cases, systematic errors are introduced either by the effect of environmental disturbances or through the disturbance of the measured system by the act of measurement.

22. Differentiate between electrical and mechanical transducers. Give the examples of mechanical transducers. Give the merits and drawbacks of mechanical transducers.

23. Distinguish between transducers and sensors. The term transducer is commonly used in two senses; the sensor, used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another (usually an electrical or digital signal), and the audio loudspeaker, which converts electrical voltage variations representing music or speech, to mechanical cone vibration and hence vibrates air molecules creating acoustical energy. 24. What is the need of a transducer? To convert non electrical quantities into electrical quantities. 25. What is an input device? An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with the quantity to be measured is Input device and also gives input to the measurement system.

26. What are the types of errors possible in an instrument? Instrumental error: Due to Short comings of instrument Misuse of instrument incorrect readings Overloading effects

Environmental error: Due to Changes in ambient conditions

Observational error: Due to 27. Explain the terms relative error and relative percentage error. Misreading Wrong observations

28. What is SI system of units? State the fundamental and supplementary SI units. The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French language name Systme International d'Units) is the modern, revised form of the metric system. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. At its development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric system. There are two types of SI units, base and derived units. Base units are the simple measurements for time, length, mass, temperature, and amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are made up of base units, for example density is kg/m3.

29. Define and explain the term 'Calibration'. All instruments suffer drift in their characteristics, and the rate at which this happens depends on many factors, such as the environmental conditions in which instruments are used and the frequency of their use. Thus, errors due to instruments being out of calibration can usually be rectified by increasing the frequency of recalibration. 30. What is standard? Which are the different types of standards? Standards: Laws to regulate measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud. Standard is the physical representation of units of measured values. However, units of measurement are now generally defined on a scientific basis, and are established by international treaties. In the United States, commercial measurements are regulated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST, a division of the United States Department of Commerce. Types of Standards International Primary Secondary working

31. What is the difference between international and absolute standards? International standards are defined as the international agreementmaintained at the International Bureau of weights and measures and used for evaluation of primary standards. Primary standards-accurate absolute standards, used as ultimate reference standards-maintained at National Standard Laboratories and used for evaluation of secondary standards. 32. What are primary standards? Where are they used? Primary standards-accurate absolute standards, used as ultimate reference standards-maintained at National Standard Laboratories and used for evaluation of secondary standards. 33. What is the difference between secondary and working standards? Secondary standards

To protect highly accurate primary standards the secondary standards are maintained, which are designed and constructed from the absolute standardsmaintained by the particular industry to which they belong. Working standards These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to check and calibrate the instruments used in laboratory for accuracy and the performance.

16 Marks

1. 2.

Discuss the basic characteristics of measuring device. What is the importance of static characteristics of measurement system?

3. List down the various types of errors in measurement and brief about the sources, causes and prevention of the same. 4. Differentiate random and systematic errors with example.

5. Classify different types of standards used in measurement and explain their scope of application. 6. Compare the features of various transducers.

7. List down the various standards used for depicting the parameters such s capacitance, inductance resistance and electrical safety. 8. How transducers classified and what are are the main characteristics of pressure transducer. 9. 10. 11. Summarize the possible sources of error in instruments Explain how error compensation is achieved in digital instruments. Define the primary standards for the following with example.

Mass, length, Time, Current, Temperature, Luminous intensity. 12. 13. Explain how secondary standards are derived? List any six basic requirements of transducers?

14. A voltmeter has sensitivity of 1.5 k/volt and it reads 75 volts on its 150V range when connected across an unknown resistor in series with a milli ammeter. The ammeter reads 20 mA. Calculate the apparent resistance, actual resistance of unknown resistor, error due to loading effect of voltmeter and percentage relative accuracy. 15. Write down the various steps involved in the process of calibration.

Assignment No.2

UNIT II: DISPLACEMENT, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE SENSORS

2 Marks

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is strain gauge? Where is strain gauge used? Why strain gauges are called the piezo-resistive strain gauge? What are thermistors? What are Rosettes?

6. Why thermistor is well suited to precision temperature measurement, control and compensation. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Where is LVDT used? What are the common materials used for piezoelectric transducers? Explain Dynaloy. What are force summing devices? Draw the sketch of a turbine flow meter. Give a schematic equivalent for capacitive interference Draw the sketch of Thermocouple and mention its application. Give the biomedical applications of capacitive transducers.

15. The mechanical elements used to convert the applied force into displaced are known as what? Give two examples.

16 Marks

1. Explain the construction and working of a strain gauge. Describe the various uses of this gauge. Discuss its application for force measurements. 2. 3. Compare the three types of strain gauges. Give their merits and demerits. Compare the three types of strain gauges. Give their merits and demerits.

4. Describe the construction and working of vibrating diaphragm pressure transducer with a neat sketch. 5. What are the various principles of operations of capacitive transducers? Explain them. Give merits, demerits and applications of capacitive transducers. 6. What is an LVDT? Explain its working with necessary diagrams and characteristics. What are its advantages and uses? 7. What are passive transducers? How they are classified? Explain its types and applications.

8. Explain the principle of working and construction of an electrical resistance thermometer. In what temperature range it is used. 9. What are thermistors? Explain how thermistors can be used for temperature measurements. 10. What are the characteristics of thermistor? Explain its application as incubator. 11. Give construction and explain working of a thermocouple. Give the merits, demerits and applications of thermocouples.

Assignment No.3

UNIT III: PHOTOELECTRIC AND PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

2 Marks 1. What is meant by optoelectronic device?

2. What is the difference between photo emissive, photo c conductive and photovoltaic cells? 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What is the disadvantage of multiplier phototubes? What is the main drawback of the photoconductive cells? What are photoconductive cells? Name some devices used for photo detection. What is photodiode? What is photoelectric effect? How phototubes are classified? What is meant by piezoelectric effect? Name some materials used for the construction of piezoelectric transducers. Differentiate photo electric sensors from piezoelectric sensors. What is working principle of ultra sound transducers?

16 Marks

1. Explain the construction and operation of a multiplier phototube. Draw its typical anode characteristics, advantages, drawbacks and applications. 2. Describe the construction and working of a photovoltaic cell. Draw its typical characteristics and give its merits, demerits and applications. 3. What is a photodiode? Give its biasing arrangement and construction. Give its one or two applications. 4. Describe the construction and working of gas filled phototube. How does it differ from a vacuum phototube in construction? Draw its anode characteristics .Give its advantages, drawbacks and applications. 5. How does piezoelectric transducer work? What are the common materials used for it? Describe an expression for its (i) voltage and (ii) charge sensitivities. Draw an equivalent circuit for this transducer. Write uses of piezoelectric materials and transducer 6. Analyze how acoustic sensors are used in ultrasonic scanning equipments.

7. Explain with suitable diagrams the measurement of flow using ultrasonic sensors. 8. Compare the working principle and biomedical applications of following: Photo conductive cell, Photo voltaic cell, Photo transistor, Photo diodes. 9. With a suitable diagram explain the construction and working of spectrophotometer with biomedical applications.

Assignment No.4

UNIT IV SIGNAL CONDITIONING & SIGNAL ANALYSER

2 Marks 1. 2. Name the commonly used detectors for ac bridges. Name the detector used for bridge measurements at radio frequencies.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What are the merits and demerits of Maxwell Wein Bridge? What is Wein Bridge? What are its uses? List the factors that may lead to inaccuracies in measurements by Ac Bridge. What is meant by spectrum analyzer? What is MDS in a spectrum analyzer? What is meant by dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer?

9. For measurement of high frequency, what is the function of a transfer oscillator? 10. 11. 12. 13. List the features of spectrum analyzers. Write down the balancing condition of wheat stone bridge circuit. What is an attenuator? Distinguish it from an amplifier. In a linear device, the output is generally described by. What equation.

16 Marks

1.

Describe the working of Hay's bridge for the measurement of inductance.

2. Why is Schering Bridge particularly suitable for measurement at high voltage? 3. Explain how Maxwell's inductance-capacitance bridge is used for the measurement of inductance of a coil. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the bridge? 4. Describe how Schering Bridge can be used for measurement of unknown capacitance and its loss angle. Derive the conditions of balance and draw the phasor diagram of the bridge circuit under conditions of balance. 5. Draw the block diagram of spectrum analyzer and explain its working with an application example. 6. What is Wein-network? Determine the condition for zero phase shift between its input and output. 7. With a neat circuit diagram explain the generation of variable Frequency sine generator with amplitude stabilization.

8. Draw the block diagram of logic analyzer and explain its working with an application example. 9. i. ii. Explain the working of the following with neat sketches Kelvin bridge Schering bridge

Assignment No.5

UNIT V: DISPLAY AND RECORDING DEVICES

2 Marks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. What is a recorder? What is the necessity of the recorders? What is the main recording requirement? What are strip chart recorders? Why strip chart recorders are also called the x-t recorders? What is a CRT? What is a CRO? What are the major components of a CRO? Mention the two applications of DSO. Mention different types of probes used in CRO. What is a digital voltmeter? What are its advantages? What is the principle of operation of a DVM? Name the different types of DVMs. What is DMM? What are the advantages of LCDs over LEDs? What is the display devices used in digital instruments?

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

List two guarding techniques used in digital instruments. What are the merits of digital meters over analog meters? Describe the working principle of sampling oscilloscope. Define deflection sensitivity and band width of CRO. Define guarantee error and confidence level. The performance of a beat frequency oscillator depends on what factors.

23. Distinguish the types of motors used in analog X-Y recorder and digital X-Y recorder respectively. 24. The laser printer is comparatively faster than line, dot matrix and inkjet printers. Why? 25. 26. 27. Define deflection sensitivity of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. What are various elements of magnetic tape recorder? How are digital meters classified as?

28. For reading punched cards in the data processing industry, what types of transducers are deployed and why are they preferred. 29. 30. What are known as Lissajous patterns w.r.t. CRO. Why Oscilloscope probe compensation adjusted?

16 Marks 1. Draw the block diagram of 3 digit multimeter and explain the function of each block. 2. How is it used for A.C. voltage and current measurements?

3. What is an X-Y recorder? How it is different from X-t or Y-t recorder? Describe its functioning giving suitable circuit diagram. Give its merits, demerits and applications. 4. Explain with the suitable diagram the CRT recorder.

5. Describe with the help of suitable diagrams, the basic components of magnetic tape recorder. Give its operating principle, advantages and applications.

6. How do you maintain the accuracy in DVM? Also how is automation in voltmeters established? 7. Note down the specifications of a digital multi meter and state the principle of coherent sampling and incoherent sampling and how they are used in digital instrumentation. 8. Discuss the functioning of a multichannel column display oscilloscope with suitable sketches. 9. How is digital data recording performed by synchronous digital; recoding? What are its merits and demerits? 10. What is a digital voltmeter (DVM)? What are its advantages? List different types of DVMs.How can a DVM be used for measurement of (i) current and (ii) resistance. 11. Enlist the advantages of the special oscilloscope over a conventional type. Also discuss the working of a sampling scope. 12. a. b. 13. 14. Write brief notes on Magnetic recorder Multichannel column display oscilloscope Describe the working of storage oscilloscope with a neat sketch. Write a not on Lissajous figures.

15. Discuss in detail with necessary diagrams the construction and working of magnetic tape recorder. 16. What is the limiting frequency for a magnetic tape recorder which has a gap of width 5 micro-meters and is used with a tape speed of 95.5mm/s. 17. 18. Describe the working of cathode ray oscilloscope with a neat sketch. Explain how Lissajous figures help in making phase measurements.

19. Discuss the construction and working of servo type recorder in detail with necessary diagrams. How does it help to record bio signals?