GPS Compendium (GPS X 02007)

GPS
Essentials of
Satellite Navigation
Compendium
Abstract
TheoryandPrinciplesofSatelliteNavigation.
OverviewofGPS/GNSSSystemsandApplications.
www.u-blox.com
locate,communicate,accelerate
GPS-Compendium
Document Information
Title
GPS
Subtitle
Essentialsof
SatelliteNavigation
Document type
Compendium
Document number
GPS-X-02007-D
Document status
Released
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canbedownloadedfromwww.u-blox.com.
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changestospecificationsandproductdescriptionsatanytimewithoutnotice.
u-bloxreservesallrightstothisdocumentandtheinformationcontainedherein.Reproduction,useordisclosuretothirdpartieswithout
expresspermissionisstrictlyprohibited.Copyright2009,u-bloxAG.
GPS-X-02007-D
Page 2 of 174
GPS-Compendium
Foreword
Where on Earth am I?
The answer to this seemingly simple
question can sometimes be a matter of
life and death. Consider an aviator trying
to find a safe destination to land, or the
crew of a ship in distress seeking
assistance, or a hiker in the mountains
disoriented by poor weather conditions.
Your position on Earth is of vital
importance and can have an immense
varietyofimplicationsandapplications.
These neednt be as dramatic as the
circumstances above, but there can be
situations that also have a significant
impact on our daily lives. How do I find
that address that Ive been searching for,
how can businesses keep track of their
mobile assets, how do governments
implement road-pricing systems, or when
and where should the public transit
vehicle trigger the next traffic light? The
potentialapplicationsandusesofposition
information are seemingly limitless. Our
position on this blue planet has always
been vitally important to human beings
andtodayourexactpositionissomething
thatwecanobtainwithastonishingease.
Amongthemoststunningtechnologicaldevelopmentsinrecentyearshavebeentheimmenseadvancesinthe
realm of satellite navigation or Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) technologies. In a matter of a few
years,satellitenavigationhasevolvedfromthelevelofsciencefictiontosciencefactwithadynamicandrapidly
growing industry providing customers around the world with technology devoted to the rapid, reliable and
readilyavailabledeterminationoftheirposition.
As global leaders in this fascinating and rapidly changing industry, u-blox AG is a team of dedicated satellite
navigation enthusiasts with a tradition of innovation and quality. As part of our commitment to customer
service,u-bloxispleasedtobeabletoprovideyouwiththiscompendiumtohelpleadyouintotheremarkable
worldofsatellitenavigation.
The aimofthis book is toprovidea comprehensiveoverview ofthe way inwhich satellitenavigation systems
functionandtheapplicationsinwhichtheycanbeused.Thecurrentlevelofdevelopmentaswellaschanges
and new advances will be examined. It is written for users who are interested in the technology as well as
specialistsinvolvedinsatellitenavigationapplications.Thedocumentisstructuredinsuchawaythatthereader
can graduate from simple facts to more complex concepts. The basic theory of satellite navigation will be
introducedandsupplementedbyotherimportantfacets.Thiscompendiumisintendedtoadditionallyserveas
anaidinunderstandingthetechnologythatgoesspecificallyintocurrentsatellitenavigationreceivers,modules
andICs.Importantnewdevelopmentswillbedealtwithinseparatesections.Acquiringanunderstandingofthe
various current coordinate systems involved in using GNSS equipment can be a difficult task. Therefore, a
separatechapterisdevotedtointroducingcartography.
Wehopethatthisdocumentwillbeofassistancetoyouandthatyouwillbeasenthusiasticasweareaboutthe
technology involved in determining position. It is indeed an immensely fascinating world and industry that
answersthequestionwhereonEarthamI?
GPS-X-02007-D
Copyright2009u-bloxAG
Foreword
Page 3 of 174
GPS-Compendium
Authors preface
In1990,IwastravelingbytrainfromChurtoBrigintheSwisscantonofValais.Inordertopassthetimeduring
the journey, I had brought along a few trade journals with me. While thumbing through an American
publication,Icameacrossatechnicalarticlethatdescribedanewpositioningandnavigationsysteminvolving
satellites.Thenewsystem,knownasGlobalPositioningSystemorGPS,employedanumberofUSsatellitesto
determineonespositionanywhereintheworldtowithinanaccuracyofabout100m 1 .
Asanavidsportsmanandmountainhiker,Ihadonmanyoccasionsendedupinprecarioussituationsduetoa
lackofknowledgeoftheareaIwasin.Therefore,Iwasfascinatedbytherevolutionaryprospectofbeingableto
determinemypositioneveninfogoratnightbyusingaGPSreceiver.
IbegantointensivelyoccupymyselfwithGPS,arousingagreatdealofenthusiasmforthistechnologyamong
studentsatmyuniversity,whichresultedinseveralresearchsemestersandgraduatethesesonthesubject.With
time I felt that I had become a true expert on the subject and wrote technical articles about GPS for various
publications.
Why read this book?

The development of the many new and fascinating potential applications of satellite navigation requires an
appreciationofthewayinwhichthesesystemsfunction.Ifyouarefamiliarwiththetechnicalbackgroundofthe
system, it becomes possible to develop and use new positioning and navigation equipment. As well as the
possibilities,thisbookalsolooksatsomeofthelimitationsofthesysteminordertoprotectyoufromunrealistic
expectations.
How did this book come about?

In2000IdecidedtoreducetheamountoftimeIspentlecturingatmyuniversityinordertogainanoverviewof
thecommercialsatellitenavigationindustry.Mydesirewastoworkforacompanydirectlyinvolvedwithsatellite
navigation and just such a company was u-blox AG, who received me with open arms. u-blox asked me to
produce a brochure that they could give to their customers, and this compendium is the result and is a
summationofearlierarticlesandnewlycompiledchapters.
A heartfelt wish
Iwishyoueverysuccessasyouembarkonyourjourneythroughthewide-rangingworldofsatellitenavigation
andtrustthatyouwillsuccessfullynavigateyourwaythroughthisfascinatingtechnicalfield.Enjoyyourread!
ForquestionsorifyoufinderrorsinthisbookpleasecontactusatGPScompendium@u-blox.com.
Jean-MarieZogg
October2001
July2006
February2009
Thatwasin1990,positionaldataisnowaccuratetowithin5to10m!
GPS-X-02007-D
Authorspreface
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Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................3
Authors preface.................................................................................................................4
Contents..............................................................................................................................5
Introduction......................................................................................................................10
1
Satellite navigation made simple..............................................................................12

1.1
Theprincipleofmeasuringsignaltransittime ..................................................................................... 12
1.1.1
Basicprinciplesofsatellitenavigation .......................................................................................... 13
1.1.2
Signaltraveltime......................................................................................................................... 15
1.1.3
Determiningposition................................................................................................................... 16
1.1.4
Theeffectandcorrectionoftimeerror........................................................................................ 17
Coordinate systems....................................................................................................18
2.1
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 18
2.2
Geoid ................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.3
Ellipsoidanddatum ............................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.1
Ellipsoid....................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2
Customizedlocalreferenceellipsoidsanddatum......................................................................... 20
2.3.3
Nationalreferencesystems .......................................................................................................... 21
2.3.4
WorldwidereferenceellipsoidWGS-84 ....................................................................................... 21
2.3.5
Transformationfromlocaltoworldwidereferenceellipsoid......................................................... 22
2.3.6
Convertingcoordinatesystems.................................................................................................... 24
2.4
Planarregionalcoordinates,projection ............................................................................................... 24
2.4.1
Gauss-Krgerprojection(TransversalMercatorProjection) .......................................................... 25
2.4.2
UTMprojection ........................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.3
Swissprojectionsystem(ConformalDoubleProjection) ............................................................... 27
2.4.4
Worldwideconversionofcoordinates.......................................................................................... 28
2.5
Georeferencingofrastermaps ........................................................................................................... 29
2.5.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 29
2.5.2
Basicsoftransformation .............................................................................................................. 29
2.5.3
Determiningthetransformationcoordinate................................................................................. 29
2.5.4
Determiningthetransformationparametersa,b,c,d,e,f .......................................................... 30
2.5.5
Example(rastermaptoWGS84).................................................................................................. 32
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Foundations of satellite technology .........................................................................34

3.1
Keplerslaws ...................................................................................................................................... 34
3.1.1
Keplersfirstlaw.......................................................................................................................... 34
3.1.2
Keplerssecondlaw..................................................................................................................... 34
3.1.3
Keplersthirdlaw ........................................................................................................................ 35
3.2
Satelliteorbits..................................................................................................................................... 36
3.3
Orbitalaltitude ................................................................................................................................... 38
3.4
Radiofrequencies ............................................................................................................................... 39
3.5
Timesystems ...................................................................................................................................... 40
3.5.1
InternationalAtomicTime(TAI) ................................................................................................... 40
3.5.2
CoordinatedUniversalTime(UTC)............................................................................................... 40
3.5.3
GPSTime..................................................................................................................................... 40
3.5.4
SatelliteTime............................................................................................................................... 40
3.5.5
LocalTime ................................................................................................................................... 41
GNSS technology: the GPS example .........................................................................42

4.1
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 42
4.2
Descriptionoftheentiresystem.......................................................................................................... 42
4.3
Spacesegment ................................................................................................................................... 43
4.3.1
Satellitedistributionandmovement ............................................................................................ 43
4.3.2
TheGPSsatellites ........................................................................................................................ 46
4.3.3
Generatingthesatellitesignal ..................................................................................................... 48
4.4
Controlsegment ................................................................................................................................ 51
4.4.1
4.5
Usersegment ..................................................................................................................................... 52
4.6
TheGPSmessage ............................................................................................................................... 56
4.6.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 56
4.6.2
Structureofthenavigationmessage ........................................................................................... 56
4.6.3
Informationcontainedinthesubframes ...................................................................................... 57
4.6.4
TLMandHOW ............................................................................................................................ 57
4.6.5
Subdivisionofthe25pages......................................................................................................... 58
4.6.6
Comparisonbetweenephemerisandalmanacdata..................................................................... 58
4.7
GPSmodernization............................................................................................................................. 60
4.7.1
Newmodulationprocedure,BOCandMBOC.............................................................................. 60
4.7.2
GPSmodernization...................................................................................................................... 64
GLONASS, GALILEO and Beidou/Compass................................................................66

5.1
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 66
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Deactivationpossibilitiesandartificialdistortionofthesignal(SA)............................................... 51
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5.2
GLONASS:theRussiansystem ............................................................................................................ 67
5.2.1
5.3
Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 71
5.3.2
ProjectedGALILEOservices.......................................................................................................... 72
5.3.3
Accuracy ..................................................................................................................................... 74
5.3.4
GALILEOtechnology.................................................................................................................... 75
5.3.5
MostimportantpropertiesofthethreeGNSSsystems................................................................. 79
TheChinesesystemBeidou1andBeidou2/Compass......................................................................... 80
5.4.1
Currentsystem:Beidou1 ............................................................................................................ 80
5.4.2
Futuresystem:Beidou2/Compass ............................................................................................... 80
Calculating position ...................................................................................................81

6.1
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 81
6.2
Calculatingaposition ......................................................................................................................... 81
6.2.1
Theprincipleofmeasuringsignaltraveltime(evaluationofpseudorange)................................... 81
6.2.2
Linearizationoftheequation....................................................................................................... 83
6.2.3
Solvingtheequation ................................................................................................................... 85
6.2.4
Summary..................................................................................................................................... 85
6.3
Determinationoftraveltimeindetail.................................................................................................. 86
6.3.1
Timesystems ............................................................................................................................... 86
6.3.2
Determinationoftraveltimeindetail .......................................................................................... 86
6.3.3
Determinationoftraveltimeerror ............................................................................................... 89
6.3.4
Additionalinfluencesaffectingtraveltime................................................................................... 89
6.4
GALILEO ............................................................................................................................................. 71
5.3.1
5.4
ErroranalysisandDOP........................................................................................................................ 90
6.4.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 90
6.4.2
Theinfluenceofsatellitegeometryonaccuracy,theDOPvalue................................................... 91
Improved GPS: DGPS, SBAS, A-GPS and HSGPS .....................................................100

7.1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 100
7.2
SourcesofGPSerror......................................................................................................................... 100
7.3
Possibilitiesforreducingthemeasurementerror............................................................................... 101
7.3.1
DGPSbasedonsignaltraveltimedelaymeasurement ............................................................... 103
7.3.2
DGPSbasedoncarrierphasemeasurement............................................................................... 106
7.3.3
DGPSpost-processing(signaltraveltimeandphasemeasurement) ........................................... 106
7.3.4
Transmittingthecorrectiondata................................................................................................ 107
7.3.5
DGPSclassificationaccordingtothebroadcastrange ................................................................ 108
7.3.6
Standardsforthetransmissionofcorrectionsignals .................................................................. 108
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CompletionofGLONASS............................................................................................................. 68
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7.3.7
7.4
DGPSservicesforreal-timecorrection............................................................................................... 110
7.4.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 110
7.4.2
TerrestrialservicesbasedonRTCMSC-104 ............................................................................... 110
7.4.3
SatelliteservicesbasedonRTCMSC-104 .................................................................................. 111
7.5
WideAreaDGPS(WADGPS) ............................................................................................................. 112
7.5.1
Satellitebasedaugmentationsystems,SBAS(WAAS,EGNOS) ................................................... 112
7.5.2
Overviewofexistingandplannedsystems................................................................................. 113
7.5.3
OverviewofplannedRNSS ........................................................................................................ 115
7.5.4
SBASsystemdescription............................................................................................................ 116
7.5.5
SatelliteDGPSservicesusingRTCMSC-104............................................................................... 117
7.6
AchievableaccuracywithDGPSandSBAS ........................................................................................ 118
7.7
Assisted-GPS(A-GPS,AGPS) ............................................................................................................. 118
7.7.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 118
7.7.2
PrincipleofA-GPS ..................................................................................................................... 119
7.7.3
Referencenetwork .................................................................................................................... 121
7.7.4
A-GPSnetwork ......................................................................................................................... 121
7.7.5
A-GPSwithonlineaidingdata(real-timeA-GPS) ....................................................................... 122
7.7.6
A-GPSwithofflineaidingdata(predictedorbits) ....................................................................... 123
7.7.7
Architectures ............................................................................................................................. 124
7.7.8
Controlplanearchitecture......................................................................................................... 124
7.7.9
Userplanearchitecture.............................................................................................................. 125
7.7.10
Architectureadvantages............................................................................................................ 125
7.7.11
OMA-SecureUserPlaneLocationArchitecture(OMA-SUPL) ...................................................... 126
7.8
HighSensitivityGPS(HSGPS) ............................................................................................................ 127
7.8.1
Improvedoscillatorstability ....................................................................................................... 127
7.8.2
Antennas................................................................................................................................... 127
7.8.3
Noisefigureconsiderations........................................................................................................ 128
7.8.4
Correlatorsandcorrelationtime ................................................................................................ 128
7.9
GNSS-repeaterorre-radiationantenna............................................................................................. 129
7.10
Overviewofthedifferentcorrectionservices ............................................................................. 109
Pseudolitesforindoorapplications ................................................................................................ 129
Data formats and hardware interfaces...................................................................130

8.1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 130
8.2
Datainterfaces ................................................................................................................................. 131
8.2.1
TheNMEA-0183datainterface ................................................................................................. 131
8.2.2
ConversionfromNMEAtoKML ................................................................................................ 142
8.2.3
TheDGPScorrectiondata(RTCMSC-104)................................................................................. 145
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8.2.4
8.3
Proprietarydatainterfaces......................................................................................................... 150
Hardwareinterfaces ......................................................................................................................... 153
8.3.1
Antennas................................................................................................................................... 153
8.3.2
Supply ....................................................................................................................................... 154
8.3.3
Timepulse:1PPSandtimesystems............................................................................................ 155
8.3.4
ConvertingtheTTLleveltoRS-232............................................................................................ 155
GNSS RECEIVERS.......................................................................................................158
9.1
BasicsofGNSShandheldreceivers.................................................................................................... 158
9.2
GNSSreceivermodules..................................................................................................................... 159
9.2.1
BasicdesignofaGNSSmodule ................................................................................................. 159
10 GNSS applications ....................................................................................................161

10.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 161
10.2
Descriptionofthevariousapplications .......................................................................................... 162
10.2.1
LocationBasedServices(LBS)..................................................................................................... 162
10.2.2
Commerceandindustry ............................................................................................................ 162
10.2.3
Communicationstechnology ..................................................................................................... 163
10.2.4
Agricultureandforestry............................................................................................................. 164
10.2.5
Scienceandresearch ................................................................................................................. 164
10.2.6
Tourismandsport ..................................................................................................................... 166
10.2.7
Military...................................................................................................................................... 166
10.2.8
Timemeasurement.................................................................................................................... 166
Appendix ........................................................................................................................167
A Resources in the World Wide Web..........................................................................167
A.1
Summaryreportsandlinks ............................................................................................................... 167
A.2
DifferentialGPS ................................................................................................................................ 167
A.3
GPSinstitutes ................................................................................................................................... 167
A.4
GNSSnewsgroupandGNSStechnicaljournal................................................................................... 168
Index .........................................................................................................................169
B.1
Listoffigures.................................................................................................................................... 169
B.2
Listoftables ..................................................................................................................................... 172
B.3
Sources............................................................................................................................................. 173
Revision history ........................................................................................................174
GPS-X-02007-D
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Introduction
SatelliteNavigationisamethodemployingaGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)toaccuratelydetermine
positionandtimeanywhereonEarth.SatelliteNavigationreceiversarecurrentlyusedbybothprivateindividuals
and businesses for positioning, locating, navigating, surveying, and determining the exact time in an evergrowinglistofpersonal,leisureandcommercialapplications.
UsingaGNSSsystem,thefollowingvaluescanaccuratelybedeterminedanywhereontheglobe(Figure1):
1. Exactposition(longitude,latitudeandaltitudecoordinates)accuratetowithin20mtoapprox.1mm.
2. Exacttime(UniversalTimeCoordinated,UTC)accuratetowithin60nstoapprox.5ns.
Speed and direction of travel (course) can be derived from these values, which are obtained from satellites
orbitingtheEarth.SpeedoftravelmayalsobedetermineddirectlybymeansofDopplershiftmeasurements.
Longitude: 924'23.43''
Latitude: 4648'37.20''
Altitude: 709.1m
Time: 12h33'07''
Figure 1: The basic function of satellite navigation
Asof2009,theGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)developedandoperatedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentof
Defense(DoD)wastheonlyfullyoperationalGNSSsystem.TherapidlydevelopingSatelliteNavigationindustry
hassprunguparoundtheGPSsystem,andforthisreasonthetermsGPSandSatelliteNavigationaresometimes
used interchangeably. This document will place an emphasis on GPS, although other emerging GNSS systems
willbeintroducedanddiscussed.
GPS(thefullnameofthesystemis:NAVigationSystemwithTimingAndRangingGlobalPositioningSystem,
NAVSTAR-GPS)isintendedforbothcivilianandmilitaryuse.TheciviliansignalSPS(Standard PositioningService)
canbeusedfreelybythegeneralpublic,whilethemilitarysignalPPS(PrecisePositioningService)isavailableonly
toauthorizedgovernmentagencies.ThefirstsatellitewasplacedinorbitonFebruary22,1978,anditisplanned
to have up to 32 operational satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 20,180 km on 6 different orbital
planes. The orbits are inclined at 55 to the equator, ensuring that at least 4 satellites are in radio
communicationwithanypointontheplanet.EachsatelliteorbitstheEarthinapproximately12hoursandhas
fouratomicclocksonboard.
DuringthedevelopmentoftheGPSsystem,particularemphasiswasplacedonthefollowingthreeaspects:
1. Ithadtoprovideuserswiththecapabilityofdeterminingposition,speedandtime,whetherinmotionorat
rest.
2. Ithadtohaveacontinuous,global,all-weather3-dimensionalpositioningcapabilitywithahighdegreeof
accuracy.
3. Ithadtoofferpotentialforcivilianuse.
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Introduction
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GPS-Compendium
Withinthenextfiveorsixyearstherewilllikelybe3fullyindependentGNSSsystemsavailable.TheUnitedStates
willcontinuetoprovideGPSandRussiaandtheEuropeanUnionshouldrespectivelybringtheirGLONASSand
GALILEOsystemsintofulloperation.Allofthesesystemswillundergomodernizationandimprovements,which
shouldimprovetheirreliabilityandmakenewpotentialservicesandapplicationsavailable 2 .
This compendium will examine the essential principles of Satellite Navigation and move beyond these into
specificapplicationsandtechnologies.GPSwillreceiveparticularfocusbecauseofitsimportanceasforerunner
andindustrystandard,andimportantdevelopmentssuchasDifferential-GPS(DGPS),Assisted-GPS(AGPS)and
DeviceInterfaceswillbetreatedinseparatesections.Thisisallwiththegoalofprovidingthereaderwithasolid
foundationandunderstandingofthisfascinatingandincreasinglyimportantfield.
Amongthesewillbeimportantadvancesforaviation,whereinapproachesandlandingsusingsatellitenavigationshouldbecomepossible.
GPS-X-02007-D
Introduction
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GPS-Compendium
1 Satellite navigation made simple
Do you want to . . .
o
understand,howthedistanceoflightningcanbesimplydetermined?
understand,howSatelliteNavigationessentiallyfunctions?
know,howmanyatomicclocksareonboardaGPSsatellite?
know,howtodetermineapositiononaplane?
understand,whySatelliteNavigationrequiresfoursatellitestodetermineaposition?
Then you should read this chapter!
1.1 The principle of measuring signal transit time

Atsometimeorotherduringathunderstormyouhavealmostcertainlyattemptedtoworkouthowfaraway
youarefromaboltoflightning.Thedistancecanbeestablishedquiteeasily(Figure2):distance=thetimethe
lightningflashisperceived(starttime)untilthethunderisheard(stoptime)multipliedbythespeedofsound
(approx.330m/s).Thedifferencebetweenthestartandstoptimeisreferredtoasthesignaltraveltime.Inthis
casethesignalissoundwavestravelingthroughtheair.
Eye d
eterm
ines t
he
Travel time
start t
im
me
top ti
s
e
h
st
rmine
e
t
e
d
Ear
Figure 2: Determining the distance of a lightning flash
distance travel time speed of sound

SatelliteNavigationfunctionsbythesameprinciple.Onecalculatespositionbyestablishingthedistancerelative
toreferencesatelliteswithaknownposition.Inthiscasethedistanceiscalculatedfromthetraveltimeofradio
wavestransmittedfromthesatellites.
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Satellitenavigationmadesimple
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1.1.1 Basic principles of satellite navigation

SatelliteNavigationSystemsallusethesamebasicprinciplestodeterminecoordinates:
Satelliteswithaknownpositiontransmitaregulartimesignal.
Basedonthemeasuredtraveltimeoftheradiowaves(electromagneticsignalstravelthroughspaceatthe
speedoflightc=300000km/s)thepositionofthereceiveriscalculated.
Wecanseetheprinciplemoreclearlyusingasimplemodel.Imaginethatweareinacarandneedtodetermine
ourpositiononalongandstraightstreet.Attheendofthestreetisaradiotransmittersendingatimesignal
pulse every second. Onboard the car we are carrying a clock, which is synchronized to the clock at the
transmitter.Bymeasuringtheelapsedtraveltimefromthetransmittertothecarwecancalculateourposition
onthestreet(Figure3).
TransmittedSignal
ReceivedSignal
TravelTime
Calculated
Positiondueto
1sTimeError
TimeSignal
Transmitter
Street
300m
DistanceD
Figure 3: In the simplest case distance is determined by measuring the travel time
ThedistanceDiscalculatedbymultiplyingthetraveltimebythevelocityoflightc.
D=c
Becausethetimeoftheclockonboardourcarmaynotbeexactlysynchronizedwiththeclockatthetransmitter,
there can be a discrepancy between the calculated and actual distance traveled. In navigation this observed
distance referenced to the local clock is referred to as pseudorange. In our example a travel time of one
microsecond(1s)generatesapseudorangeof300m.
Wecouldsolvetheproblemoflocalclocksynchronizationbyoutfittingourcarwithanexactatomicclock,but
this would probably exceed our budget. Another solution involves using a second synchronized time signal
transmitter,forwhichtheseparation(A)tothefirst transmitterisknown.Bymeasuringbothtraveltimesitis
possibletoexactlyestablishthedistance(D)despitehavinganimpreciseonboardclock.
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GPS-Compendium
TransmittedSignal1
TransmittedSignal2
ReceivedSignals
2
1
TravelTime1
TravelTime2
TimeSignal
Transmitter1
TimeSignal
Transmitter2
Street
DistanceD
SeparationA
Figure 4: With two transmitters it is possible to calculate the exact position despite time errors.
1 2 c A
2
Aswehaveseen,inordertoexactlycalculatethepositionandtimealongaline(bydefinitionalineexpandsin
onedimension)werequiretwotimesignaltransmitters.Fromthiswecandrawthefollowingconclusion:When
an unsynchronized onboard clock is employed in calculating position, it is necessary that the number of time
signaltransmittersexceedthenumberofunknowndimensionsbyavalueofone.
Forexample:
Onaplane(expansionintwodimensions)weneedthreetime-signaltransmitters.
Inthree-dimensionalspaceweneedfourtime-signaltransmitters.
SatelliteNavigationSystemsusesatellitesastime-signaltransmitters.Contacttoatleastfoursatellites(Figure5)
is necessary in order to determine the three desired coordinates (Longitude, Latitude, Altitude) as well as the
exacttime.Weexplainthisinmoredetailinthefollowingsections.
Sat. 3
Sat. 4
Sat. 2
Sat. 1
SatelliteSignal
TravelTime
t
Transmission Reception
Figure 5: Four satellites are needed to determine longitude, latitude, altitude and time
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1.1.2 Signal travel time

SatelliteNavigationSystemsemploysatellitesorbitinghighabovetheEarthanddistributedinsuchawaythat
fromanypointonthegroundthereisline-of-sightcontacttoatleast4satellites.
Each one of these satellites is equipped with onboard atomic clocks. Atomic clocks are the most precise time
measurementinstrumentsknown,losingamaximumofonesecondevery30,000to1,000,000years.Inorder
tomakethemevenmoreaccurate,theyareregularlyadjustedorsynchronizedfromvariouscontrolpointson
Earth.GNSSsatellitestransmittheirexactpositionandonboardclocktimetoEarth.Thesesignalsaretransmitted
at the speed of light (300,000km/s) and therefore require approx. 67.3ms to reach a position on the Earths
surfacedirectlybelowthesatellite.Thesignalsrequireafurther3.33sforeachadditionalkilometeroftravel.To
establish position, all that is required is a receiverandanaccurate clock. By comparingthearrivaltime ofthe
satellitesignalwiththeonboardclocktimethemomentthesignalwastransmitted,itispossibletodetermine
thesignaltraveltime(Figure6).
Satellite and
receiver clock
display: 67.3ms
Satellite and
receiver clock
display: 0ms
0ms
0ms
75ms
75ms
25ms
25ms
50ms
50ms
Signal
Signal transmission (start time)
Signal reception (stop time)
Figure 6: Determining the signal travel time
Aswiththeexampleofthecar,thedistanceDtothesatellitecanbedeterminedfromtheknownsignaltravel
time:
distance travel time speed of light :
D c
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1.1.3 Determining position

Imaginethatyouarewanderingacrossavastplateauandwouldliketoknowwhereyouare.Twosatellitesare
orbitingfarabove youtransmitting their onboard clock timesand positions. By using thesignal travel time to
bothsatellitesyoucandrawtwocircleswiththeradiiD1andD2aroundthesatellites.Eachradiuscorrespondsto
thecalculateddistancetothesatellite.Allpossiblepositionsrelativetothesatellitesarelocatedonthesecircles.
Ifthepositionabovethesatellitesisexcluded,thelocationofthereceiverisattheexactpointwherethetwo
circlesintersectbeneaththesatellites(Figure7),therefore,twosatellitesaresufficienttodetermineapositionon
theX/Yplane.
Y - coordinates
Circles
D2= c
D1= c
Sat. 2
Sat. 1
YP
Position of
the receiver
(XP, YP)
0
X - coordinates
XP
Figure 7: The position of the receiver at the intersection of the two circles
In the real world, a position has to be determined in three-dimensional space rather than on a plane. As the
differencebetweenaplaneandthree-dimensionalspaceconsistsofanextradimension(heightZ),anadditional
thirdsatellitemustbeavailabletodeterminethetrueposition.Ifthedistancetothethreesatellitesisknown,all
possiblepositionsarelocatedonthesurfaceofthreesphereswhoseradiicorrespondtothedistancecalculated.
Thepositionisthepointwhereallthreeofthespheresintersect(Figure8).
Position
Figure 8: The position is determined at the point where all three spheres intersect
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1.1.4 The effect and correction of time error

Theconclusionsintheprevioussectionareonlyvalidiftheclockatthereceiverandtheatomicclocksonboard
thesatellitesaresynchronized,i.e.,thesignaltraveltimecanbepreciselydetermined.Ifthemeasuredtraveltime
betweenthesatellitesandanearthboundnavigationalreceiverisincorrectbyjust1s,apositionerrorof300m
isproduced.AstheclocksonboardalltheGNSSsatellitesaresynchronized,thesignaltraveltimeinthecaseof
allthreemeasurementsisinaccuratebythesameamount.Mathematicscanhelpusinthissituation.
When performing mathematical calculations, we remember that if N variables are unknown, we need N
independentequationstoidentifythem.Ifthetimemeasurementisaccompaniedbyaconstantunknownerror
(t),in3-dimensionalspacewewillhavefourunknownvariables:
longitude(X)
latitude(Y)
height(Z)
timeerror(t)
Thesefourvariablesrequirefourequations,whichcanbederivedfromfourseparatesatellites.
SatelliteNavigationsystemsaredeliberatelyconstructedinsuchawaythatfromanypointonEarth,atleast4
satellitesarevisible(Figure9).Thus,despiteaninaccuracyonthepartofthereceiverclockandresultingtime
errors,apositioncanbecalculatedtowithinanaccuracyofapprox.510m.
Sat. 2
Sat. 3
Sat. 1
Sat. 4
Signal
Figure 9: Four satellites are required to determine a position in 3-D space.
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2 Coordinate systems
If you would like to . . .

o
knowwhatageoidis
understandwhytheEarthisdepictedprimarilyasanellipsoid
understandwhyover200differentmapreferencesystemsareusedworldwide
knowwhatWGS-84means
understandhowitispossibletoconvertonedatumintoanother
knowwhatCartesianandellipsoidalcoordinatesare
understandhowmapsofcountriesaremade
knowhowcountrycoordinatesarecalculatedfromtheWGS-84coordinates
then this chapter is for you!
2.1 Introduction
A significant problem to overcome when using a GNSS system is the fact that there are a great number of
differing coordinate systems worldwide. As a result, the position measured and calculated does not always
correspondwithonessupposedposition.
InordertounderstandhowGNSSsystemsfunction,itisnecessarytoexaminesomeofthebasicsofgeodesy:
thesciencethatdealswiththesurveyingandmappingoftheEarthssurface.Withoutthisbasicknowledge,itis
difficulttounderstandtheapparentlybewilderingnecessityofcombiningtheappropriatemapreferencesystems
(datums)andgrids.Ofthesetherearemorethan100differentdatumsandapprox.10differentgridstoselect
from.Ifanincorrectcombinationismade,apositioncanbeoutbyseveralhundredmeters.
2.2 Geoid
WehaveknownthattheEarthisroundsinceColumbus.Buthowroundisitreally?Describingtheshapeofour
blueplanethasalwaysbeenachallengingscientifictask.Overthecenturiesseveraldifferentmodelshavebeen
presentedtorepresentanapproximationofthetrueshapeoftheearthasfaithfullyaspossible.
Thegeoidrepresentsthetrueshapeoftheearth;definedasthesurface,wherethemeansealeveliszero.This
shapeisdefinedbythegravityoftheearth,thusitsgeometricaldescriptionisrathercomplex.UsingtheGreek
wordforEarth,thisgeometricalshapeofthissurfaceiscalledgeoid(Figure10).
BecausethedistributionofthemassoftheEarthisunevenand,asaresult,thelevelsurfaceoftheoceansand
seasdonotlieonthesurfaceofageometricallydefinableshape,approximationslikeellipsoidshavetobeused.
Differing from the actual shape of the Earth, a geoid is a theoretical body, whose surface intersects the
gravitationalfieldlineseverywhereatrightangles.
Ageoidisoftenusedasareferencelevelformeasuringheight.Forexample,thereferencepointinSwitzerland
formeasuringheightistheReprePierreduNiton(RPN,373.600m)intheGenevaharborbasin.Thisheight
originatesfrompointtopointmeasurementswiththeportofMarseilles(meanheightabovesealevel0.00m).
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Land
Geoid
Sea
Earth
Macro image of the earth
Geoid (exaggerated form)
Figure 10: A geoid is an approximation of the Earths surface
2.3 Ellipsoid and datum

2.3.1 Ellipsoid
A geoid is a difficult shape to manipulate when conducting calculations. A simpler, more definable shape is
therefore needed when carrying out daily surveying operations. Such a substitute surface is known as an
ellipsoid.Ifthesurfaceofanellipseisrotatedaboutitssymmetricalnorth-southpoleaxis,aspheroidisobtained
asaresult(Figure11).
Anellipsoidisdefinedbytwoparameters:
Semimajoraxisa(ontheequatorialplane)
Semiminoraxisb(onthenorth-southpoleaxis)
Theamountbywhichtheshapedeviatesfromtheidealsphereisreferredtoasflattening(f).
a b
(16a)
North pole
Rotation
b
E q u a to rial p la n e
South pole
Figure 11: Producing a spheroid
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2.3.2 Customized local reference ellipsoids and datum

2.3.2.1
Local reference ellipsoids
Whendealingwithanellipsoid,caremustbetakentoensurethatthenaturalperpendiculardoesnotintersect
verticallyatapointwiththeellipsoid,butratherwiththegeoid.Normalellipsoidalandnaturalperpendicularsdo
not therefore coincide, they are distinguished by vertical deflection (Figure 13), i.e., points on the Earths
surfaceareincorrectlyprojected.Inordertokeepthisdeviationtoaminimum,eachcountryhasdevelopedits
owncustomizednon-geocentricellipsoidasareferencesurfaceforcarryingoutsurveyingoperations(Figure12).
Thesemiaxesaandbaswellasthemid-pointareselectedinsuchawaythatthegeoidandellipsoidmatch
nationalterritoriesasaccuratelyaspossible.
2.3.2.2
Datum, map reference systems
National or international map reference systems based on certain types of ellipsoids are called datums.
Depending on the map used when navigating with GNSS receivers, care should be taken to ensure that the
relevantmapreferencesystemhasbeenenteredintothereceiver.
There are over 120 map reference systems available, such as: CH-1903 for Switzerland, NAD83 for North
America,andWGS-84astheglobalstandard.
ry
unt
Co
ry
unt
Co
B
Customized
ellipsoid
for country A
Customized
ellipsoid
for country B
Geoid (exaggerated shape)
Figure 12: Customized local reference ellipsoid
An ellipsoid is well suited for describing the positional coordinates of a point in degrees of longitude and
latitude.Informationonheightiseitherbasedonthegeoidorthereferenceellipsoid.Thedifferencebetween
themeasuredorthometricheightH,i.e.basedonthegeoid,andtheellipsoidalheighth,basedonthereference
ellipsoid,isknownasgeoidundulationN(Figure13).
Earth
P
Deflection of
the Vertical
H
h
Geoid
N
Ellipsoid
Figure 13: Difference between geoid and ellipsoid
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2.3.3 National reference systems

Different reference systems are used throughout Europe, and each reference system employed for technical
applicationsduringsurveyinghasitsownname.Thenon-geocentricellipsoidsthatformthebasisoftheseare
summarizedinthefollowingtable(Table1).Ifthesameellipsoidsareused,theyaredistinguishedfromcountry
tocountryinrespectoftheirlocalreferences
Country
Name
Reference
ellipsoid
Local reference
Semi major axis Flattening

a (m)
(1: ...)
Germany
Potsdam
Bessel1841
Rauenberg
6377397.155
299.1528128
France
NTF
Clarke1880
Pantheon,Paris
6378249.145
293.465
Italy
SI1940
Hayford1928
MonteMario,Rome
6378388.0
297.0
Netherlands
RD/NAP
Bessel1841
Amersfoort
6377397.155
299.1528128
Austria
MGI
Bessel1841
Hermannskogel
6377397.155
299.1528128
Switzerland
CH1903
Bessel1841
OldObservatoryBern 6377397.155
299.1528128
International
Hayford
Hayford
Countryindependent 6378388.000
297.000
Table 1: National reference systems
2.3.4 Worldwide reference ellipsoid WGS-84

ThedetailsdisplayedandcalculationsmadebyaGNSSreceiverprimarilyinvolvetheWGS-84(WorldGeodetic
System1984)referencesystem.TheWGS-84coordinatesystemisgeocentricallypositionedwithrespecttothe
centeroftheEarth.SuchasystemiscalledECEF(EarthCentered,EarthFixed).TheWGS-84coordinatesystemis
athree-dimensional,right-handed,Cartesiancoordinatesystemwithitsoriginalcoordinatepointatthecenterof
mass(=geocentric)ofanellipsoid,whichapproximatesthetotalmassoftheEarth.
The positive X-axis of the ellipsoid (Figure 14) lies on the equatorial plane (that imaginary surface which is
encompassedbytheequator)andextendsfromthecenterofmassthroughthepointatwhichtheequatorand
theGreenwichmeridianintersect(the0meridian).TheY-axisalsoliesontheequatorialplaneandisoffset90
totheeastoftheX-axis.TheZ-axisliesperpendiculartotheXandY-axisandextendsthroughthegeographical
NorthPole.
Z
North Pole
Ellipsoid
Equatorial plane
b
z
Origin
y
Greenwich
Meridian
Equator
Figure 14: Illustration of the Cartesian coordinates
TheparametersoftheWGS-84ellipsoidaresummarizedinTable2.
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ParameterofWGS-84ReferenceEllipsoids
Semimajoraxisa(m)
Semiminoraxisb(m)
Flattening(1:....)
6,378,137.00
6,356,752.31
298,257223563
Table 2: The WGS-84 ellipsoid
Ellipsoidal coordinates (, h), rather than Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) are generally used for further
processing(Figure15).correspondstolatitude,tolongitudeandhtotheellipsoidalheight,i.e.thelengthof
theverticalPlinetotheellipsoid.
Z
North Pole
Ellipsoid
Equatorial plane
h
RN
Equator
Greenwich
Meridian
Figure 15: Illustration of the ellipsoidal coordinates
2.3.5 Transformation from local to worldwide reference ellipsoid

2.3.5.1
Geodetic datum
Asarule,referencesystemsaregenerallylocalratherthangeocentricellipsoids.Therelationshipbetweenalocal
(e.g.CH-1903)andaglobal,geocentricsystem(e.g.WGS-84)isreferredtoasthegeodeticdatum.Intheevent
thattheaxesofthelocalandglobalellipsoidareparallel,orcanberegardedasbeingparallelforapplications
withinalocalarea,allthatisrequiredfordatumtransitionarethreeshiftparameters,knownasthedatumshift
constantsX,Y,Z.
Afurtherthreeanglesofrotationx,y,zandascalingfactorm(Figure16)mayhavetobeaddedsothatthe
complete transformation formula contains 7 parameters. The geodetic datum specifies the location of a local
three-dimensionalCartesiancoordinatesystemwithregardtotheglobalsystem.
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Z-CH
Z-WGS
z
Y-CH
Z
x
Y
Y-WGS
X
Streching of Factor m
X-CH
X-WGS
Figure 16: Geodetic datum
Thefollowingtable(Table3)showsexamplesofthevariousdatumparameters.Additionalvaluescanbefound
under 3 .
Country
Name
X (m)
Y (m)
Z (m)
x ()
x ()
x ()
m (ppm)
Germany
Potsdam
586
87
409
-0.52
-0.15
2.82
France
NTF
-168
-60
320
Italy
SI1940
-225
-65
Netherlands
RD/NAP
565.04
49.91
465.84
0.4094
-0.3597
1.8685
4.0772
5.2970
-2.4232
0.9542
5.66
Austria
MGI
-577.326 -577.326 -463.919 5.1366
1.4742
Switzerland
CH1903
660.077
0.5789
13.551
369.344
0.8065
Table 3: Datum parameters
2.3.5.2
Datum conversion
Converting a datum means by definition converting one three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (e.g.
WGS-84)intoanother(e.g.CH-1903)bymeansofthree-dimensionalshift,rotationandextension.Thegeodetic
datummustbeknown,inordertoeffecttheconversion.Comprehensiveconversionformulaecanbefoundin
specialistliterature 4 ,orconversioncanbecarriedoutdirectlyviatheInternet 5 .Onceconversionhastakenplace,
Cartesiancoordinatescanbetransformedintoellipsoidalcoordinates.
http://www.geocities.com/mapref/mapref.html
B.Hofmann-Wellenhof:GPSinderPraxis,Springer-Verlag,Wien1994,ISBN3-211-82609-2
BundesamtfrLandestopographie:http://www.swisstopo.ch
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2.3.6 Converting coordinate systems

2.3.6.1
Converting Cartesian to ellipsoidal coordinates
Cartesian and ellipsoidal coordinates can be converted from the one representation to the other. As and h
show up on the right side of the following equations, these equations have to be evaluated iteratively for an
accuratesolution.
e2
a 2 b2
a2
a
RN
1 - e 2sin 2a 2
arctan
e2
x2 y2 1 RN
RN h
y
tan 1
x
x2 y2
RN
h
cos
2.3.6.2
(17a)
(18a)
(19a)
Converting ellipsoidal to Cartesian coordinates
EllipsoidalcoordinatescanbeconvertedintoCartesiancoordinates.
x R N h cos cos
(20a)
y R N h cos sin
(21a)
(22a)
z R N 1 e 2 h sin
2.4 Planar regional coordinates, projection

UsuallytheordnancesurveydepictsthepositionofapointPonthesurfaceoftheearththroughtheellipsoid
coordinates latitude and longitude (in relation to the reference ellipsoid) and height (in relation to the
ellipsoidorgeoid).
Giventhatgeoidcalculations(e.g.thedistancebetweentwobuildings)onanellipsoidarenumericallyawkward,
generalsurveytechnicalpracticesprojecttheellipsoidontoaplane.Thisleadstoplanar,right-angledXandY
regionalcoordinates.Mostmapsfeatureagrid,whichenablesfindingapointintheopeneasily.Inthecaseof
planar regional coordinates there are mappings (projections) of ellipsoid coordinates of the survey reference
ellipsoidinacalculationplane.Theprojectionoftheellipsoidinaplaneisnotpossiblewithoutdistortions.Itis
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possible,however,tochoosetheprojectioninsuchaswaythatthedistortionsarekepttoaminimum.Usual
projection processes are cylindrical or Mercator projection or the Gauss-Krger and UTM projection. Should
positioninformationbeusedinconjunctionwithmapmaterial,itmustberememberedwhichreferencesystem
andwhichprojectionconfigurationisgoingtobeusedformakingthemaps.
2.4.1 Gauss-Krger projection (Transversal Mercator Projection)

TheGauss-KrgerprojectionisatangentialconformaltransverseMercatorprojectionandisonlyapplicabletoa
limited area or region. An elliptical cylinder is laid around the earths rotation ellipsoid (e.g. Bessel ellipsoid),
wherebythecylindersurfacetouchestheellipsoidinthecentralmeridian(animportantmeridianfortheregion
to be illustrated, e.g. 9) along its whole longitude and in the poles. The cylinder position with regard to the
ellipsoidistransversal,e.g.rotatedby90(Figure17)).Inordertokeepthelongitudinalandsurfacedistortions
to a minimum, 3 wide zones of the rotation ellipsoid are used. The zone width is fixed around the central
meridian.Differentcentralmeridiansareuseddependingontheregion(e.g.6,9,12,15,....).
Greenwich meridian
Mapping of the Greenwich meridians

N
Cylinder
Equator
Mapping of the equator

1st step:
projection
onto cylinder
Local
spheroid
(Bessel ellipsoid)
Processing the cylinder:

map with country
co-ordinates
Figure 17: Gauss-Krger projection
Thevaluesinthenorth-southdirectionarecountedasthedistancefromtheequator.Inordertoavoidnegative
valuesinthewest-eastdirectionthevalueof+500000m(Offset)isacceptedforthecentralmeridian.Thecentral
meridiansnumberofdegreesisdividedby3andplacedinfrontofthisvalue.
Exampleofaposition:
Ellipsoidcoordinates:
Gauss-Krger(Centralmeridian:9):
N:46.86154
E9.51280
N-S:5191454 W-E:3539097
Thepositionisatadistanceof5191454mfromtheequatorand39097mfromthecentralmeridian(9).
2.4.2 UTM projection

IncontrasttotheGauss-KrgerprojectiontheUTM(UniversalTransversalMercator)systemprojectsalmostthe
entire surface of the earth on 6020 = 1200 planes. The actual projection of the rotation ellipsoid on the
transversalcylinderiscarriedoutinaccordancewiththesameprocessasintheGauss-Krgerprojection.
The UTM system is often based on the WGS84 ellipsoid. However, it only defines the projection and the
coordinatesystemandnotthereferenceellipsoidandthegeodesicdatum.
TheUTMsystemdividesthewholeworldinto6widelongitudinalzones(Figure18).Thesearenumberedfrom
1to60beginningwith180W,andendingwith180E.If,forexamplezone1stretchesfrom180Wto174
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W,thecentralmeridianofthiszone1issituatedat177W,zone2stretchesfrom174Wto168,thecentral
meridianofthiszone2issituatedat171W,etc.
Thecentralmeridiansforeachprojectionzoneare3,9,15,21,27,33,39,45,51,57,63,69,75,
81,87,93,99,105,111,117,123,129,135,141,147,153,159,165,171,177east(E)and
west(W)(longitude)(Figure19).
Inthenorth-southdirection(tothepoles)thezonesaresubdivided,withanexceptioninthe8beltoflatitude,
andareidentifiedwithlettersbeginningwithC.Onlytheareabetween80southto84northisadmitted.The
linefrom80southto72southisdesignatedasSectionC,thelinefrom72southto64southSectionD,etc.
AnexceptiontothisisbeltknownaslatitudeXbetween72northand84north.Itis12wide.
Figure 18: Principle of projecting one zone (of sixty)
Figure 19: Designation of the zones using UTM, with examples
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AsisthecasewithGauss-KrgerProjection,thenorth-southvalueismeasuredinkilometersasthedistanceof
the point from the equator. In order to avoid negative values in the southern hemisphere, the equator is
arbitrarilyassignedthevalueof10,000,000m.
The west-east values are the distance of the point from the central meridian, which (also as with the GaussKrgerProjection)isgiventhevalueof500,000m.
AnexampleofUTMcoordinatesincomparisontoWGS84wouldbe:
WGS84:
N46,86074
E9,51173
UTM:32T
5189816(N-S) 0539006(W-E)
2.4.3 Swiss projection system (Conformal Double Projection)

The Bessel ellipsoid is conformally projected onto a plane in two steps, i.e. angle preserving. Initially there is
conformalprojectionoftheellipsoidonasphere,thenthesphereisconformallyprojectedontoaplaneusingan
oblique cylindrical projection. This process is called double projection (Figure 20). A main point is fixed in the
planeontheellipsoid(oldobservatoryfromBern)intheprojectionoftheorigin(withOffset:YOst =600,000m
andXNord=200,000m)ofthecoordinatesystem.
OnSwitzerlandsmap(e.g.scale1:25000)therearetwodifferentpiecesofcoordinateinformation:
Theregionalcoordinatesprojectedintheplane(XandYinkilometers)withtheaccompanyinggridand
Thegeographicalcoordinates(Longitudeandlatitudeindegreesandseconds)relatedtotheBesselellipsoid
200'000
BERN
600'000
Local
reference ellipsoid
(Bessel ellipsoid)
1st step:
projection
onto sphere
2nd step:
projection
onto sphere
Processing the cylinder:

map with country
co-ordinates
Figure 20: The principle of double projection
Thesignaltransittimefrom4satellitesmustbeknownbythetimethepositionalcoordinatesareissued.Only
then,afterconsiderablecalculationandconversion,isthepositionissuedinSwisslandsurveycoordinates(Figure
21).
Known signal
transit time
from
4 satellites
Calculation
of WGS-84
Cartesian
co-ordinaten
Conversion
into CH-1903
Cartesian
coordinates
Projection
onto sphere
Projection
onto
oblique-angled
cylinder
Figure 21: From satellite to position
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2.4.4 Worldwide conversion of coordinates

Theinternetoffersvariouspossibilitiesforconvertingcoordinatesfromonesystemintoanother.
2.4.4.1
Example: conversion of WGS-84 coordinates to CH-1903 coordinates
(Fromreferencesystemsinpractice,UrsMarti,DieterEgger,SwissFederalOfficeofTopography)
Accuracyiswithin1meter!
1. Conversion of latitude and longitude:
ThelatitudeandlongitudeoftheWGS-84datahavetobeconvertedintosexagesimalseconds[].
Example:
1.
Thelatitude(WGS-84)of46238,87onceconvertedis165758.87.Thisintegerisdescribed
asB:B=165758.87.
2.
The longitude (WGS-84) of 8 43 49,79 once converted is 31429.79. This integer is

describedasL:L=31429.79.
2. Calculation of auxiliary integers:
B 169028.66

10000
L 26782.5
10000
Example:
3. Calculation of the abscissa (W---E): y
y [m] 600072.37 (211455.93 ) (10938.51 ) (0.36 2 ) (44.54 3 )

Example: y=700000.0m
4. Calculation of the ordinate (S---N): x
x [m] 200147.07 (308807.95 ) (3745.25 2 ) (76.63 2 ) (194.56 2 ) (119.79 3 )

Example: x=100000.0m
5. Calculation of the height H:
H [m] ( HeightWGS 84 49.55) (2.73 ) (6.94 )

Example:
HeightWGS-84=650.60mresultsfromtheconversion:H=600m
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2.5 Georeferencing of raster maps

2.5.1 Introduction
Georeferencingreferstothetransformationofarastermap(source)intoavectormap(image).Withrastermaps
thelocationofeverypointisgivenbythepixelcoordinates(X;Y)andcanbestoredinvariousdataformatssuch
as.JPG,.BMP,.GIF,or.PNG.Thesemapscanbeobtainedfromsatellitephotographsorbyscanningmapsintoa
computerfile.Withvectormapseachpointisdeterminedbythegeographiccoordinates(X,Y).Therastermap
is transformed into the vector map with its geographical coordinate system by using an appropriate
mathematicaltransformation(seeFigure22).Inthissectionthetransformationalprocessisexplained.
Figure 22: Raster map with pixel coordinates X,Y (left) and vector map with geographic coordinates X, Y (right)
2.5.2 Basics of transformation

Thetransformationofarastermapintoavectormapwithcoordinatesystemtakesplacethroughthegeometric
rulesofaffinetransformation.Thisisalsoreferredtoasalineartransformation.Theprocedureisonlysuitable
forsmallersectionsofmaps,coveringanareaofuptoafewkilometers.Inthecoordinatetransformation,the
coordinatesofthesourcecoordinatesystem(X,Y)aretransformedintoanothersystem(X,Y).
2.5.3 Determining the transformation coordinate

Algebraicrepresentation(fordefinition,seeFigure23):
X ' a X b Y c
Y ' d X e Y f
Matrixrepresentation:
Translated Transformation
Coordinates Parameters
X' a b
Y' d e

1 0 0
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X'
Y'
Source
Image
Calibration Point
Transformation
(with a,b,c,d,e,f)
Figure 23: Definition of the source points
2.5.4 Determining the transformation parameters a, b, c, d, e, f

The6transformationparameters(a,b,c,d,e,f)mustbedefinedas3coordinatepairs(calibrationpoints).In
ordertocalculatethe6parameters,6equationswith6unknownvariablesmustbesolved.Thederivationofthe
formulatodeterminethetransformationparameters(a,b,c,d,e,f)occursin3steps.
1. Calibration of the image:
Three calibration points are selected that are well distributed on the map (see Figure 24). The source
coordinates(X,Y)andthetranslatedcoordinates(X,Y)aredefinedforeachofthesecalibrationpoints.
X1
X3
X1'
X2
Y1
Y1'
Y2
Y2'
Y3
Y3'
Source
X3'
X2'
Image
Calibration Point
Transformation
(with a,b,c,d,e,f)
Figure 24: The 3 calibration points must be well distributed on the map
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CalibrationCoordinates:
X1,Y1,X1,Y1
X2,Y2,X2,Y2
[I]
X3Y3X3,Y3
2. Construction of the transformation equation:
Formula[I]canberearrangedforall6ofthetransformedcoordinates
X1=aX1+bY1+c
Y1=dX1+eY1+f
X2=aX2+bY2+c
[II]
Y2=dX2+eY2+f
X3=aX3+bY3+c
Y3=dX3+eY3+f
Equation[II]isthenrepresentedinthematrixform
X 1 Y1 1
X 1'
0
Y 1'
0 0
X 2 Y 2 1
X 2'

0 0
0
Y 2'
X 3 Y3 1
X 3'
0 0
0
Y 3'
0 a
1 b
0 c

1 d
0
0 0 e

X 3 Y 3 1 f
0
0
X 1 Y1
0
0
X2 Y2
[III]
3. Determining the transformation parameters a, b, c, d, e, f:
Thesolutionvectors(a,b,c,d,e,f)aresoughtandcanbeobtainedbyrearrangingEquation[III].
a X 1 Y1 1
b 0
0 0

c X 2 Y 2 1

0 0
d 0
e X 3 Y3 1

0 0
f 0
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0
1
0
1
0
0 0
X 3 Y 3 1
0
0
X 1 Y1
0
0
X2 Y2
X 1'
Y 1'
X 2'

Y 2'
X 3'
Y 3'
[IV]
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2.5.5 Example (raster map to WGS84)

Thefollowingmap(Figure25)istobegeoreferenced.Forcalibrationthreereferencepointsareused.
Figure 25: Raster map with three calibration points
X(Pixel)
Y(Pixel)
X()
Y()
CalibrationPoint1
111
76
-1.974449
42.733900
CalibrationPoint2
1220
87
-1.784248
42.732135
CalibrationPoint3
623
738
-1.886730
42.650122
Determiningthetransformationparameteraccordingtoequation[IV]
a
0.0001887
b
-0.0000134

c
-1.9943709

d
-0.0000004
e
-0.0001263

f
42.7435373
http://maps.google.com/
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Determiningthecoordinatesofaposition
Figure 26: Determining position with the pixel coordinates X = 643 and Y = 370
Withtheformula:
X ' a X b Y c
Y ' d X e Y f
XandYresultinthefollowinggeographiccoordinates:
LongitudeX=-1.883248andLatitudeY=42.69659
Figure 27: Verifying the calculated geographic coordinates with Google Earth
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3 Foundations of satellite technology

3.1 Keplers laws
ThemotionofsatellitesinspaceisdeterminedbytheLawsofPlanetaryMotiondescribedbyJohannesKepler
(1571-1630).Keplerobservedthatthemotionofbodiesinspacefollowedthreerelativelysimplemathematical
laws.
3.1.1 Keplers first law

AccordingtoKepler,theplanetsorbitonaplane.Theorbitformsanellipsewiththesunatoneofthefoci.
Thislawalsoappliestosatellites(asorbitingbodiesinspace).Satellitesalsoorbitalongaplane(Figure28).Their
orbitaroundtheEarthformsanellipsewiththeEarthatoneofthefoci.
Perigee
b
Ellipse
a:semi-majoraxis
b:semi-minoraxis
Plane
Satellite
Apogee
Figure 28: Satellites move along a plane
The Apogee expresses the furthest point of an elliptical orbit from the center of the Earth. If one
subtracts the value of the Earths radius (approx. 6378 km) from this value, one determines the
satellitesmaximumaltitudeabovetheEarthssurface.
The Perigee is the closest point of the orbital ellipse to the Earth. Subtracting the Earths radius
determinesthesatellitesminimalaltitudeabovethesurfaceoftheEarth.
3.1.2 Keplers second law

Thesecondlawstatesthat:"Alinejoiningaplanetandthesunsweepsoutequalareasduringequalintervalsof
time. 8 "Thisisalsoknownasthelawofequalareas.
ForsatellitesthismeansthatalinejoiningasatelliteandtheEarthsweepsoutequalareasduringequalintervals
of time. Thus, if Times Tv_1 and Tv_2 are the same, then the areas A_1 and A_2 will also be the same (see
Figure29).
"Kepler'sSecondLaw"byJeffBryantwithOleksandrPavlyk,TheWolframDemonstrationsProject
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Tv_1
A_1
A_2
Tv_2
Satellite
ifTv_1=Tv_2,
thenA_1=A_2
Figure 29: Depiction of Kepler's second law
3.1.3 Keplers third law

This law states that the squares of the orbital periods of planets are directly proportional to the cubes of the
semi-majoraxisoftheorbits.Thismeansnotonlythatlargerobjectshavelongerorbits,butalsothatthespeed
ofaplanetinalongerorbitislowerthaninasmallerorbit:
P2
isconstantforallplanets.
a3
P=orbitalPeriod,a=semi-majoraxisoftheorbitalellipse
Fromthislawthesatelliteorbitalaltitude(h)(seeFigure30)abovetheEarthssurfacecanbederived:
m P
3,9860042 10
Re
s 2
14
Re:RadiusoftheEarth(6378.137km)
P:orbitalperiodofthesatellitearoundtheEarth
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Re
Figure 30: Determining the orbital altitude (h) of a satellite
3.2 Satellite orbits

Theorbitdescribesthepositionofasatelliteinspace.SatellitesusedfornavigationmovearoundtheEarthin
endless circular or elliptical orbits. The spatial orientation (e.g. orbital inclination, excentricity, length, altitude
abovetheground)andtheparametersofmotion(e.g.orbitalperiod)haveasignificantimpactontheusability
andperformanceofthesesatellites(Figure31).
EquatorialPlane
Inclination
Satellite
Figure 31: Satellite orbits
The inclination, also referred to as the angle of inclination or the axial tilt, expresses the tilt of the
circularorellipticalorbitofthesatellitearoundtheEarthrelativetotheequatorialplane.Forexample,
withaninclinationof90anorbitwouldpassdirectlyoverthepolarcaps.Allsatelliteorbitsthatdonot
liealongtheequatorialplanearereferredtoasinclinedorbits.
TheEphemerisofasatelliteisamathematicaldescriptionofitsorbit.Thehighprecisionsatelliteorbital
data is necessary for a receiver to calculate the satellites exact position in space at any given time.
Orbitaldatawithreducedexactnessisreferredtoasan Almanac(seeFigure32).Withthehelpofthe
Almanac the receiver can calculate which satellites are visible over the horizon from an approximate
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position and time. Each satellite transmits its own Ephemeris as well as the Almanacs of all existing
satellites.ThecurrentAlmanacDatacanalsobeviewedovertheinternet 9 .
Figure 32: Almanac
The Elevationdescribestheangleofasatelliterelativetothehorizontalplane.Ifasatelliteisdirectly
abovethepointofobservationontheground,thentheelevationis90.Ifthesatelliteisatthehorizon,
thentheelevationis0.
The Azimuthistheanglebetweenareferenceplaneandapoint.Inthecaseofsatellitesthereference
planeistheplaneofthehorizonbasedontrueNorth.TheAzimuthistheanglebetweenthesatellite
andtrueNorth(North=0,East=90,South=180,West=270).
Satellite
South
Observer
ReferencePlane
North
45
Figure 33: Azimuth
Excentricity defines the so-called Numerical Excentricity e, which is the deviation of an elliptical
satelliteorbit(excentricorbit)fromageometricallyexactcircularorbit.NumericalExcentricityisdefined
bytheequation:
a 2 b2
a2
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/almanacs.htm
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whereaisthesemi-majoraxisandbisthesemi-minoraxisoftheellipticalorbit(seeFigure28).For
completelycircularorbitsthevalueofe=0,andapproaches1themorethelength(i.e.thesemimajoraxis)oftheellipseisstretchedrelativetothesemi-minoraxis.
3.3 Orbital altitude

TheorbitalaltitudegivestheelevationabovetheEarthssurfaceofapointonacircularorellipticalsatelliteorbit.
Originally,commercialcommunicationssatelliteswerepreferentiallybroughtintocircularequatorial(Inclination
0)orbitswithanaltitudeofabout36,000kmabovetheground.Satellitesonthisorbitrotatearoundtheearth
in24hours(orbitalperiod:24hours),sothatthereisnorelativemovementwithrespecttotheEarth.Forthis
reason such satellites are also referred to as Geosynchronous (GEO) satellites, with an orbit referred to as
Geostationary.GEOsatellitesareusedbycommunicationssatellitesystemssuchasInmarsatandThurayaaswell
asSBASsystemssuchasWAASandEGNOS(seeSection7.5.1).
InadditiontotherelativelyhighaltitudeGEOsatellites,whichcanprovidecoveragetolargeareasoftheEarths
surface, other satellite systems (e.g. Iridium, Globalstar, GPS und GALILEO) employ satellites with much lower
orbitalaltitudes.TheseloweraltitudesatellitesmustorbittheEarthwithincreasedspeedinordertoprovidethe
necessarycentrifugalforcetocompensatefortheincreasedgravitationalpullexperiencedatloweraltitudes.In
contrast to the GEO satellites, these satellites move relative to the Earth and rotate in so-called NonGeostationarySatelliteOrbits(NGSO).
Generally,sixdifferentcategoriesoforbitsareclassified:
GeosynchronousEarthOrbit(GEO):geostationaryorbitwithanaltitudeofapproximately36,000km
MediumEarthOrbit(MEO):inclinedorbitwithmediumaltitudeofabout10,000km
LowEarthOrbit(LEO):lowaltitudeorbituptoapproximately1000km
Highly(Inclined)EllipticalEarthOrbit(HEO)
InclinedGeosynchronousOrbit(IGSO)
PolarEarthOrbit(PEO):LEOorbitoverthepolarcaps
Example 1: Determining the altitude of a GEO satellite:
Satelliteswithageostationaryorbithaveaveryexactaltitudewhichcanbecalculated.
The mean siderial 10 Earth day has a duration of 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.099 seconds = 86164.099 s and
representsageometricallycompleterotationoftheEarthof360inasystemwithfixedstars.
FromSection3.1.3weknowtheformula:
m
h 3 3.986004210
s
14
T
Re
2
m 86164.099 s
3.986004210
6378137m
s
2
14
35786035m 35,786.035km
10
relativetothefixedpositionofthestars
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Example 2: Determining the orbital period of a GPS satellite.
GPSsatelliteshaveamediumlevelaltitudeof20,184.5kmabovetheEarth.ThemeanorbitalperiodTofaGPS
satelliteisdetermindedby:
T 2 2
(h Re ) 3
3,9860042 1014
m
s
2 2
(20184500m 6378137m ) 3
m
3,9860042 1014
s
43084s 11h 58min
Thisrepresentsahalfsiderialday.SincetheEarthalsorotatesinthistime,aftertwoorbitstheGPSsatellitewill
finditselfoverthesamepointontheEarthssurface.
3.4 Radio frequencies

The transmission of information for satellite-based navigation and telecommunication systems takes place
throughradiobroadcastsbetweenthedifferentsystemcomponents:
UserLink:betweensatelliteanduser(e.g.userterminal)
FeederLink:betweensatelliteandcentralstationontheEarth(e.g.groundstation,controlstation)
IntersatelliteLink:betweensatellitesinspace(directly,withoutusingagroundstation)
Transmissionisdifferentiatedbasedonitsdirection:
Upwards (Uplink, or Reverse Link): Transmission from satellite transmission station (ground station and/or
userterminal)uptosatellites;e.g.:UserUplink,thetransmissiondirectionofamobileuserterminal
Downwards(Downlink,ForwardLink):Transmissionfromsatellitesdowntosatellitetransmissionstation
Satellite transmission frequencies are assigned and regulated by the World Radio Conference (WRC) of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Table 4 shows typical microwave electromagnetic transmission
frequenciesusedbysatellitecommunicationandnavigationasspecifiedinITU-RV.431-7.
Band
Frequency
L-Band
1.0GHzto2.0GHz
S-Band
2.0GHzto4.0GHz
C-Band
4.0GHzto8.0GHz
X-Band
8.0GHzto12.0GHz
Ku-Band
12.0GHzto18.0GHz
K-Band
18.0GHzto27.0GHz
Ka-Band
27.0GHzto40.0GHz
V-Band
40.0GHzto75GHz
W-Band
75GHzto110GHz
Table 4: Satellite communication and navigation frequencies
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3.5 Time systems

Time plays an essential role in satellite-based positioning. GPS distinguishes between five different important
TimeSystems.
3.5.1 International Atomic Time (TAI)

TheInternationalAtomicTimeScale(TempsAtomiqueInternational=TAI)wasintroducedinordertoproducea
universalabsolutetimescale,whichcouldsimultaneouslymeetthedifferentphysicalrequirementsofdiverse
applications.SuchanapplicationisGPSpositioning,forwhichthistimescaleisveryimportant.
Since1967thesecondhasbeendefinedbyanatomicphysicalconstant.ThenonradioactiveelementCaesium
(133Cs)waschosenasareference.Theresonancefrequencybetweenselectedenergylevelsofthisatomwasset
at9192631770Hz.ThesodefinedtimehasbecomepartoftheSI-System(SystmeInternational)ofmeasures.
ThestartingpointofAtomicTimewassettoJanuary1,1958at00:00h.
3.5.2 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

CoordinatedUniversalTime(UTC)wasintroducedinordertoprovideatimescalethatisbasedonAtomictime
andadaptedtotheactualworldtimeonEarth.UTCwasearlierreferredtoasGreenwichMeanTime(GMT)or
Zulu-Time 11 .
UTC differs from TAI in the second count, i.e. UTC = TAI - n, where n equals whole seconds, which can be
addedattheendofDecember31andJune30ofeachyear(leapseconds).Theseleapsecondsarenecessaryto
reflectthegeneralslowingtrendoftheEarthandtocorrectclocksthatkeepuniform,precisetime.
3.5.3 GPS Time

ThegeneralGPSsystemtimeisexpressedasaweeknumberandthenumberofelapsedsecondsinthatweek.
ThestartdateisSunday,January6,1980at0:00h(UTC).EveryGPSweekbeginsinthenightbetweenSaturday
and Sunday, where the continuous time scale is given through the main clock of the Master Control Station.
TimedifferencesthatoccurbetweenGPSandUTCtimearecontinuallycalculatedandincludedinthenavigation
information.GPStimeandUTCdifferfromeachotherinwholeseconds(in2009thedifferencebetweenGPS
timeandUTCwas15seconds)andafractionofasecond.TheGPScontrolstationskeepthedifferencebetween
thesecondmarksforGPStimeandUTClessthan1s.ThedifferencebetweenGPStimeandUTCistransmitted
withtheGPSnavigationmessage(seeSection4.6)insub-frame4.
3.5.4 Satellite Time

BecauseoftheconstantandirregularfrequencyerrorsoftheonboardatomicclocksoftheGPSsatellites,the
individualsatellitetimesdeviatefromtheGPSsystemtime.Thecontrolstationmonitorsthesatelliteclocks,and
anyobservedtimedifferencesarecommunicated.Thetimedeviationneedstobeconsideredwhenperforming
localGPSmeasurements.
11
http://www.bipm.org/en/scientific/tai/time_server.html
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3.5.5 Local Time

LocalTimereferstothetimeusedinaspecificregionorarea.TherelationshipbetweenLocalTimeandUTCis
determinedbythetimezonesandbytheregulationsforstandardanddaylightsavingtime.
Table5isanexampleofalocaltimerecordedonJuly9,2009inSwitzerland.
local
2009-07-0915:08:21
Thursday
day190
timezoneUTC+2
UTC
2009-07-0913:08:21
Thursday
day190
MJD55021.54746
GPS
2009-07-0913:08:36
week1539
392916s
cycle1week0515day4
Loran
2009-07-0913:08:45
GRI9940
472suntil
nextTOC13:16:13UTC
TAI
2009-07-0913:08:55
Thursday
day190
34leapseconds
Table 5: Time systems, January 2009
12
Fortheyear2009thefollowingtimevaluesarevalid:
TAIUTC=+34sec
GPSUTC=+15sec
TAIGPS=+19sec
12
http://www.leapsecond.com/java/gpsclock.htm
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4 GNSS technology: the GPS example

o
understandwhythreedifferentGPSsegmentsareneeded
knowwhatfunctioneachindividualsegmenthas
knowhowaGPSsatelliteisbasicallyconstructed
knowwhatsortofinformationistransmittedtoEarth
understandhowasatellitesignalisgenerated
understandhowSatelliteNavigationsignaltraveltimeisdetermined
understandwhatcorrelationmeans
understandwhyaminimumperiodoftimeisrequiredfortheGPSsystemtocomeonline
knowwhatframesandsubframesare
4.1 Introduction
AllGNSSsystemsfunctiononthesamebasicprinciples.Inthefollowingsectionswe
willexplorethedifferentsegmentsofGNSStechnologybyspecificallylookingatthe
GPS system. GPS is the pioneer and forerunner of GNSS technology and is the only
fully functional GNSS system in operation. GPS and GNSS are often used
interchangeably,althoughGPSspecificallyreferstoNAVSTARGPS,developedbythe
United States Department of Defense and managed by the United States Air Force
50thSpaceWing.TheGPSsystemhasbeenfullyoperationalsince1993. 13
4.2 Description of the entire system

TheGPSsystemiscomprisedofthreefunctionalsegments(Figure34):
Thespacesegment(alloperatingsatellites)
Thecontrolsegment(allgroundstationsinvolvedinthemonitoringofthesystem:mastercontrolstations,
monitorstations,andgroundcontrolstations)
Theusersegment(allcivilianandmilitaryusers)
13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System
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Space segment
- established ephemeris
- calculated almanacs
- satellite health
- time corrections
From satellites
L1 carrier signals
- time pulses
- ephemeris
- almanac
- satellite health
- date, time
From the ground

station
Control segment
User segment
Figure 34: The three GPS segments
As can be seen in Figure 34 there is unidirectional communication between the space segment and the user
segment.Thegroundcontrolstationshavebidirectionalcommunicationwiththesatellites.
4.3 Space segment

4.3.1 Satellite distribution and movement
ThespacesegmentoftheGPSsystemconsistsofupto32operationalsatellites(Figure35)orbitingtheEarthon
6differentorbitalplanes(fourtofivesatellitesperplane).Theyorbitataheightof20,180kmabovetheEarths
surfaceandareinclinedat55totheequator.Anyonesatellitecompletesitsorbitinaround12hours.Dueto
therotationoftheEarth,asatellitewillbeatitsinitialstartingpositionabovetheearthssurface(Figure36)after
approx.24hours(23hours56minutestobeprecise).
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Figure 35: GPS satellites orbit the Earth on 6 orbital planes
Satellitesignalscanbereceivedanywherewithinasatelliteseffectiverange.Figure36showstheeffectiverange
(shadedarea)ofasatellitelocateddirectlyabovetheequator/zeromeridianintersection.
90
3h
Latitude
15h
0 12h
18h
6h
0h
12h
9h
21h
90
-180
-120
-60
60
120
180
Longitude
Figure 36: 24 hour tracking of a GPS satellite with its effective range
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ThedistributionofthesatellitesataspecifictimecanbeseeninFigure37.Itisduetothisingeniouspatternof
distributionandtothehighorbitalaltitudesthatcommunicationwithatleast4satellitesisensuredatalltimes
anywhereintheworld.
Latitude
90
90
-180
-120
-60
60
120
180
Longitude
Figure 37: Position of the GPS satellites at 12:00 hrs UTC on 14th April 2001
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4.3.2 The GPS satellites

4.3.2.1
Satellite construction
Allofthesatellitesuseonboardatomicclockstomaintainsynchronizedsignals,whicharetransmittedoverthe
same frequency (1575.42 MHz). The minimum signal strength received on Earth is approx. -158dBW to
-160dBW 14 .Accordingtothespecifications,themaximumstrengthisapprox.-153dBW.
Figure 38: A GPS satellite
4.3.2.2
The communication link budget analysis
Thelinkbudgetanalysis(Table6)betweenasatelliteandauserissuitableforestablishingtherequiredlevelof
satellitetransmissionpower.Accordingtothespecifications,theminimumamountofpowerreceivedmustnot
fallbelow160dBW(-130dBm).Inordertoensurethislevelismaintained,thesatelliteL1carriertransmission
power,modulatedwiththeC/Acode,mustbe21.9W.Polarizationmismatchandantennareceptiongainarea
functionofreceiverdesign.Thesumofthesetwoparametersmayvarylargely.Dependingonthedesignvalues
between+5dBto-10dBaretypical.
Gain(+)/loss(-)
Absolutevalue
Poweratthesatellitetransmitter
13.4dBW(43.4dBm=21.9W)
Satellite antenna gain (due to concentration +13.4dB

ofthesignalat14.3)
RadiatepowerEIRP
26.8dBW(56.8dBm)
Lossduetopolarizationmismatch
-3.4dB
Signalattenuationinspace
-184.4dB
Signalattenuationintheatmosphere
-2.0dB
Gainfromthereceptionantenna
+3.0dB
Poweratreceiverinput
-160dBW(-130dBm=100.0*10-18W)
(EffectiveIntegratedRadiatePower)
Table 6: L1 carrier link budget analysis modulated with the C/A code
14
GlobalPositioningSystem,StandardPositioningSystemService,SignalSpecification,2ndEdition,1995,page18,
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf
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Accordingtothespecifications,thepowerofthereceivedGPSsignalinopenskyisatleast-160dBW(-130dBm).
The maximum of the spectral power density of the received signal is given as -190dBm/Hz (Figure 39). The
spectralpowerdensityofthethermalbackgroundnoiseisabout174dBm/Hz(atatemperatureof290K).Thus
themaximumreceivedsignalpowerisapproximately16dBbelowthethermalbackgroundnoiselevel.
-170
Thermal Noise
-180
Spectral Power Density

(dBm/Hz)
16dB
-190
Received
Signal
-200
-210
-220
-2MHz
-1MHz
0
1MHz
Deviation from median frequency
2MHz
Figure 39: Spectral Power Density of received signal and thermal noise
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4.3.2.3
Satellite signals
Thefollowinginformation(thenavigationmessage)istransmittedbythesatelliteatarateof50bitspersecond
[ 15 ]:
Satellitetimeandsynchronizationsignals
Preciseorbitaldata(ephemeris)
Timecorrectioninformationtodeterminetheexactsatellitetime
Approximateorbitaldataforallsatellites(almanac)
Correctionsignalstocalculatesignaltransittime
Dataontheionosphere
Informationontheoperatingstatus(health)ofthesatellite
Thetimerequiredtotransmitallthisinformationis12.5minutes.Byusingthenavigationmessage,thereceiver
isabletodeterminethetransmissiontimeofeachsatellitesignalandtheexactpositionofthesatelliteatthe
timeoftransmission.
EachGPSsatellitetransmitsauniquesignatureassignedtoit.ThissignatureconsistsofaPseudoRandomNoise
(PRN)Codeof1023zerosandones,broadcastwithadurationof1msandcontinuallyrepeated(Figure40).
1 ms/1023
1
0
1 ms
Figure 40: Pseudo Random Noise (PRN)
Thesignaturecodeservesthefollowingtwopurposesforthereceiver:
Identification:theuniquesignaturepatternidentifiesthesatellitefromwhichthesignaloriginated.
Signaltraveltimemeasurement
4.3.3 Generating the satellite signal

4.3.3.1
Simplified block diagram
Onboardeachofthesatellitesarefourhighlyaccurateatomicclocks.Theresonancefrequencyofoneofthese
clocksgeneratesthefollowingtimepulsesandfrequenciesrequiredforoperations(Figs.13and14):
The50Hzdatapulse
TheC/A(Coarse/Acquisition)code(aPRN-Codebroadcastat1.023MHz),whichmodulatesthedatausing
anexclusive-oroperation(EXOR) 16 spreadingthedataovera2MHzbandwidth.
ThefrequencyofthecivilL1carrier(1575.42MHz)
The data modulated by the C/A code modulates the L1 carrier in turn by using Binary-Phase-Shift-Keying
(BPSK) 17 .Witheverychangeinthemodulateddatathereisa180changeintheL1carrierphase.
15
NAVCEN:GPSSPSSignalSpecifications,2ndEdition,1995,http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf
Alogicaloperationontwooperandsthatresultsinalogicalvalueoftrueifandonlyifexactlyoneoftheoperandshasavalueoftrue.
16
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Multiplier
Carrier frequency
generator
1575.42 MHz
Transmitted
satellite signal
(BPSK)
L1 carrier
PRN code
generator
1.023 MHz
Data generator
50 Bit/sec
1
0
C/A code
exclusive-or
Data
Data
Figure 41: Simplified satellite block diagram
Data,
50 bit/s
C/A code
(PRN-18)
1.023 MBit/s
Data
modulated
by C/A code
L1 carrier,
1575.42 MHz
BPSK
modulated
L1 carrier
Figure 42: Data structure of a GPS signal
17
Amethodofmodulatingacarrierwavesothatdataistranslatedinto0/180phaseshiftsofthecarrier.
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4.3.3.2
Detailed block diagram
Satellite navigation signals are generated using a process known as DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
modulation 18 .Thisisaprocedureinwhichanominalorbaseband(nottobeconfusedwiththebasebandchipin
the receiver) frequency is deliberately spread out over a wider bandwidth through superimposing a higher
frequency signal. The principle of spread-spectrum modulation was first devised in the 1940s in the United
States, by screen actress Hedy Lamarr and pianist George Anthell 19 . This process allows for secure radio links
evenindifficultenvironments.
GPSsatellitesareeachequippedwithfourextremelystableatomicclocks(possessingastabilityofgreaterthan
-12
2010 ) 20 .Thenominalorbasebandfrequencyof10.23MHzisproducedfromtheresonantfrequencyofoneof
theseonboardclocks.Inturn,thecarrierfrequency,datapulsefrequencyandC/A(coarse/acquisition)codeare
all derived from this frequency (Figure 43). Since all the GPS satellites transmit on 1575.42 MHz, a process
knownasaCDMA(CodeDivisionMultipleAccess)Multiplex21 isused.
TheC/Acodeplaysanimportantroleinthemultiplexingandmodulation.Itisaconstantlyrepeatedsequenceof
1023bitsknownasapseudorandomnoise(PRN)code.Thiscodeisuniquetoeachsatelliteandservesasits
identifyingsignature.TheC/Acodeisgeneratedusingafeedbackshiftregister 22 .Thegeneratorhasafrequency
of1.023MHzandaperiodof1023chips 23 ,whichcorrespondsto1ms.TheC/AcodeisaGoldCode 24 ,which
hasadvantageouscorrelationproperties.Thishasimportantimplicationslateroninthenavigationprocessinthe
calculationofposition.
1575.42MHz
x 154
Carrier freq.
generator
1575.42MHz
L1 carrier
Antenna
BPSK
modulator
1575.42MHz
BPSK
: 10
Atomic clock
Baseband
Frequency
10.23MHz
10.23MHz
Time pulse for

C/A generator
1.023MHz
1.023MHz
C/A code
generator
1 period = 1ms
= 1023 Chips
: 204'600
50Hz
Data pulse
generator
50Hz
Data
processing
1 Bit = 20ms
1.023MHz
1.023MHz
C/A code
exclusive-or
50Hz
Data
0/1
Data
Figure 43: Detailed block diagram of a GPS satellite
18
LemmeH.:SchnellesSpread-Spectrum-ModemaufeinemChip,Elektronik1996,H.15p.38top.45
http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/1890
20
ParkinsonB.,SpilkerJ.:GlobalPositioningSystem,Volume1,AIAA-Inc.
21
Aformofmultiplexingthatdividesuparadiochannelbyusingdifferentpseudo-randomcodesequencesforeachuser.CDMAisaformof
"spread-spectrum"signalling,sincethemodulatedcodesignalhasamuchhigherbandwidththanthedatabeingcommunicated.
22
Ashiftregisterwhoseinputbitisalinearfunctionofitspreviousstate.
23
Thetransitiontimeforindividualbitsinthepseudo-randomsequence.
24
AGoldcodeisrepresentsabinarysequencewhichisgeneratedfromtwom-sequencesofsamelengthn.AsetofGoldcodescanbe
generatedbyvariationofthephaseshiftofthesetwom-sequences.ItischaracteristicforGoldcodesthatthecrosscorrelationfunctionof
thesecodesassumesjustthreedistinctvalues.
19
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4.4 Control segment

TheGPScontrolsegment(OperationalControlSystemOCS)consistsofaMasterControlStationlocatedinthe
stateofColorado,fivemonitorstations(eachequippedwithatomicclocksanddistributedaroundtheglobein
thevicinityoftheequator),andthreegroundcontrolstationstransmittinginformationtothesatellites.
Themostimportanttasksofthecontrolsegmentare:
Observingthemovementofthesatellitesandcomputingorbitaldata(ephemeris)
Monitoringthesatelliteclocksandpredictingtheirbehavior
Synchronizingonboardsatellitetime
Relayingpreciseorbitaldatareceivedfromsatellites
Relayingtheapproximateorbitaldataofallsatellites(almanac)
Relayingfurtherinformation,includingsatellitehealth,clockerrorsetc.
4.4.1 Deactivation possibilities and artificial distortion of the signal (SA)

The control segment also oversees the artificial distortion of signals (SA, Selective Availability), in order to
degrade the systems positional accuracy for civil use. Until May 2000 the U.S. DoD (the GPS operators)
intentionallydegradedsystemaccuracyforpoliticalandstrategicreasons.Thisconsistedofeithermodulatingthe
timesignalsofthelocalsatelliteswitharandomerrorsignal,orfalsifyingtheephemeris.Atthebeginningof
May2000,theSAsystemwasdeactivated 25 .Withthisactiontheprecisionofpositionsuddenlyimprovedfrom
approximately100mto13m(95%value) 26 .(SeeFigure44andFigure45)
Figure 44: Improvement of position accuracy after the deactivation of SA on May 2, 2000
25
http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/statement.html
http://pnt.gov/public/sa/diagram.shtml
26
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Figure 45: Improvement of position accuracy as function of time
After May 2, 2000 the artificial distortion (SA) could be regionally or globally reactivated as necessary 27 . The
theory of this was to maintain the possibility of degrading or limiting the availability of GPS in specific crisis
regions,whileprovidingtheunlimitedsystemaccuracyoutsideoftheseareas.Inpracticetherewerenoknown
instancesofreactivatingtheSAsystem.
OnSeptember18,2007,theUSDoDreportedthatwiththenextgenerationofGPSsatellites(GPSIII),satellite
navigationsignalscannolongerbeartificiallydistorted 28 , 29 .Thetechnicalpossibilityforsignaldistortionwillno
longerbeincludedinthisgenerationofsatellites.ThisdecisiononthepartoftheUSGovernmenttonotadd
signaldistortioncapabilitytoGPSIIIsatellitesandtorefrainfromimplementingtheexistingSAmeasuresshould
guaranteethereliabilityoftheGPSsystemforcivilianusers.
4.5 User segment

TheradiosignalstransmittedbytheGPSsatellitestakeapprox.67millisecondstoreachareceiveronEarth.As
the signals travel at a constant speed (the speed of light c), their travel time determines the exact distance
betweenthesatellitesandtheuser.Speedoflightishoweverafunctionofthemediumwhichwillbediscussed
indetaillater.
Fourdifferentsignalsaregeneratedinthereceiver,eachhavingthesamestructureasthesignalsreceivedfrom
the4satellites.Bysynchronizingthesignalsgeneratedinthereceiverwiththosefromthesatellites,thesignal
timeshiftstofthefoursatellitesaremeasuredasatimemark(Figure46).Themeasuredtimeshiftstofall4
satellitesignalsarethenusedtodeterminetheexactsignaltraveltime.Thesetimeshiftsmultipliedbythespeed
oflightarecalledpseudoranges.
27
http://pnt.gov/public/sa/sa.shtml
http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=11335
http://insidegnss.com/node/200
28
29
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1 ms
Satellite
signal
Synchronisation
Receiver
signal
(synchronised)
Receiver
time mark
Figure 46: Measuring signal travel time
Inordertodeterminethepositionofauser,radiocommunicationwithfourdifferentsatellitesisrequired.The
distancetothesatellitesisdeterminedbythetraveltimeofthesignals.Thereceiverthencalculatestheusers
latitude,longitude,altitudehandtimetfromthepseudorangesandknownpositionofthefoursatellites.
Expressedinmathematicalterms,thismeansthatthefourunknownvariableshandtaredeterminedfrom
thedistanceandknownpositionofthesefoursatellites,althoughafairlycomplexlevelofiterationisrequired,
whichwillbedealtwithingreaterdetailatalaterstage.
As mentioned earlier, all the GPS satellites transmit on the same frequency, but with a different C/A code.
Identificationofthesatellitesandsignalrecoverytakeplacebymeansofacorrelation.Asthereceiverisableto
recognize all C/A codes currently in use, by systematically shifting and comparing every known code with all
incomingsatellitesignals,acompletematchwilleventuallyoccur(thatistosaythecorrelationfactorCFisone),
anda correlation point will beattained (Figure 47). The correlationpoint is usedto measuretheactual signal
traveltimeandtoidentifythesatellite.
Incoming signal from PRN-18

bit 11 to 40, reference
Reference signal from PRN-18
bit 1 to 30, leading
CF = 0.00

bit 11 to 40, in phase
Correlation
point:
CF = 1.00

bit 21 to 50, trailing
CF = 0.07

Bit 11 to 40, in phase
CF = 0.33
Figure 47: Demonstration of the correction process across 30 bits
The quality of the correlation is expressed here as a CF (correlation factor). The value range of the CF lies
between minus one and plus one and is only plus one when the signals completely match (bit sequence and
phase).
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CF
1 N
mB uB
N i 1
mB:
numberofallmatchedbits
uB:
numberofallunmatchedbits
N:
numberofobservedbits.
AsaresultoftheDopplerEffect(satellitesandreceiversareinrelativemotiontooneanother)thetransmitted
signalscanbeshiftedbyupto5000Hzatthepointofreception.Thedeterminationofthesignaltraveltime
anddatarecoverythereforerequiresnotonlycorrelationwithallpossiblecodesatallpossiblephaseshifts,but
alsoidentificationofthecorrectphasecarrierfrequency.Furthermore,thelocalreferencefrequencymayhave
alsoanoffsetwhichaddstothefrequencyspanthatneedstobesearched.1ppmoffrequencyerrorinthelocal
oscillatorcorrespondsto1.575kHzDopplershift.Figure48assumessomearbitrarylocaloscillatoroffsetontop
of the 5000 kHz Doppler shift for illustration. Through systematic shifting and comparison of all the codes
(Figure 47) and the carrier frequency with the incoming satellite signals there comes a point that produces a
completeagreement(i.e.thecorrelationfactorisone)(Figure48).Asearchpositioninthecarrierfrequencylevel
isknownasabin.
Maximum
Level
bin
1023
Correlation
Factor
767
1
511
255
0
-6KHz
0
+6KHz
d
Co
i
Sh
ft
FrequencyShift
Figure 48: Search for the maximum correlation in the code and carrier frequency domains
The spectral power density of the received GPS signal lays at approximately 16 dB below the spectral power
densityofthethermalorbackgroundnoise(seeFigure39).Thedemodulationanddespreadingofthereceived
GPSsignalcausesasystemgainGGof:
GG
Modulationrate of C/A - Code 1023 bps
20,500 43dB
Datarateof informationsignal
50bps
After despreading, the power density of the usable signal is greater than that of the thermal or background
signalnoise(Figure49).
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-140
Correlated Signal
Spectral Power Density (dBm/Hz)
-150
-160
-170
Thermal Noise
-180
-190
-100Hz
-50Hz
0
50Hz
Deviation from Median Frequency
100Hz
Figure 49: Spectral power density of the correlated signal and thermal signal noise
The sensitivity of a GPS Receiver can be improved through increasing the correlation time (Dwell Time). The
longeracorrelatorremainsataspecificpointinthecode-frequencydomain,thelowerwillbetherequiredGPS
signal strength at the antenna. When the correlation time is increased by a factor of k, there will be an
improvementGRinthedifferencebetweentheSignalandtheThermalBackgroundNoiseof:
GR=log10(k)
Doubling theDwellTime increasesthe difference between the Signal and theThermal Background Noise (the
sensitivityofthereceiver)by3dB.Inpracticeitisnotaproblemtoincreasethecorrelationtimeupto20ms.If
thevalueofthetransmitteddataisknown,thenthistimecanbeincreasedevenmore.
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4.6 The GPS message

4.6.1 Introduction
The GPS message 30 is a continuous stream of data transmitted at 50 bits per second. Each satellite relays the
followinginformationtoEarth:
Systemtimeandclockcorrectionvalues
Itsownhighlyaccurateorbitaldata(ephemeris)
Approximateorbitaldataforallothersatellites(almanac)
Systemhealth,etc.
Thenavigationmessageisneededtocalculatethecurrentpositionofthesatellitesandtodeterminesignaltravel
times.
ThedatastreamismodulatedtotheHFcarrierwaveofeachindividualsatellite.Dataistransmittedinlogically
groupedunitsknownasframesorpages.Eachframeis1500bitslongandtakes30secondstotransmit.The
framesaredividedinto5subframes.Eachsubframeis300bitslongandtakes6secondstotransmit.Inorderto
transmit a complete almanac, 25 different frames are required. Transmission time for the entire almanac is
therefore 12.5 minutes. Unless equipped with GPS enhancement (see Chapter 7) a GPS receiver must have
collectedthecompletealmanacatleastonceinordertocalculateitsinitialposition.
4.6.2 Structure of the navigation message

Aframeis1500bitslongandtakes30secondstotransmit.The1500bitsaredividedintofivesubframeseach
of300bits(durationoftransmission6seconds).Eachsubframeisinturndividedinto10wordseachcontaining
30 bits. Each subframe begins with a telemetry word and a handover word (HOW). A complete navigation
message consists of 25 frames (pages). The structure of the navigation message is illustrated in a diagram in
Figure50.
30
GPSStandardPositioningServiceSignalSpecification,2ndEdition,June2,1995
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16Bits
reserved
Subpage
300 Bits
6s
Sub-frame 1
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Word No.
Data
Sub-frame 2
Sub-frame 3
Word content
Sub-frame 4
Sub-frame 5
Partial almanac
other data
TLM
HOW
Ephemeris
TLM
HOW
Ephemeris
TLM
HOW
Satellite clock
and health data
TLM
HOW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TLM
HOW
Frame
(page)
1500 bits
30s
1 2 3
Handover word
17Bits
7Bits 6Bits
(HOW)
Time of Week div., pa30 bits
(TOW)
ID
rity
0.6s
6Bits
parity
TLM
HOW
Telemetry word 8Bits

(TLM)
pre30 bits
amble
0.6s
Almanac
Navigation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
message
25 pages/frames
37500 bits
12.5 min
Figure 50: Structure of the entire navigation message
4.6.3 Information contained in the subframes

Aframeisdividedintofivesubframes,eachsubframetransmittingdifferentinformation.
Subframe1containsthetimevaluesofthetransmittingsatellite,includingtheparametersforcorrecting
signaltransitdelayandonboardclocktime,aswellasinformationonsatellitehealthandanestimateof
thepositionalaccuracyofthesatellite.Subframe1alsotransmitstheso-called10-bitweeknumber(a
rangeofvaluesfrom0to1023canberepresentedby10bits).GPStimebeganonSunday,6thJanuary
1980at00:00:00hours.Every1024weekstheweeknumberrestartsat0.Thiseventiscalledaweek
rollover.
Subframes2and3containtheephemerisdataofthetransmittingsatellite.Thisdataprovidesextremely
accurateinformationonthesatellitesorbit.
Subframe4containsthealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers25to32(N.B.eachsubframecantransmit
datafrom one satellite only), the difference betweenGPSand UTC time (leap seconds or UTC offset)
andinformationregardinganymeasurementerrorscausedbytheionosphere.
Subframe5containsthealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers1to24(N.B.eachsubframecantransmit
datafromonesatelliteonly).All25pagesaretransmittedtogetherwithinformationonthehealthof
satellitenumbers1to24.
4.6.4 TLM and HOW

Thefirstwordofeverysingleframe,theTelemetryword(TLM),containsapreamblesequence8bitsinlength
(10001011) used for synchronization purposes, followed by 16 bits reserved for authorized users. As with all
words,thefinal6bitsofthetelemetrywordareparitybits.
TheHandoverword(HOW)immediatelyfollowsthetelemetrywordineachsubframe.TheHandoverwordis17
bits in length (a range of values from 0 to 131071 can be represented using 17 bits) and contains within its
structurethestarttimeforthenextsubframe,whichistransmittedastimeoftheweek(TOW).TheTOWcount
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beginswiththevalue0atthebeginningoftheGPSweek(transitionperiodfromSaturday23:59:59hoursto
Sunday 00:00:00 hours) and is increased by a value of 1 every 6 seconds. As there are 604,800 seconds ina
week, the count runs from 0 to 100,799, before returning to 0. A marker is introduced into the data stream
every6secondsandtheHOWtransmitted,inordertoallowsynchronizationwiththePcode.BitNos.20to22
areusedinthehandoverwordtoidentifythesubframejusttransmitted.
4.6.5 Subdivision of the 25 pages

Acompletenavigationmessagerequires25pagesandlasts12.5minutes.Apageoraframeisdividedintofive
subframes.Inthecaseofsubframes1to3,theinformationcontentisthesameforall25pages.Thismeansthat
areceiverhasthecompleteclockvaluesandephemerisdatafromthetransmittingsatelliteevery30seconds.
Theonlydifferenceinthecaseofsubframes4and5ishowtheinformationtransmittedisorganized.
Inthecaseofsubframe4,pages2,3,4,5,7,8,9and10relaythealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers
25to32.Ineachcase,thealmanacdataforonesatelliteonlyistransferredperpage.Page18transmits
thevaluesforcorrectionmeasurementsasaresultofionosphericscintillation,aswellasthedifference
betweenUTCandGPStime.Page25containsinformationontheconfigurationofall32satellites(i.e.
blockaffiliation)andthehealthofsatellitenumbers25to32.
Inthecaseofsubframe5,pages1to24relaythealmanacdataonsatellitenumbers1to24.Ineach
case,thealmanacdataforonesatelliteonlyistransferredperpage.Page25transfersinformationon
thehealthofsatellitenumbers1to24andtheoriginalalmanactime.
4.6.6 Comparison between ephemeris and almanac data

Usingbothephemerisandalmanacdata,thesatelliteorbitsandthereforetherelevantcoordinatesofaspecific
satellitecanbedeterminedatadefinedpointintime.Thedifferencebetweenthevaluestransmittedliesmainly
intheaccuracyofthefigures.Inthefollowingtable(Table7),acomparisonismadebetweenthetwosetsof
figures.
Information
Ephemeris
Almanac
No.ofbits
No.ofbits
Squarerootofthesemimajoraxisof 32
orbitalellipsea
16
32
16
Eccentricityoforbitalellipsee
Table 7: Comparison between ephemeris and almanac data
Theorbitofasatellitefollowsanellipse.ForanexplanationofthetermsusedinTable7,seeFigure51.
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Figure 51: Ephemeris terms
Semi-majoraxisoforbitalellipse:a
Semi-minoraxisoforbitalellipse:b
Eccentricityoftheorbitalellipse: e
a2 b2
a2
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4.7 GPS modernization

4.7.1 New modulation procedure, BOC and MBOC
4.7.1.1
BPSK(1)-modulation
Inorderforallsatellitestotransmitonthesamefrequency,theGPSsignalsarespreadout(modulated)witha
specialcode.ForcivilianStandardPositioningSystem(SPS)signalsthiscodeconsistsofaPseudoRandomNoise
Code(PRN)of1023zeroesoronesandisknownastheC/A-Code.Thecode,withaperiodof1millisecond,has
a chiprate of 1.023Mbit/s. It is continuously repeated and due to its unique structure enables the receiver to
identifyfromwhichsatellitethesignaloriginates.
Thespreading(ormodulation)ofthedatasignalisachievedwithanexclusive-or(EXOR)operation(Figure52).
The result is referred to as Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK(1)). The nominal or baseband frequency signal is
generatedbyoneoftheatomicclocksandallsatellitesignalsarederivedfromthis.Thenominalorbaseband
frequencyisthenspreadormodulatedbytheC/ACodeat11.023Mbit/s.
1 ms
Baseband
Frequency
1.023MHz
x1
1 ms/1023
PRN-Code
Generator
1.023 Mbit/s
C/A-Code
BPSK(1)
Data Generator
(C/A-Code)
50 Bit/sec
EXOR
1
0
Data
Navigation
Data
Figure 52: With BPSK the navigation data signal is first spread by a code
Power Spectral Density (dBm/Hz)
ThePowerSpectralDensity(PSD)ofBPSK(1)signalsisshowninFigure53.
Figure 53: Power spectral density of BPSK(1) signals (signal strength normalized at 1 W per signal)
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4.7.1.2
Introduction of BOC-modulation
InthefuturethebasemodulationforGPSandtheEuropeanGALILEOsystemswillbeanewmodulationprocess
calledBinaryOffsetCodeModulation(BOC).WithBOCtheBPSKsignalundergoesafurthermodulation 31 .The
modulation frequency is always a multiple of the Baseband Frequency of 1.023MHz. The properties of this
modulationarecommunicatedinaspecificway.ForexampleBOC(10,5)meansthatthemodulationfrequencyis
afactorof10timestheNominalorBasebandFrequency(101.023MHz)andthechiprateoftheC/ACodeis5
timesthebase(51,023Mbit/s)(Figure54).
x 10
Modulation
Generator
10.23 MHz
10.23MHz
0.2 ms
Baseband
Frequency
1.023MHz
x5
PRN-Code
Generator
5.115 Mbit/s
C/A-Code
BOC(10,5)
Data Generator
(C/A-Code)
50 Bit/s
EXOR
1
0
EXOR
Data
Navigation
Data
Figure 54: Block schematic of a BOC(10,5) modulator
With BOC the signal is better distributed over the bandwidth and the influence of opposing signal reflection
(multipath)onthereceptionofthenavigationsignalisreducedincomparisontoBPSK.BPSK(1)andBOC(1,1)
haveaminimalimpactoneachotherwhenusedsimultaneouslybecausetheirpowerspectrumdensitymaxima
areseparated(Figure55).
31
JournaloftheInstituteofNavigation,2002,Vol.48,No.4,pp227-246,Author:JohnW.Betz
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Figure 55: With BPSK(1) and BOC(1,1) the signal maxima are separated (signal strength normalized at 1 W per signal)
4.7.1.3
MBOC modulation (multiplexed BOC, MBOC(6,1,1/11)
OnJuly26,2007theUSAandEUagreedthatGPSandGALILEOwouldusethesamemodulationtype.Thenew
modulation,knownasMBOC(6,1,1/11),willbeusedwiththenewGPSsignalL1C(L1Civil)andfortheGALILEO
signal L1 OS (L1 Open Service, sometimes referred to as E1). MBOC modulation is an expansion of BOC
modulation,andcombinestwoBOCmodulatorsandaddstheirsignalstogetherwithdifferentweighting(Figure
56).
MBOC(6,1,1 /11)
10
1
BOC(1,1) BOC(6,1)
11
11
BOC(1,1)
Modulator
Baseband
Frequency
1.023MHz
10/11
Navigation Data
BOC(6,1)
Modulator
Signal Addition
MBOC(6,1,1/11)
1/11
Navigation Data
Figure 56: MBOC(6,1,1/11) modulators for L1C and L1 OS
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By combining two BOC signals, more performance is available at higher frequencies (Figure 57). As a result
tracking performance is improved and the receiver is less susceptible to noise, interference and multipath. In
ordertotakeadvantageofalloftheproperties,thereceiverbandwidthmustbeapproximately20MHz(BPSK(1)
approx.2MHz).
Figure 57: Power spectral density of MBOC(6,1,1/11) compared with BPSK(1) (P = 1W per signal)
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4.7.2 GPS modernization

SincetheactivationoftheGPSsystemin1978allthesatellitestransmitthefollowingthreesignalstotheEarth:
OntheL1-Frequency(1575.42MHz):oneciviliansignal(SPS-ServicewiththeC/A-Signal,BPSK(1))andone
militarysignal(PPS-servicewiththeP(Y)-Signal,BPSK(10))
OntheL2-Frequency(1227.60MHz):asecondP(Y)-Signalformilitaryapplications.
The U.S. DoD has planned incremental improvements to the GPS signal structure (Figure 59). For civilian
applicationstheintroductionofasecondandthirdfrequencyisveryimportant;whenmorefrequenciescanbe
used for establishing position, then the influence of the ionosphere on the signal travel time can be
compensated or even eliminated. This compensation is possible because the transmission velocity c 32 in the
ionosphereisdependentonthefrequency.Inadditiontothetwonewsignals,themodernizationofGPSwill
provide an increase in the signal strength for civilian users as well as additional capabilities for military
applications.
TheGPSoperatorshavethefollowingtimeplanforGPSmodernization 33 :
By the end of 2009, eight new satellites of the type IIR-M (Block 2, Replenishment and Military) brought into
orbit.IIR-Msatellitestransmitadditionalsignalssuchas:
Anewciviliansignalatafrequencyof1227.60MHz,theso-calledL2Csignal.
Further military signals at 1575.42 MHz and 1227.60 MHz: the M signals. These M signals employ
BOC(10,5)modulation.
Aftertheendof2009,24satellitesofthetypeGPSIIF(Block2,Follow-ON)willbebroughtintoorbit(Figure58,
left 34 ).Themostimportantcharacteristicofthesesatellitesis:
IIFsatellitestransmitanewciviliansignalatafrequencyof1176.45MHz(L5Frequency).Thissignalismore
robustthanpreviousciviliansignalsandcanbeusedinaviationduringcriticalapproaches.
Figure 58: GPS IIF satellite (left) und GPS III satellite (right)
After 2013 a new satellite generation is planned. This new series will have the designation GPS III (Block 3)
(Figure58,right 35 ).Themostimportantcharacteristicofthesesatellitesare:
Increase of the signal strength of the M signals (= M+) through the deployment of concentrated-beam
antennas.
32
Approximately300,000,000m/s
RayClore,GPSConstellationUpdate,TimeNav07NavigationSystemsStatus,Geneva2007
34
http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/gps/index.html
35
http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/07.html
33
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ImprovementoftheC/AsignalstructureofthecivilianL1-Frequency.ThenewsignalwillbedesignatedL1C.
TransmissionofanIntegritySignal
SearchandRescuecapabilities
Nobuilt-intechnicalcapabilitytoproduceartificialdegradation(SelectiveAvailability,SA)
Frequency
Band
CivilSignal
L5
1176.45MHz
L2
1227.60MHz
L1
1575.42MHz
MilitarySignal
L5
P(Y)
L2M
P(Y)
L2C
L2M
P(Y)
L2C
P(Y)
C/A
L1M
P(Y)
C/A
L1M
P(Y)
C/A
until2005
2005to2008
BlockIIR-M
after2008
BlockIIF
L5
M+
P(Y)
L2C
M+
P(Y)
L1C
C/A
after2013
BlockIII
Date
Figure 59: With modernization the number of available GPS frequencies will be increased
TheGPSgroundstationswillalsoberenewed.Theentiresystemoverhaulshouldbecompleteandoperational
by2021.Thenewsignalswillthenbefullyavailabletousers.
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5 GLONASS, GALILEO and Beidou/Compass

Do you want to . . .
o
know,howtheRussianNavigationSystemGLONASSfunctions
understand,whyGLONASSwillbebuiltup
know,whichsystemEuropewillbeactivating
understand,whyGALILEOwillprovidedifferentservices
know,whatSARcanmeanforsailors
know,howthenewmodulationprocessBOCfunctions
know,aboutthesystemplannedbythePeoplesRepublicofChina
5.1 Introduction
OnDecember28,2005thefirstGALILEOsatellitewasbroughtintoorbit.By2014therewillprobablybethree
independent GNSS systems available: GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO. GPS will also be modernized in the near
futureandwillthereforebecomemorereliable(seeSection4.7).Thischaptergivesanoverviewoftheexisting
GLONASSsystem,thefutureEuropeanGALILEOsystem,andtheGNSSsystemplannedbythePeoplesRepublic
ofChina:Beidou/Compass.
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5.2 GLONASS: the Russian system

GLONASS is an abbreviation for a GNSS system currently operated by the Russian
Defense Ministry. The designation GLONASS stands for Global Navigation Satellite
System. The program was first started by the former Soviet Union, and is today
under the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The first
threetest-satelliteswerelaunchedintoorbitonOctober12,1982.
ThemostimportantfactsoftheGLONASSsystemare:
24plannedsatellites(21standard+3reservesatellites).Thisnumberhasnever
been achieved. At the beginning of 2008 there were 14 satellites in operation
(Figure 60 36 ). The relatively short lifespan of the individual satellites of 3 to 4
yearshamperedthecompletionofthesystem.
Figure 60: Status of GLONASS as of July 2009
36
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3 orbital levels (Figure 61 37 ) with an angle of 64.8 from the equator (this is the highest angle of all the
GNSSsystemsandallowsbetterreceptioninpolarregions)
Figure 61: The three orbitals of GLONASS
Orbitalaltitudeof19,100kmandorbitalperiodof11h15.8min
EveryGLONASSsatellitetransmitstwocodes(C/AandP-Code)ontwofrequencies.Everysatellitetransmits
thesamecode,butatdifferentfrequenciesinthevicinityof1602MHz(L1Band)and1246MHz(L2Band).
Thefrequenciescanbedeterminedthroughthefollowingformula(kisthefrequencychannelofthesatellite
underconsideration):
o FrequencyinL1Band:f1=1602MHz+k(9/16)MHz
o
FrequencyinL2Band:f2=1246MHz+k(7/16)MHz
5.2.1 Completion of GLONASS

The GLONASS system requires 24 functional satellites for full deployment. The CIS intends to have its system
fullyoperational.AtregularintervalsaProton-KDM-2launchesthreeGLONASS-Msatellites(Uragansatellites)
intoorbit(Figure62 38 ).TheMserieshavealifespanof7-8yearsandtransmit2civiliansignals.
37
SergeyRevnivykh,46-thCGSICMeeting,FortWorth,TX,USA,September26,2006
http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/index.html
38
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Figure 62: GLONASS-M satellite and the launch of a Proton-K-DM2 rocket
After2009theGLONASS-Kseriesofsatellitesaretobelaunched.Theseareexpectedtohavealifespanof1012 years and transmit three civilian signals. By 2009/2010 the required 24 satellites should be in orbit (Figure
63 39 ).
Figure 63: GLONASS development plan
ThemeasuredpositionaccuracyofGLONASSshouldgraduallyapproachthatofGPS(Figure64,[ 40 ]).
39
SergeyRevnivykh,MunichSatelliteNavigationSummit,21-23February,2006
SergeyV.Averin, EuropeanNavigationConferenceGNSS-2006
40
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Figure 64: By completion of development the measured positioning accuracy should equal that of GPS
WiththemodernizationanddeploymentofGLONASSthefollowingchangestothesystemcanbeexpected:
Renewalofthecontrolsegment.
Modernizationofthetime-referencingprinciple.
MorePrecisemeasurementandtransmissionofEphemerisandsatellitetimes.
Improvedstabilityofsatelliteclocks.
Thereferenceellipsoidinuse(GeodeticReferenceFramePZ-90)willbeapproximatedtoITRF.
Athirdciviliansignal(L3)willbeintroducedwiththeGLONASS-Ksatellites.
ASearchandRescueFunctionwillbeintroducedwithGLONASS-K.
ItisconsideredtoalsosendCDMAsignalsonL1later
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5.3 GALILEO
5.3.1 Overview
GALILEOistheEuropeanGNSSsystembeingdevelopedbytheEuropeanUnion(EU),
inclosecooperationwiththeEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA).GALILEOwillconsistofa
constellationof30satelliteson3circularorbitsatanaltitudeof23,222kmabovethe
Earth 41 . These satellites are to be supported by a worldwide network of ground
stations.
ThekeyargumentsfromtheperspectiveoftheEUforintroducingGALILEOare:
ToattainindependencefromtheUSA.
Tohaveaprecisenavigationsystem.Theopenservice(OS)isexpectedtoprovide
a precision of approximately 4 to 15m. Critical security services should have a precision of 4 to 6m.
Sensitivity to multipath reception will also be reduced. This improvement will be achieved through the
applicationofBOCandMBOCmodulation.GPSwillalsointroduceBOCandMBOCwhenitismodernized.
To have a purely civilian navigation system. GALILEO is being conceived and implemented according to
civiliancriteria.ForsomeservicesGALILEOwillofferaguaranteeoffunction.
Providingmoreservices.GALILEOwillofferfivedifferentfunctions.
OfferaSearchandRescueFunction.SearchandRescue(SAR)functionsarealreadybeingofferedbyother
organizations.NewwithGALILEOisthatanalarmcanbeacknowledged.
IncreasedSecuritythroughIntegrityMessages.GALILEOwillbemorereliableinthatitincludesanintegrity
message. This will immediately inform users of errors that develop. On top of this is a guarantee of
availability.FortheOpenServicetherewillbeneithertheavailabilityguaranteenortheintegritymessages.
TheseservicesareonlyavailablethroughEGNOS 42 .
CreationofEmployment.
Attain GNSS know-how. With GALILEO, Europe wants to acquire expertise and provide the domestic
industrywithasustainablegrowthincompetence.Forexample,theatomicclocksusedbyGALILEOareto
bemanufacturedinEurope(Figure65 ).
43
Figure 65: Rubidium and Hydrogen-Maser atomic clocks
41
http://www.esa.int/esaNA/SEMJQSXEM4E_galileo_0.html
EuropeanGeostationaryNavigationOverlayService
http://www.esa.int/esaNA/SEM5IURMD6E_galileo_0.html
42
43
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Toimprovetheworldwidecoverageofsatellitesignals.GALILEOwillofferbetterreceptionthanGPStocities
located in higher latitudes. This is possible because the GALILEO satellites have orbits at an angle of 56
from the equator as well as an altitude of 23,616km. In addition, modern GNSS receivers are able to
evaluateGPSandGALILEOsignals.Thismultipliesthenumberofvisiblesatellitesfromwhichsignalscanbe
received,increasingthelevelofcoverageandtheaccuracy.
5.3.2 Projected GALILEO services

ForcertaincriticalapplicationsGALILEOwillprovideinformationaboutthesystemintegrityinordertoassurethe
accuracyofpositioning.Integrityisunderstoodtobethereliabilityofinformationanddataprovided.Userswill
quickly(within6seconds)receiveawarningwhenthesystemaccuracyfallsbelowthegivenminima.The
GALILEOoperatorsareoftheopinionthatthesewarningsareprovidedsoonenoughevenforcritical
applications(e.g.aircraftlandings).Eachserviceprovidesdifferentdemandsonfunction,accuracy,availability,
integrityandotherparameters.
5.3.2.1
Open Service, OS
OpenService(OS)isforeseenformass-marketapplications.Itprovidesfreesignalsforthedeterminationof
positionandtime.Applicationswithlowerdemandsforaccuracywillusecheapersingle-frequencyreceivers.
BecausethetransmittedfrequenciesfromGALILEOandGPS(L1)arethesameforthisapplication,navigation
receiverswillbeabletocombinethesignals.Duetotheincreaseinthenumberofsatellitesignalsreceivedthere
willbeanimprovementinthereceptionpropertieseveninsuboptimalconditions(e.g.inurbanenvironments).
OSwillnotbeprovidedwithSystemIntegrityInformationandtheGALILEOoperatorsmakenoguaranteesof
availabilityandacceptnoliability.
5.3.2.2
Commercial Service, CS
TheCommercialService(CS)isenvisagedformarketapplicationswithhigherperformancedemandsthanthe
OS.CSisdesignedtoprovideavarietyofbeneficialservicestoitscustomersonafeeforusagebasis.Typical
examplesoftheseapplicationswouldbeservicesprovidinghigh-speeddatatransmission,guaranteesof
availability,exact-timerelatedservices,aswellaslocalcorrectionsignalsformaximalpositioningaccuracy.
5.3.2.3
Safety of Life Service, SoL
TheSafetyofLifeService(SoL)isenvisagedprimarilyfortransportationapplicationsforwhichanimpairmentof
thenavigationsystemwithoutadequatewarningcouldresultinalife-threateningsituation.Theprimary
differencetoOSistheworldwidehighlevelofinformationintegrityprovidedtosuchcrucialapplicationsas
maritimenavigation,aviationandrailtraffic.Thisserviceisonlyaccessiblebyusingacertifieddouble-frequency
receiver.Toachievethenecessarysignalprotection,SoLwillbedeployedusingtheaviationcommunication
channels(L1andE5).
5.3.2.4
Public Regulated Service, PRS
GALILEO is a civilian system that will also provide stable and access-protected services for governmental
(includingmilitary)purposes.ThePublicRegulatedService(PRS)willbeavailabletosuchclientsaspoliceandfire
departmentsandborderpatrols.Accesstothisserviceisrestrictedandcontrolledbyacivilianagency.ThePRS
mustbeavailablecontinuallyandunderallconditions,especiallyduringcrisissituationswhereotherservicescan
bedisrupted.ThePRSwillbeindependentoftheotherservicesandwillbecharacterizedbyahighlevelofsignal
stability.PRSwillalsobeprotectedagainstelectronicinterferenceanddeception.
5.3.2.5
Search and Rescue, SAR
TheSARservicewillbeusedbyhumanitariansearchandrescueservices.Emergencytransmittersandsatellites
enablethelocationofindividualpersons,craftsandvehiclesinaviation,landandmaritimeemergencies.Atthe
end of the 1970s, the USA, Canada, the USSR and France developed a satellite system for the location of
activated distress beacons.The system is referred toas SARSAT (Search And Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking).
TheRussiannameforthesystemisCOSPAS.TheCOSPAS-SARSATsystememployssixLEO(LowEarthOrbit)
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andfiveGEO(geostationary)satellites.TheGALILEO-SARserviceisplannedtoexpandandimprovetheexisting
COSPAS-SARSATsystem 44 inthefollowingways:
AlmostinstantaneousreceptionofemergencycallsfromanylocationonEarth(currentlythereare
delaysofanaverageofonehour).
Exactdeterminationofpositionofthedistressbeacons(towithinmetersinsteadofthecurrentaccuracy
of5km).
ImprovedeffectivenessoftheSpaceSegmentthroughtheavailabilityofmoresatellitestoovercome
localizedhindrancesduringsuboptimalconditions(30GALILEOsatellitesinmediumorbitswill
supplementtheexistingLEOandGEOsatellitesoftheCOSPAS-SARSATsystem).
GALILEOwillintroduceanewSARfunction;thedistresssignalreply(fromtheSARoperatortotheemergency
transmitterradio)willbegin.Thisshouldsimplifyrescuemeasuresandreducethenumberoffalsealarms.The
GALILEOSARservicewillbedefinedincooperationwithCOSPAS-SARSAT,withthecharacteristicsandfunctions
of the service being governed by the IMO (International Maritime Organization) and ICAO (International Civil
AviationOrganization).
SARSAT-COSPAS
Downlink
1544.5MHz
GALILEO
Satellite
Control
Center
Downlink
1544.1MHz
Distress
Signal
121.5MHZ
243MHZ
406MHZ
Distress
Signal
406MHZ
Rescue
Team
Emergency
Satellite
Control
Center
Uplink
5.01GHz
Distress
Reply:
E2,L1undE1
Rescue
Team
Rescue
Center
Emergency
Rescue
Center
Figure 66: Unlike SARSAT-COSPAS, GALILEO's Search and Rescue service also provides a reply to the distress signal
44
http://www.cospas-sarsat.org/Status/spaceSegmentStatus.htm
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5.3.3 Accuracy
DependingontheserviceGALILEOwillprovidedifferinglevelsofaccuracy 45 .Whendual-frequencyreceiversare
used, the accuracy can be improved by compensating for signal travel-time errors caused by ionospheric
conditions.Byutilizinglocalmeasures(e.g.DGPS)theprecisioncanbeincreasedtowithincentimeters.Table8
showstheanticipatedaccuracyof95%ofallmeasurements.
Service
ReceiverType
HorizontalPositioningAccuracy
VerticalPositioningAccuracy
OS
SingleFrequency
15m
35m
DoubleFrequency
4m
8m
CS
DoubleFrequency
<1m
<1m
PRS
SingleFrequency
6.5m
12m
SoL
DoubleFrequency
4-6m
4-6m
Table 8: Planned positioning accuracies for GALILEO
45
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5.3.4 GALILEO technology

ThespacesegmentofGALILEOwillconsistof30satellites(3ofwhichwillbeactivereservesatellites).Theywill
beplacedincircularorbitsatanaltitudeof23,616kmprovidingforworldwidecoverage.Thesatellites(each
with a weight of 680 kg and dimensions of 2.7 m x 1.2 m x 1.1 m) will be evenly distributed over 3 orbits,
havinganangleof56totheequator(Figure67)andanorbitalperiodof14hoursand5minutes.
Figure 67: Constellation of the GALILEO satellites (picture: ESA-J.Huart)
TheGALILEOsatellitesareexpectedtohaveamassof700kganddimensionsof2.7x1.2x1.1m.Theyare
designedtohaveanoperationallifespanof15years.Therequiredpowerof1500Wwillbegeneratedbylarge
area solar panels. In order to maintain current navigation data, the satellites will be in radio contact to the
groundsegmentofthesystematregularintervalsof100minutes.
Figure 68: GALILEO satellite (Picture: ESA-J.Huart)
Thegroundsegmentofthesystemwillconsistofaseriesofcontrolcenters,togetherwithaglobalnetworkof
stationsforvarioustasks.Thisincludesthemonitoringofsignalintegrityandthecoordinationoftheforeseen
extensiveSearchandRescueservices.
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There are worldwide control centers planned for navigation and satellite control. The core of the ground
segmentwillconsistoftwoGALILEOcontrolcentersinGermanyandItaly 46 .Themaincontrolcenterwillbethe
German Aerospace (DLR) Center at Oberpfaffenhofen. From there the control of normal operation of the 30
satellites is planned for at least 20 years. A second comprehensive control center with its own specific
responsibilities for normal operation will be located at Fucino in Italy. This is also to be a backup to the main
controlcenterintheeventofanyproblemsthatshouldarisethere.Controlofthepositioningofthe30satellites
willbeevenlydividedbetweentheEuropeanSatelliteControlCenter(ESA/ESOC)inDarmstadt,Germany,and
theFrenchNationalSpaceStudiesCenter(CNES)inToulouse,France.Achainofabout30IntegrityMonitoring
Stations (IMS) distributed worldwide will control the integrity of the satellite signals. Two control centers will
evaluatetheIMSinformationandsoundanalarmintheeventofanexcessivedeviationinpositiondata.
ItisplannedthatthreeArianne5rockets,eachcarryingeightsatellites(Figure69),andthreeSoyuzrockets,each
carryingtwoGALILEOsatelliteswilltransportthesatellitesintoMiddleEarthOrbit(MEO).
Figure 69: Ariane 5 rocket delivering 8 GALILEO satellites into space (GALILEO-industries.net)
5.3.4.1
Signal frequencies
Dependingontheservices,therewillbedifferentfrequencies,modulationformats,anddatatransmissionrates
used(SeeTable9andFigure70 47 , 48 ).TheprincipalmodulationformatswillbeBPSKandBOC.Asanexception,
E5aandE5bemployaslightlymodifiedversionofBOCmodulationknownasAltBOC.
Band:Frequency
(MHz)
SignalName
FrequencyofMaxima(MHz)
Services
Modulation
E5:1191.795
E5a(l5)
E5b
E6b
E6a
L1(L1OS)
E2&E1
L6
1176.45
1207.14
1278.75
1268.52&1288.98
1574.661&1576.178
1560.075&1590.765
1544.5
OS,CS
OS,CS,SoL
CS
PRS
OS,CS,SoL
PRS
SAR-Downlink
AltBOC(15,10)
AltBOC(15,10)
BPSK(5)
BOC(10,5)
MBOC(6,1,1/11)
BOC(15,2.5)
-
E6:1278.75
L1:1575.42
E1,E2:1575.42
L6:1544.5
DataRate
(Bit/s)
50
250
1000
-
250
-
-
Table 9: Frequency plan of GALILEO and distribution of services
46
http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMT498A9HE_Austria_0.html
http://www.esa.int/esaNA/SEM86CSMD6E_galileo_0.html
TheMBOCModulation,G.W.Heinetal.,InsideGNSSSept./Oct.2007,Page43
47
48
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Figure 70: Frequencies with reserved bandwidths for GALILEO services
AdditionallyE5a,E5b,E6andL1transmitapilotchannel.Thepilotchannelisfreeofnavigationdataandthe
phaseisshiftedat90totheothersignals.Thisreducestheacquisitiontimeofthereceiver.BetweenL1andE6
istheSAR-Downlinkfrequency.
Power density (dBm/Hz)
Figure 71: Planned GALILEO frequencies
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5.3.4.2
Time plan
On June 26, 2004, after many years of difficult negotiations, the USA and the EU were able to sign an
agreement in Dublin. The goal of the agreement was to secure the smooth cooperation (interoperability) and
compatibilityofGALILEOanditsAmericancounterpartGPS.
On December 10, 2004, upon the recommendation of the European Commission, the European Council
confirmedthetechnicalcharacteristicsofthesystememphasizingtheservicestobeoffered.OnJuly26,2007,
the agreement concerning common civilian signals in the L1 Band was made public: The GPS L1C and the
GALILEO L1F signals are to be modulated with MBOC(6,1,1/11) According to the European Commission,
GALILEOshouldbeginoperationin2013/2014.
Theconstructionofthesystemwilltakeplaceinfourphases:
Project definition: The goal of the definition phase was to establish the fundamental parameters and
specificationsofthesystem.Thispartoftheoverallprojectwascompletedin2003.
Developmentandtestsinorbit:OnDecember28,2005,thefirstexperimentalsatelliteGIOVE-Awas
launchedintoorbitfromtheRussianCosmodromeatBaikonurinKasachstan(Figure72).GIOVEisan
acronymforGALILEOIn-OrbitValidationElementaswellasbeingtheItaliannamefortheplanetJupiter.
Thesecondexperimentalsatellite(GIOVE-B)wassuccessfullylaunchedintoorbitonApril27,2008 49 anda
third(GIOVE-A2)in2008.Withtheexperimentalsatellites,theEUwillsecurethefrequencybandsfor
GALILEOoperationanddeterminetheorbitsforthetestphasesatellites.Thesepioneersatelliteswillalso
serveinthetestingofimportanttechnology,suchasatomicclocks,inthehardconditionsofspace.GIOVEAhastwoRubidiumatomicclocks(withastabilityofapproximately10nanosecondsperday)andGIOVE-B
willhavetwopassiveHydrogen-Maseratomicclocks(withastabilityoflessthan1nanosecondperday)
onboard.
Figure 72: GIOVE-A and its launch on December 28, 2005 (picture ESA)
49
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ShouldtheexperimentalphasewithGIOVE-AandGIOVE-B(andpossiblyGIOVE-A2)besuccessful,four
satelliteswillbelaunchedintoorbitin2009andtested .Withthisminimumconstellation,scientistscan
testifthesatellitescandeliverexactpositionandtimedatatotestlocationsontheground.
50
Implementation and start-up of complete system: If the results of the first two phases are positive, the
systemwillthenbebuiltupforfulloperation.Theremainingsatellites(fourshouldalreadybeoperational)
willbefinishedandlaunchedintoorbitby2013/2014.
Operation:Assoonasallthesatellitesareinorbitthesystemcanbeginoperation.Attheendofthebuildupphasethereshouldbe27operationsand3reservesatellitesinorbit.Thegroundstationsaswellaslocal
andregionalservicestationswillbeconstructed.
5.3.5 Most important properties of the three GNSS systems

Table10liststhemostimportantpropertiesofthethreeexisting(resp.planned)GNSSsystems.
Startofdevelopment
st
1 SatelliteLaunch
NumberSatellites
Orbitals
Inclination
Altitude
OrbitalPeriod
GeodeticData
51
TimeSystem
SignalCharacteristic
Frequencies
Encryption
Services
Responsibility
IntegritySignal
GPS
1973
Feb.22,1978
Minimum:24/Maximum:32
6
55
20,180km
11hours58min
WorldGeodeticSystem1984
(WGS84)
GPS-Time
52
CDMA
rd
2frequencies,witha3
frequencyplanned
MilitarySignal
2(civilian+military)/4
USDepartmentofDefense
Currentlynonebutplanned
GLONASS
1972
October12,1982
Currently:14
Planned:24+3passivereserves
3
64.8
19,100km
11hours15.8min
ParametryZemli1990(PZ-90)
Glonass-Time
53
FDMA
24
GALILEO
2001
December28,2005
Currently:TestSatellite
Planned:27+3activereserves
3
56
23,222km
14hours5min
GalileoTerrestrialReferenceFrame
(GTRF)
GST(GALILEOSystemTime)
52
CDMA
3
MilitarySignal
2(civilian+military)
RussianDefenseMinistry
none
CSandPRSservices
5
CivilianGovernmentsoftheEU
Planned
Table 10: Comparison of the most important properties of GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO (as of February 2008)
50
http://www.esa.int/esaNA/SEMPOSXEM4E_galileo_0.html
DeviationfromUTCisindicated
52
CodeIdentification:Codeisdifferentforeverysatellite
53
FrequenyIdentification:Frequenyisdifferentforeverysatellite
51
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5.4 The Chinese system Beidou 1 and Beidou 2/Compass

5.4.1 Current system: Beidou 1
Between 2000 and 2007, China placed 4 geostationary satellites into serviceforthe local Beidou system. The
satellites(Beidou-1AtoBeidou-1D)transmitoverChina.Positionisinteractivelydeterminedbetweenstallitesand
navigationrevceivers.Thesignalsaretransmittedandreceivedinaniterativemethod:
AsignalistransmittedfromthenavigationreceivertothefourGEOsatellites.
Allfoursatellitesreceivethesignal.
Allfoursatellitestransmittheexacttimeofsignalreceptiontoagroundstation.
The ground station calculates the longitude and latitude of the navigation receiver and determines its
elevation.
ThegroundstationtransmitsthepositiontotheGEOsatellites.
TheGEOsatellitestransmitthepositiontothenavigationreceiver.
5.4.2 Future system: Beidou 2/Compass

ThePeoplesRepublicofChinaplansaGNSSsystemcurrentlyknownasBeidou2orCompass,CNSS(Compass
Navigation Satellite System). The planned system will consist of five GEO and thirty MEO satellites 54 . The GEO
satelliteswillexpandtheentiresystemsimilartoSBAS.Beidou/Compassshouldoffertwonavigationservices:
OpenService:withpositionaccuracyof10m,velocityaccuracyof0.2m/sandtimeprecisionof50ns.
Serviceforauthorizedusers:ThisserviceshouldbemorereliablethantheOpenService.
TheMEOsatelliteswillbedistributedoversixorbits.ThefirstofthesesatelliteswaslaunchedintoorbitinApril
of2007(Figure73).Theexacttimeofcompletionofthetotalsystemremainsunclear,2013istargeted.
st
Figure 73: Launch of 1 Compass MEO satellite in April 2007 with ChangZheng 3A rocket
54
http://www.china.org.cn/english/MATERIAL/188713.htm
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6 Calculating position

o
understandhowcoordinatesandtimearedetermined
knowwhatpseudorangeis
understandwhyaGNSSreceivermustproduceapositionestimateatthestartofacalculation
understandhowanon-linearequationissolvedusingfourunknownvariables
knowwhatdegreeofaccuracyisassertedbytheGPSsystemoperator
6.1 Introduction
GNSS systems combine sophisticated satellite and radio technology to provide navigation receivers with radio
signals indicating among other things the time of transmission and the identity of the transmitting satellite.
Calculating the position from these signals requires mathematical operations that will be examined in this
chapter.
6.2 Calculating a position

6.2.1 The principle of measuring signal travel time (evaluation of pseudorange)
InorderforaGNSSreceivertodetermineitsposition,itmustreceivetimesignalsfromfourseparatesatellites
(Sat1...Sat4),inordertocalculatethesignaltraveltimest1...t4(Figure74).
Sat 2
Sat 3
Sat 1
t2
Sat 4
t3
t4
t1
U se r
Figure 74: Four satellite signals must be received
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Calculations are effected in a Cartesian, three-dimensional coordinate system with a geocentric origin (Figure
75).TherangeoftheuserfromeachofthefoursatellitesR1,R2,R3andR4canbedeterminedwiththehelpof
signaltraveltimest1,t2,t3andt4betweenthefoursatellitesandtheuser.AsthelocationsXSat,YSatandZSatof
thefoursatellitesareknown,theusercoordinatescanbecalculated.
Sat 3
Sat 2
t2
XSat_3, YSat_3, ZSat_3
Ra
ng
e:
R
Ra
ng
e:
R
t1
XSat_1, YSat_1, ZSat_1 Rang

e: R1
Sat 4
t3
Sat 1
t4
Range: R4
User
Zuser
Origin
Xuser
Yuser
X
Figure 75: Three-dimensional coordinate system
Duetotheatomicclocksonboardthesatellites,thetimeatwhichthesatellitesignalistransmittedisknownvery
precisely.AllsatelliteclocksareadjustedorsynchronizedwitheachotherandUTC(universaltimecoordinated).
In contrast, the receiver clock is not synchronized to UTC and is therefore slow or fast by t0. The sign t0 is
positivewhentheuserclockisfast.Theresultanttimeerrort0causesinaccuraciesinthemeasurementofsignal
traveltimeandthedistanceR.Asaresult,anincorrectdistanceismeasuredthatisknownaspseudodistanceor
pseudorangePSR 55 .
tmeasured t t 0
(1a)
PSR tmeasured c t t 0 c
(2a)
PSR R t 0 c
(3a)
R:
truerangeofthesatellitefromtheuser
c:
speedoflight
t:
signaltraveltimefromthesatellitetotheuser
t0:
differencebetweenthesatelliteclockandtheuserclock
PSR:
pseudorange
55
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ThedistanceRfromthesatellitetotheusercanbecalculatedinaCartesiansystemasfollows:
XSat XUser YSat YUser ZSat ZUser

2
(4a)
c t0
(5a)
thus(4)into(3)
PSR
XSat XUser YSat YUser ZSat ZUser

2
In order to determine the four unknown variables (t0 , XUser, YUser and ZUser), four independent equations are
necessary.
Thefollowingisvalidforthefoursatellites(i=1...4):
PSRi
XSat_i XUser YSat_i YUser ZSat_i ZUser

2
c t0
(6a)
6.2.2 Linearization of the equation

Thefourequationsin6aproduceanon-linearsetofequations.Inordertosolvetheset,therootfunctionisfirst
linearizedaccordingtotheTaylormodel,thefirstpartonlybeingused(Figure76).
f'(x0)
f(X)
function
f(x)
f(x0)
x
x0
X
x
Figure 76: Conversion of the Taylor series
f'
x 0 x f ' ' x 0 2 x f ' ' ' x 0 3 x ...
2!
3!
1!
Generally(with x x x 0 ):
f x f x 0
Simplified(1stpartonly):
f x f x 0 f ' x 0 x
(7a)
Inordertolinearizethefourequations(6a),anarbitrarilyestimatedvaluex0mustthereforebeincorporatedin
thevicinityofx.ThismeansthatinsteadofcalculatingXUser,YUserandZUserdirectly,anestimatedpositionXTotal,
YTotalandZTotalisinitiallyused(Figure77).
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Sat 3
Sat 2
R Total_2
X Sat_2, YSat_2 , ZSat_2
Sat 1
XSat_3 , YSat_3 , ZSat_3
R Total_3
Sat 4
R Total_1
R Total_4
X Sat_1, Y Sat_1, ZSat_1

error considerations
Z Total
estimated position
y
X Sat_4, Y Sat_4, ZSat_4
estimated position
user
Y
x z
X Total
Y Total
user
X
Figure 77: Estimating a position
Theestimatedpositionincludesanerrorproducedbytheunknownvariablesx,yandz.
XUser=XTotal+x
YUser=YTotal+y
ZUser=ZTotal+z
(8a)
ThedistanceRTotalfromthefoursatellitestotheestimatedpositioncanbecalculatedinasimilarwaytoequation
(4a):
RTotal _ i
XSat _ i XTotal YSat _ i YTotal ZSat _ i ZTotal

2
(9a)
(10a)
(11a)
Equation(9a)combinedwithequations(6a)and(7a)produces:
PSRi RTotal _ i
RTotal _ i
RTotal _ i
RTotal _ i
x
y
z c t 0
x
y
z
Aftercarryingoutpartialdifferentiation,thisgivesthefollowing:
PSRi RTotal _ i
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YTotal YSat _ i
XTotal XSat _ i
x
y
z c t 0
RTotal _ i
RTotal _ i
RTotal _ i
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6.2.3 Solving the equation

After transposing the four equations (11a) (for i = 1 ... 4) the four variables (x, y, z and t0) can now be
solvedaccordingtotherulesoflinearalgebra:
XTotal XSat _ 1
RTotal _ 1
PSR1 RTotal _ 1 XTotal XSat _ 2
PSR 2 RTotal _ 2
= RTotal _ 2
PSR 3 RTotal _ 3 XTotal XSat _ 3

RTotal _ 3
PSR 4 RTotal _ 4
XTotal XSat _ 4
RTotal _ 4
XTotal XSat_1
RTotal_1
XTotal XSat_2
x
y
= RTotal_2
XTotal XSat_3
z
RTotal_3

t0
XTotal XSat_4
RTotal_4
YTotal YSat _ 1
RTotal _ 1
YTotal YSat _ 2
RTotal _ 2
YTotal YSat _ 3
RTotal _ 3
YTotal YSat _ 4
RTotal _ 4
YTotal YSat_1
RTotal_1
YTotal YSat_2
RTotal_2
YTotal YSat_3
RTotal_3
YTotal YSat_4
RTotal_4
ZTotal ZSat _ 1
RTotal _ 1
ZTotal ZSat _ 2
RTotal _ 2
ZTotal ZSat _ 3
RTotal _ 3
ZTotal ZSat _ 4
RTotal _ 4
ZTotal ZSat_1
RTotal_1
ZTotal ZSat_2
RTotal_2
ZTotal ZSat_3
RTotal_3
ZTotal ZSat_4
RTotal_4
x
y

z

t0
(12a)
PSR1 RTotal_1
PSR2 RTotal_2
PSR3 RTotal_3
PSR4 RTotal_4
(13a)
Thesolutionofx,yandzisusedtorecalculatetheestimatedpositionXTotal,YTotalandZTotalinaccordancewith
equation(8a).
XTotal_New=XTotal_Old+x
YTotal_New=YTotal_Old+y
ZTotal_New=ZTotal_Old+z
(14a)
TheestimatedvaluesXTotal_New,YTotal_NewandZTotal_Newcannowbeenteredintothesetofequations(13a)usingthe
normaliterativeprocess,untilerrorcomponents x, yand zaresmallerthanthedesirederror(e.g.0.1m).
Dependingontheinitialestimation,threetofiveiterativecalculationsaregenerallyrequiredtoproduceanerror
componentoflessthan1cm.
6.2.4 Summary
Inordertodetermineaposition,theuser(ortheusersreceiversoftware)willeitherusethelastmeasurement
value, or estimate a new position and calculate error components (x, y and z) down to zero by repeated
iteration.Thisthengives:
XUser=XTotal_New
YUser=YTotal_New
ZUser=ZTotal_New
(15a)
Thecalculatedvalueoft0correspondstoreceivertimeerrorandcanbeusedtoadjustthereceiverclock.
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6.3 Determination of travel time in detail

6.3.1 Time systems
Fordeterminingsignaltraveltimesfromsatellitestoreceivers,differenttimesystemsareimportant(seeSection
3.5).
UTC,CoordinatedUniversalTime(seeSection3.5.2)
GPS Time,thetimesystemforGPSsystem.GPStimevariesfromUTCbyawholenumberofseconds(for
the year 2008 the difference was 14 seconds) plus a fraction of a second less than 1s. The difference
between GPS time and UTC and the current characteristics of this difference are communicated in the
NavigationMessage(Subframe4,Page18).
Satellite Time,theonboardtimeforeachoftheindividualsatellites.Thespecificdifferencebetweenthe
satellitetimeandGPStimeandthecurrentcharacteristicsofthisdifferencearealsocommunicatedinthe
NavigationMessage(Subframe1,Page1-25).
Receiver Time, the time within the GPS receiver. This time is usually determined from an internal quartz
oscillatorandisdifferentfromGPStimeand/orUTC.ThedifferenceT0isunknownatthestartofoperation
ofaGPSreceiver,butcanbereducedafterafewmeasurements.
6.3.2 Determination of travel time in detail

Thefollowingsectiondiscussestherequiredapproachfordeterminingsignaltraveltime.Inordertomaintainan
overviewoftheapproach,thedescriptionoftheprocedureisgreatlysimplified.Traveltimeisusedtocalculate
thedistanceorrange(R)fromthesatellitetothereceiver.Figure78depictsthelineardependenceofrange(R)
totraveltime(shownarethefirsttwomicroseconds).
Range(R)
SatellitetoReceiver
R = c t
600m
300m
0
0
1s
2s
TravelTime(t)
Figure 78: Determination of range (R) based on the signal travel time t (c= speed of light)
6.3.2.1
Phase 1: Determination of signal arrival time using correlation
TheGPSreceiverreceivesthesignalsfromoneormoresatellites.Foreverysignalacorrelationtakesplace.The
correlationproceduredescribedhereisforasinglesignal,butmustbedoneforeverysatellitesignal.
Sincethenumber(x)ofthetransmittingsatelliteisnotknownbythereceiveratthetimeofsignalreception,it
generatesvariousPRN-codes(x=132).ThesecodesareshiftedwithrespecttotimeuntilaPRN-codecoincides
with the correlation maximum for time and signal form for satellite signal x (Figure 79: correlation maximum
achievedbyshiftingtimet2).
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Received
satellitesignal
Generated
receiversignal,
early
Generated
receiversignal,
synchronized
Generated
receiversignal,
delayed
Correlation
maximum
Correlation
factor
0
0
t1
t2
t3
Time
displacement
Receiver
timemark
Figure 79: Correlation by searching the maxima
Thenecessarytimeshift tKoandthereceivertimemark(e.g.millisecondintervals)determinethearrivaltimeof
theobservedsatellitesignals(timegiveninReceiverTime).InFigure80themeasuredarrivaltimeamountsto
exactly2h25min35.7293.
1ms
Received
SatelliteSignal
(codedwith
PRN-Codex)
Synchronization
Receiver'sInternally
GeneratedSignal
(PRN-Codex),
synchronous
Receiver
TimeMark:
2h52min35.357"
TimeShiftRelative
toReceiver
tKo(293s)
TimeMark
Receiver
TimeMark:
2h52min35.358"
Figure 80: Determination of the satellite signal arrival time
6.3.2.2
Phase 2: reconstruction of data and/or navigation message
Thecorrelationmaximumissequentiallysearchedandmaintained,i.e.,thesatellitesignalandthePRN-sequence
generated by thereceiver are continually synchronous. The time-shiftedPRN sequence (C/A-Code) is linked to
thesatellitesignal,andthustheNavigationMessagedataisreconstructed(seeFigure81).
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Receiver
Generated
C/A-Code
(PRN-x)
C/A-Code
(PRN-x)
Modulated
SatelliteData
Navigation
MessageData
Figure 81: Reconstruction of the navigation message
6.3.2.3
Phase 3: Determination of transmission time
EverysubframeoftheNavigationMessage(seealsoSection4.6)beginswithan8-bitpreamble.Thepreamblein
theTelemetryWord(TLM)isadefinedpatternwiththestructure10001011.Thisbitsequenceisrepeatedevery
6seconds.Thetransmissiontime(inSatelliteTime)ofthepreambleisincludedintheHandoverWord(HOW)of
theprevioussubframewiththe17-bitTimeofWeek(TOW)MessageintheNavigationMessage.
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
Preamble
Preamble
14Bits
TLMMessage
Subframe
300Bits
6s
Handover
Word
(HOW)
30Bits
0,6s
2 6Bits
reserv.
8Bits
1 2 3
TLM
HOW
Telemetry
Word
(TLM)
30Bits
0,6s
Parity
17Bits
TimeofWeek
(TOW)
7Bits 6Bits
div., Parity
ID
00
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 WordNumber
Data
WordContent
Figure 82: Telemetry Word (TLM) and Handover Word (HOW) of the navigation message
The GPS receiver now searches the Navigation Message for the 10001011 pattern. Since this pattern can
potentiallyappearinotherpartsoftheNavigationMessage,conditionsforotherparametersalsoneedtobemet
suchas:
Twological0smustappear51and52bitsaftertheendoftheassumedpreamble(thetwolastparitybitsin
theHOWaresetto0).
Theparitybeginning16bitsaftertheassumedpreamble(parityoftheTLMWord)mustbecorrect.
The two bits before the assumed preamble must be 0 (the last parity bits of every word at the end of a
subframearesetto0).
ThetimegivenintheTOWmessage(17Bit)beginning22bitsaftertheendoftheassumedpreamblemust
beapproximatelycorrect.Sincetimeinformationisrepeatedlyprovidedevery6seconds,therearenogreat
accuracyrequirementsforreceivertimemeasurement.
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The preamble of the next subframe must begin exactly 300 bits following the start of the assumed
preamble.
Ifthesystemachievesaconfirmationthenallofthecontrolsnolongerneedtobeperformed.
The transmission time in the first bits of the preamble are provided in the Navigation Message in the TOW
Message of the previous frame. This time is given in Satellite Time, but thanks to the information in the
NavigationMessageitcanbetranslatedintoGPSTime.
6.3.3 Determination of travel time error

Ifthepreambleisvalidated,thearrivaltimeofthefirstbitsinthepreambleismeasured(see6.3.2.1).Thistimeis
giveninReceiverTime.SinceReceiverTimeandGPSTimearenotidentical,butratherdifferbyavalueoft0,an
incorrecttraveltimeismeasured.Figure83depictstheprocedureofdeterminingthetraveltimeerror(c.f.Figure
78).Thetwodifferenttimescalesusedare:
GPSTimeforthesignaltransmissiontime
ReceiverTimeforthesignalarrivaltime.
DepictedisalsothedifferencebetweenReceiverTimeandGPSTimet.
tmeasured=t+t0=ArrivalTimeReceiverTimeTransmissionTimeGPSTime
t:truesignaltraveltime:SatellitetoReceiver
t0:DifferencebetweenReceiverTimeandGPSTime
Range(R)
SatellitetoReceiver
t0
TimeReference
ReceiverTime
Transmission
Time
Arrival Time
Receiver
Time
Receiver
Time
GPSTime
MeasuredTravelTime
TimeReference
GPSTime
GPSTime
Figure 83: Determination of travel time error
6.3.4 Additional influences affecting travel time

Thesignaltraveltimefromasatellitetoareceiverisnotonlydependentonthedistance,butisalsoinfluenced
by a number of other physical factors. In the document Navstar GPS Space Segment/Navigation User
Interfaces 56 examplesoftheuseofcorrectionstakingmanyparametersintoaccountispresented(Figure84).
56
INTERFACESPECIFICATION,IS-GPS-200,RevisionD,IRN-200D-001,7March2006,page92
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Figure 84: Example of determination of corrected travel time
6.4 Error analysis and DOP

6.4.1 Introduction
Upuntilnow,themagnitudeoferrorhasnotbeentakenintoconsiderationincalculations.InGNSStechnology,
differentcausescancontributetothetotalerror:
Satellite clocks: although, for example, every GPS satellite is provided with four highly accurate atomic
clocks,atimeerrorofonly10nsisenoughtoproduceapositioningerrorintheorderof3m.
Satellite orbits: generally speaking, the actual value of the satellite position is only known up to
approximately1...5m.
Speedoflight:thesignalsfromthesatellitestravelatthespeedoflight.Theseslowdownwhencrossing
theionosphereandtroposphereandcannot,therefore,beassumedtobeaconstant.Thisdeviationfrom
thenormalspeedoflightcreatesanerrorinthecalculatedposition.
Signaltraveltimeerrormeasurement:theGNSSreceiverisonlyabletodeterminethetimeoftheincoming
satellitesignalwithlimitedaccuracy.
Multipath:Theerrorlevelisfurtherincreasedbythereceptionofreflectedsignals.
Satellitegeometry:determinationofpositionismoredifficultifthefourreferencesatellitesbeingusedfor
measurementareclosetogether.Theeffectofsatellitegeometryonmeasurementaccuracyisreferredtoas
DOP(DilutionOf Precision)(SeeTable11).
There are various causes of measurement error. Table 1 shows the extent of horizontal position errors from
differentsource.
Byimplementingcorrectivemeasures DGPS (Differential GPS,seeSection7.6)thenumberoferrorsourcescan
beeliminatedorreduced.
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Error cause
Error without DGPS
Ephemerisdata
1.5m
Satelliteclocks
1.5m
Effectoftheionosphere
3.0m
Effectofthetroposphere
0.7m
Multipathreception
1.0m
Effectofthereceiver
0.5m
Total RMS value
4.0m
Table 11: Error causes (typical ranges)
6.4.2 The influence of satellite geometry on accuracy, the DOP value

6.4.2.1
Introduction
The precision of positioning with GPS navigation depends on the one hand on the precision of the individual
pseudorangemeasurementsandontheotherhandonthegeometricconfigurationofthesatellitesused.This
configurationisexpressedintermsofascalarvalue,whichisreferredtoinnavigationliteratureasDOP(Dilution
ofPrecision).
The DOP value describes the weakeningof precision and is therefore a factor ormeasure ofthe constellation
dependent imprecision. If the DOP values are high (because for example all visible satellites are close to one
another),thentheanticipatedimprecisionwillbehigher.
ThereareavarietyofDOPtermsused:
GDOP(Geometric-DOP):Describestheinfluenceofsatellitegeometryonthepositionin3Dspaceand
timemeasurement.
PDOP(Positional-DOP):Describestheinfluenceofsatellitegeometryonthepositionin3Dspace.
HDOP (Horizontal-DOP): Describes the influence of satellite geometry on the position along upon a
plane(2D)
VDOP(Vertical-DOP):Describestheinfluenceofsatellitegeometryonheight(1D).
TDOP(Time-DOP):Describestheinfluenceofsatellitegeometryontimemeasurement.
TheinfluenceofsatellitegeometryonimprecisionisdemonstratedinFigure85.Whenbothsatellitesarewidely
separated(figureleft)thepositionerror(areainred)issmaller.Ifthesatellitesareclosetooneanother(figure
right),thentheareaoferrorismorespreadout.Thisisvalidwhentheuncertaintyfordeterminingtheposition,
knownastheRangeError(R-E:yellowandblueareas),isthesameforbothsatellites.R(R1andR2)referstothe
measureddistanceofthesatellitestotheuser(pseudorange).
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Figure 85: The flatter the angle with which the circles with ranges R1 and R2 intersect, the higher the DOP value
6.4.2.2
Illustration of the causes of the DOP-value
TheprecisionofthecalculatedpositionforGPSinNavigationmodedependsontheonehandontheprecision
oftheindividualpseudorangemeasurementsandontheotherhandthegeometricconfigurationofthesatellites
used (expressed with the DOP value). The positional accuracy is reduced when the four satellites used for
measurement are close together. The precision of the measurement is proportionally dependent on the DOP
value.ThismeansthatwhentheDOPvaluedoubles,thepositionalerrorincreasesbyafactoroftwo.
Generallyspeaking,thetotalpositionerrorisacumulationofothererrorsmultipliedbytheDOPvalue:
(Position error through other influences) (DOP value)
TheDOPvaluecanbeseenasthereciprocalvalueofthevolumeofatetrahedronmadeupofthepositionofthe
satellitesandtheuser(Figure86).Asthevolumeofthetetrahedronincreases,themagnitudeoftheDOPvalue
(andthustheimprecision)decreases.
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lowDOP:1.5
highDOP:5.7
Figure 86: The larger the enclosed volume, the smaller the DOP value
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6.4.2.3
Practical implications of DOP values
Inopenandunobstructedareas,satellitecoverageissofavorablethatDOPvaluesseldomexceed3(seeFigure
87).
Figure 87: DOP values and the number of satellites over an open area during a 24-hour period
In mountainous areas, forests and urban areas DOP values play an important role in planning measurement
projects. This is because there are often phases when the satellites have very unfavorable geometric
constellations.Thus,itisnecessarytoplanmeasurementsaccordingtotheDOPvalues(e.g.HDOP),ortoassess
theachievableprecisiongiventhatvariousDOPvaluescanoccurinamatterofafewminutes.
With all planning and evaluation tools provided by the leading GPS device manufacturers, DOP values are
observable. Figure 88 shows an example of HDOP values in an area where no obstruction of satellite visibility
(referredtoasshadow)ispresent(max.HDOP<1.9).Figure89showsanexampleofHDOPvaluesinanarea
with strong obstruction of satellite visibility. In this location the maximum HDOP value of 20 is frequently
exceeded.Theareafrom180to270isshadowedbyahighbuildingandfrom270to180theobstructive
effectsofmountainsarevisible.
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Figure 88: 24-hour HDOP values, in area with with no shadow/obstruction of satellite visibility (max. HDOP < 1.9)
Figure 89: 24-hour HDOP values, in area with with strong shadow/obstruction of satellite visibility (max. HDOP > 20)
With massive shadowing only occasional opportunities (e.g. between 11:00 and 12:30h, see Figure 89) with
optimalDOPvalues(<2)areavailablefordeterminingtheposition.TimeperiodswithDOPvaluesabove6(e.g.
between9:00and9:30h)shouldbeavoidedforprecisemeasurements.
TheDOPvaluescanbeestimatedbasedonthecurrentsatelliteconstellation(Figure90andFigure91).
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Figure 90: DOP values with unfavorable satellite constellation
Figure 91: DOP values with favorable satellite constellation
6.4.2.4
Total error
Measurement accuracy is proportionally dependent on the DOP value. This means that when the DOP value
doubles,thepositioningerrorisalsotwiceaslarge.
Generallyapplicable:Error(1TotalRMSValueDOPValue
Error(2TotalRMSValueDOPValue
In Table 12 the One-Sigma value (1= 68%) andthe Two-Sigmavalue (2= 95%) are given. The values are
valid for a medium satellite constellation of HDOP = 1.3. The implementation of suitable correction methods
(such as using several linked receivers (Differential GPS, DGPS (see Chapter 7)) can eliminate or reduce the
numberoferrorsources(typicallyto1...2m,One-Sigmavalue).
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Type of error
Error
TotalRMSvalue(filtered,i.e.slightlyaveraged)
4.0m
Horizontalerror(1Sigma(68%)HDOP=1.3)
6.0m
Horizontalerror(2Sigma(95%)HDOP=1.3)
12m
Table 12: Total error in HDOP = 1.3
Usually the accuracy is better than shown. Long-term measurements available from the US-Federal Aviation
Administrationhaveshownthatin95%ofallmeasurementsthehorizontalerrorwaslessthan7.4mandthe
verticalerrorwaslessthan9.0m.Thetimeperiodforthemeasurementwasalways24hours.
TheU.S.DoDmaintainsthattheirsystemwillprovidestandardcivilianapplicationswithahorizontalaccuracyof
13m, a vertical accuracy of 22 m and a time accuracy of ~40ns. By employing additional measures such as
DGPS,longermeasuringtime,andspecialmeasuringtechniques(phasemeasurement),positionalaccuracycan
beincreasedtowithinacentimeter.
6.4.2.5
Calculating the DOP value
TheindividualDOPvaluesaredetermined,baseduponthepositionsofthesatellitesandtheGPSuser.
InFigure92Ri(I=14)isthedistancefromasatellitetotheuser.
Ri
XSat_i XUser YSat_i YUser ZSat_i ZUser

2
XSat_2
YSat_2
ZSat_2
Sat 3
XSat_3
YSat_3
ZSat_3
Z
R
Sat 1
Sat 4
XSat_1
YSat_1
ZSat_1
Sat 2
R1
XSat_4
YSat_4
ZSat_4
R4
User
ZUser
Source
XUser
YUser
X
Figure 92: Description of satellite and user position with cartesian coordinates
WiththedetailsinFigure92theso-calledpositionmatrixcanbeproduced.
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X User X Sat _ 1
R1
X User X Sat _ 2
R2
P
X X
Sat _ 3
User
R3
X User X Sat _ 4
R4
YUser YSat _ 1
R1
ZUser Z Sat _ 1
R1
YUser YSat _ 2
ZUser Z Sat _ 2
R2
R2
YUser YSat _ 3
ZUser Z Sat _ 3
R3
R3
YUser YSat _ 4
ZUser Z Sat _ 4
R4
R4
Throughthetranspostion([]T),multiplication()andinversion([]-1)ofthepositionmatrix,theDOPmatrixDcan
becalculated(throughtranspositiontherowvectorsbecomecolumnvectors 57 , 58 ):
D P T P
According to the rules of matrix calculation, the 16 elements of the DOP matrix receive the following
designations:
D11
D
D 21
D31
D41
D12
D22
D13
D23
D32
D33
D42
D43
D14
D24
D34
D44
TheindividualDOPvaluesarethendefinedfromthematrixelementsofmatrixD:
57
http://www.scilab.org/contrib/index_contrib.php?page=download&category=MANUALS
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose
58
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GDOP
D11 D22 D33 D44
PDOP
D11 D22 D33
HDOP
D11 D22
VDOP
D33
TDOP
D44
SomeDOPvaluescanbedirectlydeterminedfromothers,e.g.:
GDOP
PDOP 2 TDOP 2
Ifmorethanfoursatellitesarevisible,theGPSreceivercalculatesthepositionfromthefoursatelliteswiththe
bestDOPvalues.
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7 Improved GPS: DGPS, SBAS, A-GPS and HSGPS

o
knowwhichkindsoferrorsinfluencetheaccuracyofdeterminingposition
knowwhatDGPSmeans
knowhowcorrectionvaluesaredeterminedandrelayed
understandhowtheD-signalcorrectserroneouspositionalmeasurements
knowwhatDGPSservicesareavailableinCentralEurope
knowwhatEGNOSandWAASmean
knowhowA-GPSfunctions
7.1 Introduction
Althoughoriginallyintendedformilitarypurposes,theGPSsystemisusedtodayprimarilyforcivilapplications,
such as surveying, navigation, positioning, measuring velocity, determining time, monitoring etc, etc, etc.GPS
wasnotinitiallyconceivedforapplicationsdemandinghighprecision,securitymeasures,orforuseindoors.
Toincreasetheaccuracyofpositioning,Differential-GPS(D-GPS)wasintroduced.
Toimprovetheaccuracyofpositioningandtheintegrity(reliability,importantforsecurityapplications)SBAS
(SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystem)suchasEGNOSandWAASwasimplemented.
Toimprovethesensitivityinclosedrooms,orrespectivelytoreducetheacquisitiontime,Assisted-GPS(AGPS)serviceswereoffered.
ThereceptionpropertiesofGPSreceiversarecontinuallybeingimprovedandincreasethesensitivityofthe
receiverswithHighSensitivity-GPS(HSGPS).
7.2 Sources of GPS error

The positioning accuracy of approx. 12m (for 95% of all measurements at HDOP of 1.5) discussed in the
previous chapter is not sufficient for all applications. In order to achieve an accuracy of one meter or better,
additional measures are necessary. Different sources can contribute to the total error in GPS measurements.
ThesecausesandthetotalerrorarelistedinTable11.Thesevaluesshouldbeviewedastypicalaveragesandcan
varyfromreceivertoreceiver.
Theerrorcausesarestudiedinmoredetailbelow:
Ephemeris data:thesatellitepositionatthetimeofthesignalemissionis,asageneralrule,onlyknownto
beaccurateuptoapprox.1...5m.
Satellite clocks:althougheachsatelliteincludesfouratomicclocks,thetimebasecontainsoffsets.Atime
errorof10nsisreachedatanoscillatorstabilityofapprox.10-13perday.Atimeerrorof10nsimmediately
resultsinadistanceerrorofabout3m.
Effect of the ionosphere:theionosphereisanatmosphericlayersituatedbetween60to1000kmabove

theEarthssurface.Thegasmoleculesintheionosphereareheavilyionized.Theionizationismainlycaused
bysolarradiation(onlyduringtheday!).Signalsfromthesatellitestravelthroughavacuumatthespeedof
light.Intheionospherethevelocityofthesesignalsslowsdownandthereforecannolongerbeviewedas
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constant.Thelevelofionizationvariesdependingontimeandlocation,andisstrongestduringthedayand
attheequator.Iftheionizationstrengthisknown,thiseffectcan,toacertainextent,becompensatedwith
geophysical correction models. Furthermore, given that the change in the signal velocity is frequency
dependent,thiscanadditionallybecorrectedbytheuseofdual-frequencyGPSreceivers.
Effect of the troposphere: thetroposphereistheatmosphericlayerlocatedbetween0...15kmabovethe

Earthssurface.Thecauseoftheerrorhereisthevaryingdensityofthegasmoleculesandtheairhumidity.
Thedensitydecreasesastheheightincreases.Theincreaseindensityorhumidityretardsthespeedofthe
satellite signals. In order to correct this effect, a simple model is used which is based on the standard
atmosphere(P)andtemperature(T):
o
H=height[m]
T=288.15K6.510-3h[K]
P=1013.25mbar(T/288.15K)5,256[mbar]
Multipath: GPS signals can be reflected from buildings, trees, mountains etc. and make a detour before
arrivingatthereceiver.Thesignalisdistortedduetointerference.Theeffectofmultipathcanbepartially
compensated by the selection of the measuring location (free of reflections), a good antenna and the
measuringtime(Figure93).
effective
reflection
ineffective
reflection
Figure 93: Effect of the time of measuring on the reflections
Effect of the receiver:furthererrorsareproducedduetoGPSreceivermeasurementnoiseandtimedelays

inthereceiver.Advancedtechnologiescanbeusedtoreducethiseffect.
Effect of the satellite constellation, including shadowing (DOP):thiseffectwasdiscussedindetailin

Section6.4.2.
7.3 Possibilities for reducing the measurement error

Reducing the effect of measurement errors can considerably increase the positioning accuracy. Different
approachesareusedforreducingthemeasurementerrorandareoftencombined.Theprocessmostfrequently
usedis:
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Compensation of ionospheric influences through dual-frequency measurement: Theionospherehas

thegreatestinfluenceonmeasurementerrors(seeSection7.2).Ifaradiosignalistransmittedthroughthe
ionosphere,itissloweddownmoreheavilyatlowerfrequencies.Byusingtwodifferentsignalfrequencies,
e.g.L1/L2,theeffectoftheionospherecanlargelybecompensatedfor.SinceGALILEOandGPS(following
modernization)willtransmitthecivilsignalonatleasttwofrequencies,theprincipleofcompensationwillbe
morecloselyadheredto.
Signal transmission times increase depending on the strength of ionization. The ionospheric effect on
transmissiontimeincreaseswithlowerfrequencies.Theinfluenceonthetransmissiontimeoccursasasquareof
thefrequency.
If the signal is slower, then a longer distance between the satellite and the receiver is assumed. The
measurement error of this pseudorange (PSR) and its dependence on frequency and ionization strength is
presentedinFigure94.
PSRMeasurementError
(m)
103
Strong Ionization
Weak Ionization
10-3
0.1
SignalFrequency
(GHz)
1
10
Figure 94: PSR Measurement error and its dependence on Ionization and Frequency
Since every satellite signal is transmitted through a different area of ionization, the PSR measurement error is
different for every satellite. It is therefore important to compensate for these errors. If a satellite transmits
navigation information on two frequencies (f1 and f2) it is possible to determine the PSR measurement error
( PSR1 )forfrequencyf1byusingthefollowingformula 59 :
f 2 2 PSR PSR
PSR1
1
2
2
2
f 2 f1
PSR1 and PSR2 are the measured pseudoranges for frequencies f1 and f2. The calculated measurement error
( PSRi )canbeusedforthecorrectionofthePSRivalueinequation13a(Section6.2.3).
59
ElliotD.Kaplan,UnderstandingGPS,SecondEdition,ArtechHouse,Page313
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XTotal XSat_1
RTotal_1
XTotal XSat_2
x
y
= RTotal_2
XTotal XSat_3
z
RTotal_3

t0
XTotal XSat_4
RTotal_4
YTotal YSat_1
RTotal_1
YTotal YSat_2
RTotal_2
YTotal YSat_3
RTotal_3
YTotal YSat_4
RTotal_4
ZTotal ZSat_1
c
RTotal_1
ZTotal ZSat_2
c
RTotal_2
ZTotal ZSat_3
c
RTotal_3
ZTotal ZSat_4
c
RTotal_4
PSR1 PSR1 RTotal_1

PSR2 PSR RTotal_2
2

PSR3 PSR3 RTotal_3
PSR4 PSR4 RTotal_4
Geophysical correction models. This is used primarily for the compensation of the effect of the
ionosphereandtroposphere.Correctionfactorsareonlyusefulifappliedtoaspecifiedandlimitedarea.
Differential GPS (DGPS):bycomparingwithoneorseveralbasestations,variouserrorscanbecorrected.

The evaluation of the correction data available from these stations can take place either during post
processing or in Real Time (RT). Real-time solutions (RT DGPS) require data communication between the
basestationandthemobilereceiver.DGPSemploysavarietyofdifferentprocesses:
o
RTDGPS,normallybasedontheRTCMSC104standard
DGPS derived from signal travel time delay measurement (Pseudorange corrections,
achievableaccuracyapprox.1m)
DGPS derived from the phase measurement of the carrier signal (achievable accuracy
approx.1cm)
Post-processing(subsequentcorrectionandprocessingofthedata).
Choice of location and of the measurement time for improving the visibility or line of sight
contacttothesatellites(SeeexplanationonDOP6.3).
7.3.1 DGPS based on signal travel time delay measurement

TheprincipleofDGPSbasedonsignaltraveltimemeasurement(pseudorangeorC/Acodemeasurement)isvery
simple.AGPSreferencestationislocatedataknownandaccuratelysurveyedpoint.TheGPSreferencestation
determinesitsGPSpositionusingfourormoresatellites.GiventhatthepositionoftheGPSreferencestationis
exactlyknown,thedeviationofthemeasuredpositiontotheactualpositionandmoreimportantlythemeasured
pseudorange to each of the individual satellites can be calculated. These variations are valid for all the GPS
receiversaroundtheGPSreferencestationinarangeofupto200km.Thesatellitepseudorangescanthereby
be used for the correction of the measured positions of other GPS receivers (Figure 95). The differences are
either transmitted immediately by radio or used afterwards for correction (See post-processing, Section 7.3.3)
aftercarryingoutthemeasurements.
Itisimportantthatthecorrectionbebasedonthesatellitepseudorangevaluesandnotthespecificdeviationin
positionoftheGPSreferencestation.Deviationsarebasedonthepseudorangestothespecificsatellites,and
thesevarydependingonpositionaswellaswhichsatellitesareused.Acorrectionbasedsimplyonthepositional
deviationofthereferencebasestationfailstotakethisintoaccountandwillleadtofalseresults.
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Sat. 3
Sat. 2
Sat. 1
Sat. 4
Basel
Zurich
Berne
GPS reference station
Chur
GPS receiver
Geneva
Figure 95: Principle of DGPS with a GPS base station
7.3.1.1
Detailed description of how it runs
Theerrorcompensationiscarriedoutinthreephases:
1. Determinationofthecorrectionvaluesatthereferencestation
2. TransmissionofthecorrectionvaluesfromthereferencestationtotheGPSuser
3. CompensationforthedeterminedpseudorangestocorrectthecalculatedpositionoftheGPSuser
7.3.1.2
Definition of the correction factors
A reference station with exactly known position measures the L1 signal travel time to all visible GPS satellites
(Figure 96) and uses these values to calculate its position relative to the satellites. These measured values will
typically include errors. Since the real position of the reference station is known, the actual distance (nominal
value)toeachGPSsatellitecanbecalculated.Thedifferencebetweenthenominalandthemeasureddistances
can be calculated by a simple subtraction and corresponds toa correction factor. These correction factors are
differentforallGPSsatellitesandarealsoapplicabletoGPSuserswithinaradiusofseveralhundredkilometers.
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GPS satellite
Satellite
antenna
RF receiving
antenna
GPS user
924'26"
4648'41"
RF transmit
antenna
GPS
RF
RTCM SC-104
RF
Decoder
Reference station
Figure 96: Determination of the correction factors
7.3.1.3
Transmission of the correction values
Given that the correction values can be used by other GPS users within a large area to compensate for the
measured pseudoranges, they are immediately transmitted by using a suitable medium (telephone, radio, etc)
(Figure97).
GPS satellite
Satellite
antenna
RF receiving
antenna
GPS user
924'26"
4648'41"
RF transmitting
antenna
GPS
RTCM SC-104
RF
RF
Decoder
Reference station
Figure 97: Transmission of the correction factors
7.3.1.4
Correction of the measured pseudoranges
Afterreceivingthecorrectionvalues,theGPSusercancompensateforthepseudorangesinordertodetermine
theactualdistancetothesatellites(Figure98).Theseactualdistancescanthenbeusedtocalculatetheexact
positionoftheuser.Allerrors,whicharenotcausedbyreceivernoiseandmultipathreception,canbeovercome
inthisway.
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GPS satellite
Satellite
antenna
RF receiving
antenna
GPS user
924'26"
4648'41"
RF transmitting
antenna
GPS
RTCM SC-104
RF
RF
Decoder
Reference station
Figure 98: Correction of the measured pseudoranges
7.3.2 DGPS based on carrier phase measurement

TheDGPSaccuracyof1meterachievedbymeasuringsignaltraveltimeisnotenoughforsomerequirements
such as solving survey problems. In order to obtain a precision within millimeters, the carrier-phase of the
satellitesignalmustbeevaluated.
Thewavelength ofthecarrierwaveisapprox.19cm.Thedistancetoasatellitecanbedeterminedasshown
below(Figure99).
D = (N . ) + ()
Wave length
Phase
Number of complete cycles N

Distance D
Satellite
User
Figure 99: Principle of the phase measurement
SinceNisunknownthephasemeasurementisambiguous.Byobservingseveralsatellitesatdifferenttimesand
continuallycomparingresultsfromuserandreferencestationreceivers(duringorafterthemeasurement),the
position can be calculated using an extensive series of mathematical equations to an accuracy of a few
millimeters.
7.3.3 DGPS post-processing (signal travel time and phase measurement)

DGPSpost-processingimplementsthedeterminedcorrectionfactorsbyusingappropriatesoftwareafter carrying
out field measurements. Reference data is either obtained from private reference stations or from publicly
accessible server systems. The disadvantage is that problems with the field data (e.g. poor satellite reception,
damagedfilesetc.)aresometimesnotdetecteduntilafterthecorrectionfactorsarecalculatedandbroadcast,
necessitatingarepetitionofthewholeprocess.
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7.3.4 Transmitting the correction data

DGPS services collectdatafromreference stationsandtransmit it by radio to themobile receiver.There area
variety of channelsavailable over whichto broadcast this correction data. Each of these broadcasting systems
possesses individual radio-technical properties and frequency ranges which have specific advantages and
disadvantagesforDGPS(Table13).
Broadcasting system
Frequency
range
Advantages
Disadvantages
Transmission
of correction
data
Longandmediumwave
broadcasters(LW,MW)
100-600KHz
Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates
transmission
(1000km)
RTCMSC104
Maritimeradiobeacon
283-315KHz
transmission
(1000km)
RTCMSC104
Aviationradiobeacon
255-415KHz
transmission
(1000km)
RTCMSC104
Shortwavebroadcaster
(KW)
330MHz
Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates,quality
RTCMSC104
transmission
dependsonthetimeand
frequency
VHFandFM
30-300MHz
Highbitrates,joint Rangeoftransmission
useoftheexisting limitedbythequasiinfrastructure
opticalconditions
RTCMSC104
Mobile
450,900,1800 Jointuseof
communication/telephone MHz
existingnetworks
networks(GSM,GPRS)
Limitedrangeof
transmission,
synchronizationproblem
RTCMSC104
GEOsatellitesystem
Highinvestmentcost
RTCMSC104
(forMSAT,
Omnistar,
Landstar,
Starfire)
1.21.5GHz
Extensivearea
coverage
RTCADO-229C
(forSBAS
systemssuchas
WAAS,EGNOS,
MSAS)
Table 13: Transmission process of the differential signal (for code and phase measurement)
Manycountriesprovidetheirownsystemsfortransmittingcorrectiondata.Acomprehensivedescriptionofall
thesesystemsisbeyondthescopeofthiscompendium.Someindividualsystemswillbedescribedbelow.
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7.3.5 DGPS classification according to the broadcast range

ThevariousDGPSservicesavailablearecategorizedaccordingtothebroadcastrangeofthecorrectionsignals:
Local DGPS: Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). These are sometimes called Ground Based
AugmentationSystems(GBAS).
RegionalDGPS
Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS) or Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS): Employ satellites to
transmitDGPScorrectiondata.Inthesecasesnotjustsinglereferencestations,butwholenetworksof
referencestationsareused.
7.3.6 Standards for the transmission of correction signals

DGPS broadcasters transmit the signal travel time and carrier-phase corrections. For most GBAS and some
satellite based WADGPS systems (LandStar-DGPS, MSAT, Omnistar or Starfire) the DGPS correction data is
transmitted according to the RTCM SC-104 standard. Typically the receiver must be equipped with a service
specificdecoderinordertoreceiveandprocessthedata.
SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystemssuchasWAAS,EGNOSandMSASusetheRTCADO-229standard.Since
RTCA frequencies and data formats are compatible with those of GPS, modern GNSS receivers can calculate
RTCAdatawithouttheuseofadditionalhardware,incontrasttoRTCM(Figure100).
Table14liststhestandardsusedforDGPScorrectionsignalsaswellasthereferencespertainingspecificallyto
GNSS.
Standard
RTCMSC104:
References pertaining to GNSS
RadioTechnicalCommissionforMaritime
Services,SpecialCommittee104
RTCMRecommendedStandardsfor
DifferentialNavstarGPSService,Version2.0and
2.1
RecommendedStandardsforDifferential
GNSSService,Version2.2and2.3
RTCA:
RadioTechnicalCommissionfor
Aeronautics
DO-229C,MinimumOperationalPerformance
StandardsforGlobalPositioningSystem/Wide
AreaAugmentationSystemAirborne
Equipment.
Table 14: Standards for DGPS correction signals
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RTCM
Decoder
Figure 100: Comparison of DGPS systems based on RTCM and RTCA standards
7.3.7 Overview of the different correction services
GPS
Corrected
(DGPS)
Uncorrected
PostProcessing
(Code+Phase)
TwoFrequency
(L1/L2)
RTCMSC-104
(Code+Phase)
Phase
Measurement
RTCADO-229C
(SBASoverGEOSatellites)
Proprietary
Formats
(Code+Phase)
WAAS
Measurement
basedon
Code
GBAS+LAAS
transmissionover
LandStation
WADGPS
transmissionover
GEO-Sat.
EGNOS
MSAS
LW/MW/KW
Omnistar
UKW/VHF
StarFire
GSM,etc
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7.4 DGPS services for real-time correction

7.4.1 Introduction
Allcorrectiondataistransmittedtotheuserreceiverreceptionareaviaasuitablebroadcaster(AM,Shortwave,
FM, GSM, internet, satellite communication, etc). In North America and Europe, the correction signals from
multiplepublicDGPSservicescanbereceived.Dependingontheservice,anannuallicensefeemayberequired
oraone-timefeeischargedwhenpurchasingtheDGPSreceiver.
Worldwide there are far too many ground-based DGPS services, also known as Ground Based Augmentation
Services(GBAS),todescribethemallindetailhere.Inmanycountriestherearemultiplesystemsoffered.Forthis
reasonafewselectedserviceswillbeintroducedinthefollowingsections.Inaddition,afewservicesoffering
moreorlessglobalcoverage(satellitebased)willbeexaminedinmoredetail.
7.4.2 Terrestrial services based on RTCM SC-104
SAPOS: (German Surveying and Mapping Administration Satellite Positioning Service) is a DGPS service in
permanentoperation.ThisserviceisavailableinallofGermany.ThebasisofthesystemisanetworkofGPS
reference stations. For real-time correction values the data is transmitted using FM radio, longwave, GSM
andtheirown2-meterband(VHF)frequencies.FMradiotransmittersbroadcastthecorrectiondatasignals
inRASANT(RadioAidedSatelliteNavigationTechnique)format.ThisisaconversionofRTCM2.0fordata
transmissionintotheRadioDataSystem(RDS)formatusedbyFMsoundbroadcasting.SAPOSincludesfour
serviceswithdifferentfeaturesandaccuracies 60 :
o SAPOSEPS:
Real-TimePositioningService
o
SAPOSHEPS:
High-PrecisionReal-TimePositioningService
SAPOSGPPS:
GeodeticPrecisionPositioningService
Swipos: (Swiss Positioning Service 61 ) distributes correction data using mobile telephone networks/GSM or
viaInternet/GPRS.Swiposofferstwoservices:
o Swipos-NAV(Servicewithprecisionwithinmeters)
o
Swipos-GIS/GEO(Servicewithprecisionwithincentimeters)
Radio Beacons:radiobeaconsarenavigationinstallationsdistributedworldwideprimarilyalongthecoasts.
Thesetransmit DGPS correction signalsat a frequency of approximately 300kHz. The signal bit rate varies
depending on thebroadcaster between100and 200bitper second. For example, in Australia the AMSA
(Australian Maritime Safety Authority) has built up a full DGPS network of 16 stations, completed in
Decemberof2002.Thestationstransmitatfrequenciesbetween294-320kHzandcanbereceivedwithin
arangeofabout275km(Figure101 62 ).
60
http://www.sapos.de/
http://www.swisstopo.admin.ch/internet/swisstopo/en/home/products/services/swipos.html
http://www.amsa.gov.au/Publications/Fact_sheets/DGPS_Fact_Sheet.pdf
61
62
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Figure 101: Radio beacon coverage for Australia
7.4.3 Satellite services based on RTCM SC-104

Severalgeostationarysatellitescontinuallytransmitcorrectiondata.UndernamessuchasOmnistar,Starfireand
MSATavarietyofservicesareavailable.
Omnistar transmits correction data over 6 GEO satellites (Figure 102 63 ). The three services recquire a fee
and users must have a special receiver/decoder in order to use them 64 . Omnistar transmits its information
overtheL-Band(1-2GHz)totheEarth.Thereferencegroundstationsaredistributedthroughouttheworld.
Figure 102: Coverage areas of the 6 Omnistar satellites (two zones overlap each other)
63
http://www.seastar.co.uk/coverage.html
http://www.omnistar.com/
64
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Starfire,propertyofNavComTechnology,Inc.,alsotransmitscorrectiondataover6GEOsatellites(Figure
103 65 ).Theservicerecquiresafeeandusersmusthaveaspecialreceiver/decoderinordertouseit.Starfire
transmits its information over the L-Band (1-2 GHz) to the Earth. The reference ground stations are
distributedthroughouttheworld.
Figure 103: Coverage area of Starfire
7.5 Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS)

7.5.1 Satellite based augmentation systems, SBAS (WAAS, EGNOS)
7.5.1.1
Introduction
SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystems(SBAS)areusedtoenhancetheGPS,GLONASSandGALILEO(onceitis
operational) functions. Correction and integrity data for GPS or GLONASS is broadcast from geostationary
satellitesovertheGNSSfrequency.
7.5.1.2
The most important SBAS functions
SBASisaconsiderableimprovementcomparedtoGPSbecausethepositioningaccuracyandthereliabilityofthe
positioning information are improved. SBAS, in contrast to GPS, delivers additional signals broadcast from
differentgeostationarysatellites.
Increased positioning accuracy using correction data: SBAS provides differential correction data with
whichtheGNSSpositioningaccuracyisimproved.Firstofalltheionosphericerror,whicharisesduetothe
signaldelaysintheionosphere,hastobecorrected.Theionosphericerrorvarieswiththetimeofdayandis
different from region to region. To ensure that the data is continentally valid, it is necessary to operate a
complicatednetworkofearthstationsinordertobeabletocalculatetheionosphericerror.Inadditionto
the ionospheric values, SBAS passes on correction information concerning the satellite position location
(Ephemeris)andtimemeasurement.
Increased integrity and security: SBAS monitors each GNSS satellite and notifies the user of a satellite
errororbreakdownwithinashortwarninglatencyof6s.Thisyes/noinformationisonlytransmittedifthe
qualityofthereceivedsignalsremainsbelowspecificlimits.
65
http://www.navcomtech.com/StarFire/
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Increased availability through the broadcasting of navigation information: SBAS geostationary

satellites emit signals, which are similar to the GNSS signals although missing the accurate time data. A
GNSSreceivercaninterpretpositionfromthesesignalsusingaprocedureknownaspseudoranging.
7.5.2 Overview of existing and planned systems

Although all Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) include very large regions (e.g. Europe) it must be
ensuredthattheyarecompatiblewitheachother(interoperability)andthattheSBASproviderscooperatewith
eachotherandagreeontheirapproach.CompatibilityisguaranteedbyusingtheRTCADO-229Cstandard.At
thecurrenttime,compatibleSBASsystemsarecurrentlyinoperationordevelopmentfortheareasidentifiedin
Figure107.
North America (WAAS, Wide Area Augmentation System): the US Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA)isleadingthedevelopmentoftheWideAreaAugmentationSystem(WAAS),whichcoverstheUnited
States, Canada and Mexico (Figure 104 66 ). WAAS operates over two satellites (Anik F1R und Galaxy 15)
locatedat133Wand107W 67 .
Figure 104: WAAS area of coverage
Europe (EGNOS, European Geostationary Overlay Service): The European group of three comprising
ESA, the European Union and EUROCONTROL, is developing EGNOS. It is intended for the region of the
EuropeanCivilAviationConference(ECAC).AsofFebruary2009,thesystemhadnotyetbeendefinitively
released for operation and may not be used in high security applications (e.g. aviation). The current
transmission status of the EGNOS satellites can be viewed under 68 . Certification is planned by the end of
2009.
Japan (MSAS, Multifunctional Satellite Based Augmentation System and QZSS, Quazi Zenith
Satellite System): MSAS uses two GEO satellites and for QZSS it is planned to use up to three HEO
satellites(highly-inclinedellipticalorbits,Figure105).ThetwoMSASsignalsaretransmittedbytheMTSAT1RandMTSAT-2satellites 69 .Asofthebeginningof2008,MTSAT-1Rwasoperational. QZSS supplements
66
http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/waas/news/
http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/waas/
68
http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/egnos/estb/IMAGEtech/imagetech_realtime.htm
69
http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/jma-eng/satellite/index.html
67
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GPSthroughthe transmission ofGPS signalsand integrity or correction signals 70 . Theespecially high HEO
constellationofQZSSensuresthatatleastonesatelliteinthevicinityofitszenith(7590Elevation)is
visibleinJapanesespace(Figure106 71 ).Thisshouldimprovepositioninginnarrowurbancanyons.Thefirst
QZSSsatelliteshouldbeoperationalbytheendof2010.
Figure 105: Satellite orbits and ground tracks of QZSS
Figure 106: QZSS satellite orbits, ground tracks and elevation over Tokyo
India (GAGAN, GPS and GEO Augmentated Navigation): TheIndianSpaceResearchOrganization(ISRO

[ 72 ]) is developing a system,which will be compatible with the other SBAS systems. In 2008, GAGAN test
signals were transmitted by Inmarsat 4F1 IOR. After 2009, GAGAN will begin operation using the GEO
satelliteGSAT-4.ThenewGAGANsatellitewillbelocatedat82E.
Russia (SDCM, System for Differential Correction and Monitoring): Russia plans a system for its
territorytocontrolGPSandGLONASSsignalsusingvariousmonitoringstations.GEOsatelliteswilltransmit
correctionandintegritysignalsforGPSandGLONASSoverRussianterritory.
70
http://qzss.jaxa.jp/is-qzss/index_e.html
QuasiZenithSatelliteSystemNavigationServiceInterfaceSpecificationsforQZSSDraft
http://isro.gov.in/
71
72
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90
EGNOS
Beidou
WAAS
MSAS
Latitude
GAGAN
0
Intelsat
Galaxy 15
133W
PRN135
90
-180
TeleSat
Anik F1R
107,3W
PRN138
-120
AOR-E Artemis IOR-W IOR

80E
MTSAT-1R MTSAT-2
15.5W 21.5E 25E
64E
110.5E 140E
145E
PRN120 PRN124 PRN126 PRN127 140E PRN129
PRN137
-60
0
Longitude
60
120
180
Figure 107: Position and coverage of WAAS, EGNOS, GAGAN and MSAS
Thegeostationarysatellites(Table15 73 )broadcasttheirsignalsfromanaltitudeofapprox.36,000kmabovethe
equatorinthedirectionoftheareaofuse.ThepositionofsomeSBASsatellitesisnotknownatthistime.The
PseudoRandomNumber(PRN)foreachsatellitehasbeenallocated 74 .Thebroadcastingfrequencyofthesignals
is the same as GPS (L1, 1575.42 MHz)., which means that no additional investment in receiver hardware is
neededinordertoreceivesignalsfromSBASGEOsatellites.
Service
Satellite description
Position
PRN
WAAS
IntelsatGalaxyXV
133W
135
WAAS
TeleSatAnikF1R
107,3W
138
EGNOS
Inmarsat3F2AOR-E
15,5W
120
EGNOS
Artemis
21,5W
124
EGNOS
Inmarsat3F5IOR-W
25E
126
MSAS
MTSAT-1R
140E
129
MSAS
MTSAT-2
145E
137
GAGAN
Inmarsat4F1IOR(Testbetrieb)
64E
127
Table 15: The GEO satellites used by WAAS, EGNOS and MSAS (as of February 2008)
7.5.3 Overview of planned RNSS

RNSS is the abbreviation of Regional Navigation Satellite System. RNSS systems are the counterpart to GPS,
GLONASS and GALILEO, which together are designated as GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) systems
and make possible worldwide navigation and positioning. RNSS systems can only be used for navigation in
limitedareas(e.g.individualcountries).ThetransitionfromSBAStoRNSSisquitefluid,thereforetheplanned
73
http://celestrak.com/NORAD/elements/sbas.txt
http://www.losangeles.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070530-036.pdf
74
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RNSS systems are introduced together with SBAS. The following regional satellite navigation systems are
planned:
India(IRNSS,IndianRegionalNavigationSatelliteSystem):INRSSistobeanautonomousnavigationsystem
consisting of three GEO satellites and four geosynchronous satellites with an inclination of 29 to the
equatorialplane 75 .Thesystemshouldbefunctionalafter2014.
Japan (QZSS, Quazi Zenith Satellite System): This system is a supplement to GPS and has already been
introduced(seeSection7.5.2).
7.5.4 SBAS system description

Thecomplexgroundsegmentiscomposedofseveralreferencebase-stations,groundcontrolcentersand2to3
satellite earth stations (Figure 108). Each system uses its own designation for its stations. Table 16 below
comparesthedesignations.
General description
EGNOS designation
WAAS designation
MSAS designation
ReferenceBaseStation
RIMS:Referenceand
IntegrityMonitoring
Station
WRS:WideAreaBase GMS:GroundMonitor
station
Station
ControlCenter
MCC:MissionControl
Center
WMS:WAASMaster
Station
SatelliteGroundStation
NLES:NavigationLand GES:GroundEarth
EarthStation
Station
MCS:MasterControl
Station
NES/GES:Navigation
EarthStation/Ground
EarthStation
Table 16: Designation of the SBAS stations
Figure 108: Principle of all Satellite Based Augmentation Systems SBAS
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Reference Station:intheSBASareathereareseveralreferencebasestations,whicharenetworkedto
eachother.ThebasestationsreceivetheGNSSsignals.Theyareexactlysurveyedwithregardtotheir
position.Eachbasestationdeterminesthedeviationbetweentheactualandcalculatedpositionsrelative
tothesatellites(thepseudorange).Thisdataisthentransmittedtoacontrolcenter.
Control Center:thecontrolcenterscarryouttheevaluationofthecorrectiondatafromthereference
base stations, determine the accuracy of all GNSS signals received by each base station, detect
inaccuracies, possibly caused by turbulence in the ionosphere, and monitor the integrity of the GNSS
system.Dataconcerningthevariationsarethenintegratedintoasignalandtransmittedviadistributed
satelliteearthstations.
Satellite Ground Station:thesestationsbroadcastsignalstothedifferentgeostationarysatellites.
GEO satellites: the SBAS GEO (geostationary) satellites receive the signals from the satellite ground
stationsandbroadcastthemtotheGNSSusers.UnliketheGNSSsatellites,theseGEOsatellitesdonot
have onboard signal generators but rather are equipped with transponders, which relay the signals
processedonthegroundandtransmittedtothem.ThesignalsaretransmittedtoearthontheGNSS-L1frequency (1575.42MHz). The SBAS signals are received and processed by suitably equipped GNSS
receivers.
7.5.5 Satellite DGPS services using RTCM SC-104

Severalgeostationarysatellitescontinuouslybroadcastcorrectiondataworldwide.Belowsomeoftheseservices
arelisted.TheseservicesusetheRTCMSC-104standardandrequireaspecialdecoder.
MSAT: developedbytheNationalResearchCouncilofCanada,thisservicebroadcaststheCanada-Wide
DGPS(CDGPS)signalsusingtwogeostationarysatellites.
Omnistar (Fugro Group) and LandStar-DGPS, (Thales Company), independently broadcast correction
datavia6GEOsatellites(Figure109).Theservicesmustbepaidforandtheusermusthaveaccesstoa
specialreceiver/decoderforusingtheservice.OmnistarandLandstarbroadcasttheirinformationinLband(1-2GHz)toearth.Basestationsaredistributedworldwide.Thegeostationarysatellitesarelocated
inthecentrallatitudedeepoverthehorizon(10...30).Line-of-sightcontactisrequiredinorderto
establishradiocontact.
Figure 109: LandStar-DGPS and Omnistar illumination zone
StarfirePropertyofNavComTechnology,Inc.,broadcastscorrectiondatavia3InmarsatGEOsatellites.
Theservicehastobepaidforandtheusermusthaveaccesstoaspecialreceiver/decoderinorderto
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use the service. Starfire broadcasts its information in L-band (1-2 GHz) to earth. The respective base
stationsaredistributedthroughoutthewholeworld.Theserviceisavailableworldwideovertherange
of76latitude.
7.6 Achievable accuracy with DGPS and SBAS

Table17showstypicallyachievablepositioningaccuracywithandwithoutDGPS/SBAS.
Error cause and type
Error
without
DGPS/SBAS
Error with
DGPS/SBAS
Ephemerisdata
1.5m
0.1m
Satelliteclocks
1.5m
0.1m
Effectoftheionosphere
3.0m
0.2m
Effectofthetroposphere
0.7m
0.2m
Multipathreception
1.0m
1.4m
Effectofthereceiver
0.5m
0.5m
TotalRMSvalue
4.0m
1.2m
Horizontalerror(1-Sigma(68%)HDOP=1.3)
6.0m
1.8m
Horizontal error (2-Sigma (95%) HDOP=1.3)
12.0m
3.6m
Table 17: Positioning accuracy without and with DGPS/SBAS
7.7 Assisted-GPS (A-GPS, AGPS)

7.7.1 Introduction
Anever-increasingnumberofdevicesarecomingontothemarketcombiningmobileradiofunctions(e.g.GSM,
UMTS, etc.) with satellite navigation, for instance GPS (see Figure 110). Such a combination is often used for
LocationBasedServices(LBS).Itcanbeassumedthatthesedevicesarenotalwaysinoperation.Thisisespecially
true when positioning is determined by GPS, since the power consumption of a GPS receiver limits battery
operationtime.
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Mobile
Receiver
GPS Module
Figure 110: Mobile receiver and block diagram showing integrated GPS module
BecausetheGPSdeviceisonlyinfrequentlyinoperationitisprobablethatnoinformationisavailableregarding
satellite position. After being inactive for 2 or more hours the orbital data of the satellites must first be
downloadedinordertostartup.AGPSreceivernormallyrequiresatleast18-36secondsinordertoobtainthe
orbitaldataandcalculatethefirstposition(thistimeisreferredtoastheTimetoFirstFix:TTFF).Underdifficult
receptionconditions(e.g.,inurbanareaswheretallbuildingsblockdirectsighttothesky)thecalculationofthe
firstpositioncanrequireminutestobecompleted,ifatall.Thisslowstart-upisasystem-inherentlimitationof
GPS,whichcannotbeovercomewithimprovedreceivertechnology.
Intheabsenceoftheorbitaldata,theGPSreceivermustcarryoutacompletesearchprocedureinordertofind
theavailablesatellites,downloadthedataandcalculatetheposition.Thesearchfortheapproximately30GPS
satellites in the code-frequency domain is very time consuming. The integration time per level in the codefrequency domain normally requires at least 1ms (1 C/A-code period). Should the frequency range be broken
into50-Hzsteps(i.e.,thefrequencyintervalamountsto(2x6000/50Hz=240Hz)thentherecanbeasmany
as1023x50=51,150positions(bins)tobesearchedfor(requiring51seconds).SeealsoSection7.8.
7.7.2 Principle of A-GPS

A rapid determination of position and measurement during periods of weak signals can be obtained by
providingadditionalsatelliteorbitdataandotherGPSinformation.Thisinformationismadeavailablethrough
other communications channels, for example via GSM, GPRS, CDMA or UMTS. This application is known as
Aiding and is used in Assisted-GPS (A-GPS, or AGPS). A-GPS is a function or service that uses Aiding-Data in
order to speed up the determination of position. The GPS receiver obtains Aiding-Data via a mobile
communicationsnetworkordirectlyovertheInternet.TheAiding-Dataincludesinformationoversuchthingsas:
Satelliteconstellation(Almanac)
Preciseorbitaldata(Ephemeris,orbits)
Timeinformation
Dopplerfrequencyandfrequency-offset(error)oftheGPSreceiver
WiththeavailabilityofthisAiding-DatatheGPSreceivercanveryquicklydetermineposition,evenunderpoor
signalconditions.Withweaksignalsthisisoftentheonlywaytogetapositionfix.Dependingonthecomplexity
and completeness of the Aiding-Data the reduction of the start-up time can be significant. The start-up time
remainsdependentonthestrengthoftheGPS-Signal.Itisgenerallytruethatthehighertheavailabilityandthe
accuracyofaidinginformation,thefasteristhestart-uptime.
Figure111showstheapproximatestart-uptime(TimetoFirstFix,TTFF)asvariousAiding-Dataareused 76 .
76
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TTFF
2min
20s
15s
onlyAlmanac
onlyEphemeris
Ephemeris+Time
Ephemeris+Time+Position
Ephemeris+Time+Position+DopplerFrequency
10s
5s
Signal Strength
-160dBm
-150dBm
-140dBm
-130dBm
Figure 111: Time to First Fix (TTFF) with different Aiding-Data as a function of signal strength
AmobiletransmitterstationwithintegratedGPSdevicestillrequiressighttoatleastfoursatellites.TouseA-GPS
theGPSreceiversrequireaninterfacethroughwhichtoreceivetheAiding-Data.
Thehighesttimesavingoccursthrougheliminatingthereceptiontimefortheorbitaldata.Inadditiontothis,
thesearchareacanbelimitedwhentheDopplerfrequencyandfrequencyoffsetoftheGPSreceiverareknown
(Figure112).Thiscausesthesignalacquisitiontobeaccelerated,whichsavesadditionaltime.
Locationof
Maximum
1023
Correlation
Factor
767
1
511
de
Co
255
0
-6KHz
t
hif
S
0
+6KHz
FrequencyShift
Figure 112: Acceleration of the search procedure with A-GPS by reducing the search area
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7.7.3 Reference network

A-GPSAiding-Dataisproducedbycollectingsatelliteinformationoveranextensiveandworldwidenetworkof
monitoringstations,whichcontinuallyandaccuratelymonitorsatellitemovements.Ahighperformanceserver
uses this data to predict satellite movements over the next days. An example of such a network is the one
developedbytheInternationalGNSS-Service(IGS,orInternationalGPS-Service 77 ),whichoperatesapermanent
worldwidenetwork(Figure113).
Figure 113: IGS reference stations (as of November 2007) with approx. 340 active stations
7.7.4 A-GPS network

A typical A-GPS system, as illustrated in the below block diagram (Figure 114), consists of a global reference
network of GPS receivers, a central server that distributes Aiding-Data, and A-GPS capable receivers (the GPS
end devices). The GPS receivers of the global reference network receive the relevant satellite information and
forwardittotheserver.TheservercalculatestheAiding-Dataandtransmitsit(overamobilecommunications
networkorovertheInternet)uponrequesttotheGPSenddevices,whichinturncanmorequicklydetermine
theirfirstposition.
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GPS Satellites
Internet
Reference
Network
Location Server
M obile Com m .
Network (G SM ,
G PRS, UM TS, CDMA)
Aiding Data
(over mobile
comm. network)
Mobile
Station
Aiding Data
(directly over
internet)
GPS-Receiver
with A-GPS
interface
Figure 114: Assisted-GPS system
TheAiding-DataiscollectedfromaworldwidenetworkofGPS-ReferenceStations(GPSReferenceNetwork).
TwodifferenttechniquesareemployedtousetheAiding-Data:
WiththeOnline PrincipletheAiding-Dataisdirectlydownloadedfromaserverasneededinreal-time.
Thisinformationisonlyvalidforalimitedtime.(e.g.AssistNow Onlinebyu-bloxAG)
WiththeOffline PrincipletheAiding-Data(generallypredeterminedEphemerisorAlmanac
information)isdownloadedfromaserverandstoredintheGNSSdevicepriortotheapplication.The
datacanremainvalidforuptoseveraldays.Asneededthestoreddatacanbeutilizedinorderto
acceleratethestart-up.(e.g.AssistNowOfflinebyu-bloxAG)
7.7.5 A-GPS with online aiding data (real-time A-GPS)

WithOnlineA-GPS(Real-timePrinciple)theAidingDataisdirectlydownloadedfromtheserverasneededand
areonlyvalidforashorttime(Figure115).Thedisadvantageofthisprincipleistherelativelyslowconnection
time(GPRS,forexample,requiresupto30seconds)orinadequateavailabilityofInternetAccessPoints.
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GPS Satellites
Internet
Location Server
Reference
Network
Mobile Network
(GSM, GPRS, Continuous
UMTS, CDMA) Aiding Data
Request
Mobile
Station
GPS Module,
GPS-IC
with A-GPS
interface
Client
Figure 115: With Online A-GPS, Aiding-Data is continuously transmitted
FunctionofOnlineA-GPS(seeFigure115):
TheMobileStationoftheGPSreceiverrequestsAiding-DatafromtheLocationServer.Inordertomake
this functionality possible, an aiding program (the so-called client) must be installed in the Mobile
Station.
TheServertransmitstheAiding-Data(approx.1to3KB)totheClientofthemobilestation.TheClient
thenpassesthisdataontotheGPSmodule.
TheGPSmoduleusestheAiding-Datatodetermineposition.
7.7.6 A-GPS with offline aiding data (predicted orbits)

WithOfflineA-GPStheGPSreceiverisprovidedwithpredeterminedorbitaldata(PredictedOrbits).Theorbital
dataisdeterminedthroughinformationfromthereferencenetworkandthecurrentAlmanac(Figure116).The
receiverstoresthisinformation,andtheconnectiontotheserveristerminated.ThenexttimetheGPSreceiver
starts up the stored information is used to determine the current orbital information for navigation.
Consequently, it is no longer necessary to wait until all of this information has been downloaded from the
satellitesandthereceivercanimmediatelybeginnavigating.Dependingontheprovider,theAidingDatacanbe
validfor10to20days,althoughitshouldbeconsideredthattheresultingpositionalaccuracydecreaseswith
time.
Figure 116: From the Almanac data precise orbital data (True Orbits) are calculated
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FunctionofOfflineA-GPS(Figure116):
TheClientrequestsAiding-DatafromtheLocationServer
TheServersendstheAiding-Data(<10-100KB)totheClient
TheClientpassesthisdataontotheGPSmodule
TheGPSmodulecanusethisAiding-Dataupto14days.Duringthistime,nonewconnectiontothe
Serverisnecessary.
7.7.7 Architectures
InordertotransmittheAiding-Data,therearetwodifferentarchitectures:
ControlPlaneArchitecture
UserPlaneArchitecture
7.7.8 Control plane architecture

WithControlPlanebasedA-GPS,theserverandend-devicecommunicateovercommunicationsignalchannels
(SS7, Signalling System) in mobile radio and switching networks (e.g. GSM). For this, the necessary interfaces
and protocols are available throughout the entire network. Control Plane architecture requires comprehensive
alterations of the network infrastructure (Figure 117) based on 3GPP Location Services Standards. These
standardsareavailablefromthe3GPPorganization 78 .Individuallydescribedstandardscanbedownloaded 79 , 80 , 81 ,
82
.
GPS Satellites
Reference
Network
Location Server
SS7
Mobile Network
(GSM, GPRS,
Figure 117: With Control Plane Architecture the mobile network must be altered
78
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TS03.71,LocationServices(LCS),FunctionaldescriptionStage2,
80
TS04.31,LocationServices(LCS),MobileStationServingMobileLocationCentre,RadioResourceLCSProtocol
81
TS44.035,LocationServices(LCS),BroadcastnetworkassistanceforEnhancedObservedTimeDifferenceandGlobalPositioningSystem
positioningmethods,
82
TS 04.35, Location Services (LCS), Broadcast network assistance for Enhanced Observed Time Difference and Global Positioning System
positioningmethods
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7.7.9 User plane architecture

User Plane is an A-GPS-System where communications between the Location Server and the end device take
placeoverastandarddataconnectionsuchasGPRSorUMTS.FortheintegrationofUserPlanesolutions,the
existingprotocolsandinterfacesofthemobileradioandswitchingnetworksareused.Additionally,aLocation
Serverisintegratedintothemobilenetwork.
The server communicates directly with the mobile end devices over an IP Connection (Internet Protocol
Connection),forwhichtheradioandswitchingnetworksrequirenomodification(Figure118).TheOpenMobile
Alliance(OMA),anassociationofMobileNetworkserviceprovidersandmanufacturers,hasproducedaStandard
forlocationtechnology(OMA-SUPL,seeSection7.7.11).
GPS Satellites
Reference
Network
Location Server
IP
Mobile Network
(GSM, GPRS,
Figure 118: With User Plane Architecture the mobile network requires no alteration
7.7.10 Architecture advantages

Table18comparestheadvantagesofUser-planevs.Control-planearchitectures.
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Criteria
Architectureandimplementation
Risk
Serviceoptions
Management/upgrades
Control
Extensibility(fordevelopers)
Serviceaddressability
User-plane advantage
Fewer elements involved, resulting
inlesscomplexity,cost,andimpact
onthenetwork
Less costly to implement, offloads
service development to third
parties, while the operator
maintains control over enabling
thoseserviceswithalocation
Control-plane advantage
Utilizes the more reliable SS7

network
Morecomplexdesignlendsitselfto
more robust service choices; in
addition, voice-controlled services
arealsoeasiertoimplement
Fewer moving parts result in lower
operatingexpenses;upgradesdont
impactasmanyelements
Standards for location gateway are

betterdefinedforimplementation
Allowsthirdpartiestodevelopand
hostserviceswithminimalnetwork
impact
Allowsoperatorstodeployservices
tosubscriberswithorwithoutdata
connectivity
Table 18: Comparison of advantages of User-plane vs. Control-plane Architectures
83
7.7.11 OMA-Secure User Plane Location Architecture (OMA-SUPL)

In June 2007 the OMA (Open Mobile Alliance 84 ) authorized and released their Standard. All standards,
regulationsandprotocolspertainingtoUserPlanearecombinedundertheheadingSecureUserPlaneLocation
(SUPL)andareavailableontheOMAwebsite.SUPLrequiresexistingMobileNetworkstotransmitAiding-Data
fromtheLocationServertoMobilStationswithintegratedGPScomponents.ThenecessaryAiding-DataforAGPSfunctionisstoredintheLocationServer.
The User Plane Location Protocol (ULP) describes the most important protocols for communication between
LocationServersandmobilestationswithGPSreceiversforA-GPS.ThisStandarddesignatestheLocationServer
as the SLP (SUPL Location Platform) and the combined mobile terminal with GPS receiver as the SET (SUPL
EnabledTerminal)(SeeFigure119).
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Figure 119: Block diagram with components according to OMA
ThesignificantprotocolsforA-GPSare:
SUPLPOSINIT(Section6.2.4oftheStandard)
PositioningMethod(Section7.8oftheStandard)
RequestedAssistanceData(Section7.9oftheStandard)
7.8 High Sensitivity GPS (HSGPS)

Whilecertainapplications,suchascallingemergencynumbersorLocationBasedServices,requireclearreception
inbuildingsorinurbancanyons,thereceptionperformanceofGNSSreceiversisbeingcontinuallyimproved.The
primaryfocusesoftheseeffortsare:
Increasedsignalsensitivity
Quickeracquisitionuponactivationofthereceiver(timetofirstfix,TTFF)
Reducedsensitivitytointerference(e.g.multipathinterference,orelectromagneticinterferenceEMC)
Variousstrategiesarebeingemployedbydifferentmanufacturersinordertoachieveimprovements.Themost
importantofthesearediscussedinthischapterincluding:
ImprovedOscillatorStability
Antennas
NoiseFigureconsiderations
Increasingthecorrelatorsandthecorrelationtime
7.8.1 Improved oscillator stability

The development and use of increasingly stable oscillators is an attempt to reduce or compensate for the
temperaturedependenceofquartzinordertodecreasesignalacquisitiontimeintherequiredfrequencyareas.
Thismostlyinvolvestheemploymentoftemperaturecompensatedcrystaloscillators(TCXO).
Additionally, studies have shown 85 that normal quartz oscillators can produce micro variations in frequency
(severalppb).Thecausesofthesefrequencychangesaregenerallystructuralimpurityofthequartzcrystal.On
thebasisofthesesuddenfrequencyshiftstheacquisitiontimeisincreasedbecausethesearchinthefrequencycodedomainduringthecorrelationprocessisdisrupted.Developingquartzoscillatorswithreducedtendencies
tomicrovariationscanreducethisdisturbance.
7.8.2 Antennas
Antennas can be made to be less sensitive to disturbances and to selectively receive GNSS frequencies. The
disadvantageofthisperformanceimprovementisanincreaseinsize.Thiscontradictsthegeneraltrendtowards
miniaturizationofmobilestations.
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7.8.3 Noise figure considerations

TheNoiseFigure(NF)isameasurethatindicatestowhatextentthesignal-to-noiseratioofanincomingsignalis
decreasedbytheadditionalnoiseofthereceiver.Minimizingthenoiseandmaximizingtheamplificationatthe
firstamplificationstage(LNA)minimallyimprovesthereceiversensitivity.Asisthecasewitheveryreceiverthe
firststageamplificationdeterminesthenoisecharacteristicsfortheentirereceiver(seeEquation1).
NFTotal NF1
NF2 1 NF3 1
NFN 1
...
G1
G1 G2
G1 G2 ...GN 1
Equation 1: Calculation of noise figure
NF:NoiseFigureoftheStage
G:GainoftheStage
Noisefigureandgainarelinearfactorsandarenottobeusedinlogarithmic(dB)representation.
Equation2andthesimplifiedblockdiagraminFigure120showthecalculationofthetotalNoiseFigureforthe
LNAandthecombinedsubsequentstages(SS):
NFTotal NFLNA
NFSS
GLNA
Equation 2: Calculation of noise figure
Received
GPS-Signal
LNA
SS
NFLNA
GLNA
NFSS
OutputSignal
forfurther
processing
Figure 120: Block Diagram of input stages
Withtypicalnoisefiguresforthefirstandsubsequentamplificationstagesof1.6dBand20dBrespectively,only
marginalimprovementsarepossiblewithnewLNAdevelopments.Furtheradvancementinthisareaappearsto
beunlikely.
7.8.4 Correlators and correlation time

ThespectralpowerdensityofthereceivedGNSSsignalsisapprox.16dBbelowthepowerdensityofthethermal
background noise (seeFigure39). The demodulationand de-spreading ofthe received GNSS signals createsa
systemgainGGof43dB(seeFigure49).
Increasingthecorrelationtime(integrationtimeordwelltime)improvesthesensitivityofaGNSSmodule.The
longeracorrelatorremainsataspecificcode-frequencylevel,thelowertherequiredstrengthoftheGNSSsignal
at the antenna. If the correlation time is increased by a factor of k, then there will be an increase GR in the
separationtothethermalbackgroundnoiseof:
GR=log10(k)
Doubling the correlation time results in an increase of the signal-background noise separation of 3 dB. In
practiceanincreaseinthecorrelationtimeof20msisnotaproblem.Whenthevalueofthetransmitteddata
bitsisknownthistimecanbeadditionallyincreased.Otherwiseitispossiblethroughanon-coherentintegration
toincreasethecorrelationtimetoover1second,however,thisprocedureresultsinaone-timelossofseveral
dB.
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Inordertoincreasetheacquisitionsensitivitythenumberofimplementedcorrelatorsissignificantlyincreased.
Modern GNSS receivers typically possess a sensitivityof approximately 160dBm. Given that the GPS operator
(USDepartmentofDefense)guaranteessignalstrengthof130dBm,GNSSreceiverscanthereforefunctionin
buildingsthatweakenthesignalbyupto30dB.
7.9 GNSS-repeater or re-radiation antenna

A GNSS-Repeater (also known as a Re-radiation Antenna or Transceiver) receives GNSS-Signals from visible
satellites through an externally situated antenna, amplifies the signals and transmits them to another location
(e.g.intoabuilding).TheyrequirenodirectconnectiontotheGNSSdevice.Thereceptionantennaisinstalled
outdoorsinalocationfavorableforreceivingsatellitesignals.TheGNSS-Repeater(Figure121)consistsof:
ExternalAntenna(ReceptionAntenna)
InternalAntenna(TransmissionAntenna)
Electricaladapter
Amplifier
Cable
Figure 121: GNSS Repeater (external antenna, electrical adapter and power cord, amplifier and internal antenna)
7.10 Pseudolites for indoor applications

APseudolite(shortformforpseudosatellite)isaground-basedtransmitter,whichfunctionslikeaGNSSsatellite.
Pseudolitesare oftenusedin aviationto supportaircraft landingapproaches.This procedure is not commonly
usedforindoorapplicationsbecausethenecessarycomponentsarerelativelyexpensive.
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8 Data formats and hardware interfaces

o
knowwhatNMEAandRTCMmean
knowwhataproprietarydatasetis
knowwhatdatasetisavailableinthecaseofallGNSSreceivers
knowwhatanactiveantennais
knowwhetherGNSSreceivershaveasynchronizedtimingpulse
8.1 Introduction
GNSSreceiversrequiredifferentsignallinesinordertofunction(Figure122).Thevaluesofdifferentvariablesare
broadcast after position and time have been successfully calculated. To ensure that the different types of
appliances are portable, there are either international standards for data exchange (NMEA and RTCM), or the
manufacturerprovidesdefined(proprietary)formatsandprotocols.
Data interface
(NMEA-Format)
Antenna
Power supply
GNSS
receiver
Data interface
(Proprietary format)
DGPS signal
(RTCM SC-104)
Timing mark
(1PPS)
Figure 122: Block diagram of a GNSS receiver with interfaces
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8.2 Data interfaces

8.2.1 The NMEA-0183 data interface
InordertorelaycomputedGNSSvariablessuchasposition,velocity,courseetc.toaperipheral(e.g.computer,
screen,transceiver),GNSSmoduleshaveaserialinterface(TTLorRS-232level).Themostimportantelementsof
receiverinformationarebroadcastviathisinterfaceinaspecialdataformat.Thisformatisstandardizedbythe
NationalMarineElectronicsAssociation(NMEA)toensurethatdataexchangetakesplacewithoutanyproblems.
Nowadays,dataisrelayedaccordingtotheNMEA-0183specification.NMEAhasspecifieddatasetsforvarious
applications e.g. GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), GPS, Loran, Omega, Transit and also for various
manufacturers.ThefollowingsevendatasetsarewidelyusedwithGNSSmodulestorelayGNSSinformation 86 :
1. GGA(GPSFixData,fixeddatafortheGlobalPositioningSystem)
2. GGL(GeographicPositionLatitude/Longitude)
3. GSA(GPSDOPandActiveSatellites,degradationofaccuracyandthenumberofactivesatellitesinthe
GlobalSatelliteNavigationSystem)
4. GSV(GNSSSatellitesinView,satellitesinviewintheGlobalSatelliteNavigationSystem)
5. RMC(RecommendedMinimumSpecificGNSSData)
6. VTG(CourseoverGroundandGroundSpeed,horizontalcourseandhorizontalvelocity)
7. ZDA(Time&Date)
86
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8.2.1.1
Structure of the NMEA protocol
InthecaseofNMEA,therateatwhichdataistransmittedis4800Baudusingprintable8-bitASCIIcharacters.
Transmissionbeginswithastartbit(logicalzero),followedbyeightdatabitsandastopbit(logicalone)added
attheend.Noparitybitsareused.
1 ( ca. Vcc)
TTLLevel
Start
Bit
Stop
Bit
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
0 ( ca. 0V)
Data Bits
RS-232Level
0 ( U>0V)
Start
Bit
Stop
Bit
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
1 ( U<0V)
Data Bits
Figure 123: NMEA format (TTL and RS-232 level)
ThedifferentlevelsmustbetakenintoconsiderationdependingonwhethertheGNSSreceiverusedhasaTTLor
RS-232interface(Figure123):
InthecaseofaTTLlevelinterface,alogicalzerocorrespondstoapprox.0Vandalogicaloneroughlyto
theoperatingvoltageofthesystem(+3.3V...+5V)
InthecaseofanRS-232interfacealogicalzerocorrespondstoapositivevoltage(+3V...+15V)anda
logicaloneanegativevoltage(-3V...15V).
If a GNSS module with a TTL level interface is connected to an appliance with an RS-232 interface, a level
conversionmustbeeffected(see8.3.4).
MostGNSSreceiversallowthebaudratetobeincreased(upto115200bitspersecond).
EachGNSSdatasetisformattedinthesamewayandhasthefollowingstructure:
$GPDTS,Inf_1,Inf_2,Inf_3,Inf_4,Inf_5,Inf_6,Inf_n*CS<CR><LF>
Table19explainsthefunctionsofindividualcharactersandcharactergroups.
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Field
$
GP
DTS
Inf_1toInf_n
,
*
CS
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance
Datasetidentifier(e.g.RMC)
Informationwithnumber1...n(e.g.175.4forcoursedata)
Commausedasaseparatorfordifferentitemsofinformation
Asteriskusedasaseparatorforthechecksum
Checksum(controlword)forcheckingtheentiredataset
Endofthedataset:carriagereturn(<CR>)andlinefeed,(<LF>)
Table 19: Description of the individual NMEA DATA SET blocks
Themaximumnumberofcharactersusedmustnotexceed79.Forthepurposesofdeterminingthisnumber,the
startsign$andendsigns<CR><LF>arenotcounted.
ThefollowingNMEAprotocolwasrecordedusingaGNSSreceiver(Table20):
$GPRMC,130303.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.03,043.4,200601,01.3,W*7D<CR><LF>
$GPZDA,130304.2,20,06,2001,,*56<CR><LF>
$GPGGA,130304.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*59<CR><LF>
$GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130304.0,A*33<CR><LF>
$GPVTG,205.5,T,206.8,M,000.04,N,000.08,K*4C<CR><LF>
$GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF>
$GPGSV,2,1,8,13,15,208,36,20,80,358,39,11,52,139,43,29,13,044,36*42<CR><LF>
$GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF>
$GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF>
$GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF>
$GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*58<CR><LF>
$GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF>
$GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF>
$GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF>
$GPGSV,2,1,8,13,15,208,36,20,80,358,39,11,52,139,43,29,13,044,36*42<CR><LF>
$GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF>
Table 20: Recording of an NMEA protocol
8.2.1.2
GGA data set
TheGGAdataset(GPSFixData)containsinformationontime,longitudeandlatitude,thequalityofthesystem,
thenumberofsatellitesusedandtheheight.
AnexampleofaGGAdataset:
$GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*58<CR><LF>
ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable21.
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Field
$
GP
GGA
130305.0
4717.115
N
00833.912
E
1
08
0.94
00499
M
047
M
,,
0000
*
58
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
UTCpositionaltime:13h03min05.0sec
Latitude:4717.115min
Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south)
Latitude:833.912min
Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west)
GPSqualitydetails(0=noGPS,1=GPS,2=DGPS)
Numberofsatellitesusedinthecalculation
HorizontalDilutionofPrecision(HDOP)
Antennaheightdata(geoidheight)
Unitofheight(M=meter)
Heightdifferentialbetweenanellipsoidandgeoid
Unitofdifferentialheight(M=meter)
AgeoftheDGPSdata(inthiscasenoDGPSisused)
IdentificationoftheDGPSreferencestation
Separatorforthechecksum
Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset
Endofthedataset
Table 21: Description of the individual GGA data set blocks
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8.2.1.3
GLL data set
TheGLLdataset(geographicpositionlatitude/longitude)containsinformationonlatitudeandlongitude,time
andhealth.
ExampleofaGLLdataset:
$GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF>
Field
$
GP
GLL
4717.115
N
00833.912
E
130305.0
A
*
32
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
Longitude:833.912min
UTCpositionaltime:13h03min05.0sec
Datasetquality:Ameansvalid(V=invalid)
Endofthedataset
Table 22: Description of the individual GGL data set blocks
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8.2.1.4
GSA data set
TheGSAdataset(GNSSDOPandActiveSatellites)containsinformationonthemeasuringmode(2Dor3D),the
number of satellites used to determine the position and the accuracy of the measurements (DOP: Dilution of
Precision).
ExampleofaGSAdataset:
$GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF>
ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorsetsofcharactersisdescribedinTable23.
Field
$
GP
GSA
A
3
13
20
11
29
01
25
07
04
,,,,,
1.63
0.94
1.33
*
04
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
Calculatingmode(A=automaticselectionbetween2D/3Dmode,M=manualselection
between2D/3Dmode)
Calculatingmode(1=none,2=2D,3=3D)
IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition
DummyforadditionalIDnumbers(currentlynotused)
PDOP(PositionDilutionofPrecision)
HDOP(HorizontalDilutionofPrecision)
VDOP(VerticalDilutionofPrecision)
Endofthedataset
Table 23: Description of the individual GSA data set blocks
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8.2.1.5
GSV data set
The GSV data set (GNSS Satellites in View) contains information on the number of satellites in view, their
identification,theirelevationandazimuth,andthesignal-to-noiseratio.
AnexampleofaGSVdataset:
$GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF>
Field
$
GP
GSV
2
2
09
01
52
187
43
25
25
074
39
07
37
286
40
04
09
306
33
*
44
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
TotalnumberofGVSdatasetstransmitted(upto1...9)
CurrentnumberofthisGVSdataset(1...9)
Totalnumberofsatellitesinview
Identificationnumberofthefirstsatellite
Elevation(0....90)
Azimuth(0...360)
Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking)
Identificationnumberofthesecondsatellite
Elevation(0....90)
Azimuth(0...360)
Signal-to-noiseratioindB-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking)
Identificationnumberofthethirdsatellite
Elevation(0....90)
Azimuth(0...360)
Identificationnumberofthefourthsatellite
Elevation(0....90)
Azimuth(0...360)
Endofthedataset
Table 24: Description of the individual GSV data set blocks
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8.2.1.6
RMC data set
The RMC data set (Recommended Minimum Specific GNSS) contains information on time, latitude, longitude,
systemstatus,speed,courseanddate.AllGNSSreceiversrelaythisdataset.
AnexampleofanRMCdataset:
$GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF>
Field
$
GP
RMC
130304.0
A
4717.115
N
00833.912
E
000.04
205.5
200601
01.3
W
*
7C
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
Timeofreception(worldtimeUTC):13h03min04.0sec
Datasetquality:Asignifiesvalid(V=invalid)
Longitude:833.912min
Speed:0.04knots
Course:205.5
Date:20thJune2001
Adjusteddeclination:1.3
Westerlydirectionofdeclination(E=east)
Endofthedataset
Table 25: Description of the individual RMC data set blocks
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8.2.1.7
VTG data set
TheVGTdataset(CourseoverGroundandGroundSpeed)containsinformationoncourseandspeed.
AnexampleofaVTGdataset:
$GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF>
Field
$
GP
VTG
014.2
T
015.4
M
000.03
N
000.05
K
*
4F
<CR><LF>
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
Course14.2(T)withregardtothehorizontalplane
Angularcoursedatarelativetothemap
Course15.4(M)withregardtothehorizontalplane
Angularcoursedatarelativetomagneticnorth
Horizontalspeed(N)
Speedinknots
Horizontalspeed(Km/h)
Speedinkm/h
Endofthedataset
Table 26: Description of the individual VTG data set blocks
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8.2.1.8
ZDA data set
TheZDAdataset(timeanddate)containsinformationonUTCtime,thedateandlocaltime.
AnexampleofaZDAdataset:
$GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF>
Field
$
GP
ZDA
130305.2
Description
Startofthedataset
Datasetidentifier
UTCtime:13h03min05.2sec
20
06
2001
*
57
<CR><LF>
Day(0031)
Month(112)
Year
Reservedfordataonlocaltime(h),notspecifiedhere
Reservedfordataonlocaltime(min),notspecifiedhere
Endofthedataset
Table 27: Description of the individual ZDA data set blocks
8.2.1.9
Calculating the checksum
Thechecksumisdeterminedbyanexclusive-oroperationinvolvingall8databits(excludingstartandstopbits)
fromalltransmittedcharacters,includingseparators.Theexclusive-oroperationcommencesafterthestartofthe
dataset($sign)andendsbeforethechecksumseparator(asterisk:*).
The 8-bit result is divided into 2 sets of 4 bits (nibbles) and each nibble is converted into the appropriate
hexadecimalvalue(0...9,A...F).ThechecksumconsistsofthetwohexadecimalvaluesconvertedintoASCII
characters.
Theprincipleofchecksumcalculationcanbeexplainedwiththehelpofabriefexample:
ThefollowingNMEAdatasethasbeenreceivedandthechecksum(CS)mustbeverifiedforitscorrectness.
$GPRTE,1,1,c,0*07
(07 isthechecksum)
Procedure:
1. Onlythecharactersbetween$and*areincludedintheanalysis:GPRTE,1,1,c,0
2. These13ASCIIcharactersareconvertedinto8bitvalues(seeTable28)
3. Eachindividualbitofthe13ASCIIcharactersislinkedtoanexclusive-oroperation(i.e.,ifthenumberof
onesisuneven,theexclusive-orvalueisone)
4. Theresultisdividedintotwonibbles
5. Thehexadecimalvalueofeachnibbleisdetermined
6. BothhexadecimalcharactersaretransmittedasASCIIcharacterstoformthechecksum
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Character
G
P
R
T
E
,
1
,
1
,
C
,
0
Exclusive-orvalue
Nibble
Hexadecimalvalue
ASCIICScharacters
(meetsrequirements!)
ASCII(8bitvalue)
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
0000
0
0
0 1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 1
0 0
0 1
0111
7
7
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
Directionto
proceed
Table 28: Determining the checksum in the case of NMEA data sets
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8.2.2 Conversion from NMEA to KML

8.2.2.1
Introduction to Google Earth and KML
Navigationdata(e.g.atrack),availableinNMEAdataformat,canbedisplayedwithGoogleEarth 87 (Figure124).
Figure 124: Google Earth with Detail
ForthistheNMEAfilemustfirstbeconvertedintotheGoogleEarthaccessibleKML(KeyholeMarkupLanguage)
format. KML is an XML syntax and file format for modeling and storing geographic elements such as points,
lines,pictures,polygonsandmodelsfordisplayinGoogleEarthandGoogleMaps 88 .GoogleEarthandGoogle
MapsprocessKMLfilesinasimilarwaytoHTMLandXMLfiles.LikeHTML,KMLpossessesatag-basedstructure
withnamesandattributesforspecialgraphicaldisplay.GoogleEarthalsosupportstheKMZformat,whichisa
ZIP-compressedKMLfile.SinceKMZfilesarecompressedtheycannotbedirectlyedited.InordertoalteraKMZ
file, it must first be unzipped (decompressed). The file can then be changed with an XML or text editor and
finally re-compressed. Further information about KML and KMZ formats can be found in the KML
documentationfromGoogleEarth 89 .
8.2.2.2
Principle of converting NMEA to KML
Inordertoillustratetheprinciple,atrack(travelledpathsavedinanNMEAfile)willbeconvertedintoaKMLfile
tokeeptheexamplesimple,thetrackisreducedtothreemeasuredpoints.
For conversion into KML format, the NMEA GGA (fix information) data record is sufficient. Unlike the RMC
format,thisalsoincludesinformationaboutheight.ThefollowingtrackhasbeenstoredasanNMEAfileand
reducedtoGGArecordstobedisplayedusingGoogleEarth.
87
http://earth.google.com/,http://earth.google.de/,etc.
http://code.google.com/apis/kml/documentation/mapsSupport.html
88
89
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Theselectedtrack,asseenusingtheu-centerevaluationtools(Figure125):
Track
Figure 125: Track, consisting of 3 measurements, displayed by u-center
LatitudeandlongitudemustbeconvertedintoWGS-84(Decimalformat).
Exampleforthefirstdatarecord:TheLatitudevalue4650.9180NisexpressedintheGGAformatfordescribing
4650.9180.Thismustbeconvertedintodecimalformat.
4650.9180=(46+50.9180/60)=46.848633
Thelongitudevalue00931.8641Estandsfor931.8641andalsomustbeconvertedtodecimalformat.
00931.8641=(9+31.8641/60)=9.5310683
TheheightvaluecanbedirectlytakenfromtheGGArecord:614.7m
Figure126showshowlatitudinalandlongitudinalvaluesaredepicted.
Longitudevaluesfrom0to180Eandlatitudesfrom0to90Narepositive.
Longitudesfrom0to180Wandlatitudesfrom0to90Sreceiveanegativevalue.
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Figure 126: Depiction of latitude and longitude values
TheconvertedvaluescannowbeenteredintheKML-file(3_point_Chur.kml)asseeninFigure127.
Figure 127: KML File (3_point_Chur.kml) of the track
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After starting Google Earth, selecting the newly created file 3_point_Chur.kml displays the following image
(Figure128):
Track
Figure 128: KML file, displayed with Google Earth
Theu-centerGPSevaluationsoftwarefromu-bloxincludesanintegratedconversiontoolthatenablesautomatic
conversionofNMEAfilesintoKMLorKMZformat.Avarietyofadditionalonlineandofflinetoolsareavailable
ontheInternet 90 ,91 , 92 ,93 .
8.2.3 The DGPS correction data (RTCM SC-104)

The RTCM SC-104 standard is used to transmit correction values. RTCM SC-104 stands for Radio Technical
CommissionforMaritimeServicesSpecialCommittee104andiscurrentlyrecognizedaroundtheworldasthe
industrystandard 94 .TherearefiveversionsoftheRTCMRecommendedStandardsforDifferentialNAVSTARGPS
Service 95 .
RTCM Recommended Standards for Differential Navstar GPS Service, Version 2.0 (Code Correction for
DGPS)
RTCMRecommendedStandardsforDifferentialNavstarGPSService, Version 2.1 (SupplementaltoVersion

2.0:codeandphasecorrectionforrealtimenavigation,RealTimeKinematikRTK)
RTCMRecommendedStandardsforDifferentialGNSS(GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems)Service, Version
2.2 (SupplementaltoVersion2.1:correctionsignalsforGlonass)
90
http://www.swisstopo.ch/en/online/calculation/kml/index
http://www.gpsvisualizer.com/map?form=googleearth
92
http://www.gpsbabel.org/
93
http://www.gpsies.com/upload.do?uploadMode=convert
91
94
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/dgps/rctm104/Default.htm
95
https://ssl29.pair.com/dmarkle/puborder.php?show=3
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RTCM10402.3RTCMRecommendedStandardsforDifferentialGNSS(GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems)
Service,Version 2.3 (SupplementaltoVersion2.2:informationaboutreferenceantennas)
RTCM10403.1,DifferentialGNSS(GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystems)Services,Version 3(Supplementalto
Version 2.3: suitable for network RTK and additional navigation systems.).The Version 3 format is not
compatiblewithVersion2.x.
Allversionsrepresentafurtherdevelopmentofthepreviousandareprimarilydistinguishedfromoneanotheron
thebasisofadditionalinformationprovided.EachoftheVersion2.xreleasesaredividedinto63messagetypes,
numbers1,2,3and9beingusedprimarilyforcorrectionsbasedoncodemeasurements.
8.2.3.1
The RTCM message header (Version 2.3)
Eachmessagetypeisdividedintowordsof30bits,andalwaysbeginswithauniformheaderconsistingoftwo
words(Word1andWord2).Fromtheinformationcontainedintheheaderitisapparentwhichmessagetype
follows 96 andwhichreferencestationhasdeterminedthecorrectiondata(Figure129).
30
1
Preamble
Message
type
8bit
6bit
StationID
Parity
10bit
Word 1
6bit
30
1
Lengthof Station
frame
health
Sequence
number
ModifiedZ-Count
13bit
3bit
5bit
3bit
Parity
Word 2
6bit
Figure 129: Construction of the RTCM message header
Contents
Preamble
Messagetype:
StationID
Parity
ModifiedZ-Count
Name
Preamble
Messagetype
ReferencestationIDNo.
Errorcorrectioncode
ModifiedZ-count
Sequencenumber.
LengthofFrame
Stationhealth
FramesequenceNo.
Framelength
Referencestationhealth
Description
Preamble
Messagetypeidentifier
Referencestationidentification
Parity
ModifiedZ-Count,incremental
timecounter
Sequentialnumber
Lengthofframe
Technicalstatusofthereference
station
Table 29: Contents of the RTCM message header
96
GlobalPositioningSystem:TheoryandApplications,VolumeII,BradfordW.Parkinson,page31
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Thespecificdatacontentforthemessagetype(WORD3...WORDn)alwaysfollowstheheader.
Word 1
Word 2
Word 3
Word 4
Word n
Header:230bit=60bit
n30bit
Figure 130: Total frames with RTCM SC-104 (Version 2.x)
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8.2.3.2
RTCM message type 1 (Version 2.3)
Message type 1 transmits pseudorange correction data (PSR correction data, range correction) for all GPS
satellites visible to the reference station, based on the most up-to-date orbital data (ephemeris). Type 1
additionallycontainstherate-of-changecorrectionvalue(Figure131,extractfrom 97 ,onlyWORD3toWORD6
areshown).
30
1
SF UDRE
Satellite
ID
1 2bit
5bit
Pseudorangecorrection
Word 3
Parity
16bit
6bit
30
1
Range-Rate
correction
Issue
ofdata
8bit
8bit
SF UDRE
Satellite
ID
1 2bit
5bit
Word 4
Parity
6bit
30
1
Range-Rate
correction
Pseudorangecorrection
16bit
8bit
Word 5
Parity
6bit
30
1
Issue
ofdata
SF UDRE
Satellite
ID
8bit
1 2bit
5bit
Pseudorange
correction
(upperByte)
8bit
Parity
Word 6
6bit
Figure 131: Construction of RTCM message type 1
97
UserManual:SonyGXB100016-channelGPSreceivermodule
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Inhalt
SF(ScaleFactor)
UDRE
Name
Pseudorangecorrectionvaluescalefactor
Userdifferentialrangeerrorindex
SatelliteID
Pseudorange
correction
Range-Rate
Correction
Issueofdata
Parity
SatelliteIDNo.
Pseudorangecorrectionvalue
Pseudorangerate-of-changecorrectionvalue
DataissueNo.
Errorcorrectioncode
Description
PSRscalefactor
Userdifferentialrangeerror
index
Satelliteidentification
Effectiverangecorrection
Rate-of-changeofthe
correctiondata
Issueofdata
Checkbits
Table 30: Contents of RTCM message type 1
8.2.3.3
RTCM message type 2 to 9 (Version 2.3)
Messagetypes2to9aredistinguishedprimarilybytheirdatacontent:
Message type 2 transmits delta PSR correction data, based on previous orbital data. This information is
requiredwhenevertheGPSuserhasbeenunabletoupdatehissatelliteorbitalinformation.Inmessagetype
2,thedifferencebetweencorrectionvaluesbasedonthepreviousandupdatedephemerisistransmitted.
Message type 3 transmitsthethreedimensionalcoordinatesofthereferencestation.
Message type 9relaysthesameinformationasmessagetype1,butonlyforalimitednumberofsatellites

(max.3).Dataisonlytransmittedfromthosesatelliteswhosecorrectionvalueschangerapidly.
For a noticeable improvement in accuracy using DGPS, the correction data relayed should not be older than
approx.10to60seconds(differentvaluesaresupplieddependingontheserviceoperator,theexactvaluealso
depends on the accuracy required, see also 98 ). Accuracy decreases as the distance between the reference and
user station increases. Trial measurements using the correction signals broadcast by the LW transmitter in
Mainflingen,Germany,(seeSection7.4.2)producedanerrorrateof0.51.5mwithinaradiusof250km,and
13mwithinaradiusof600km 99 .
Table31providesacompilationofthemessagetypesforRTCMSC-104(Version2.3).
98
swipos,PositionierungsdiensteaufderBasisvonDGPS,page6,BundesamtfrLandestopographie
99
http://www.potsdam.ifag.de/potsdam/dgps/dgps_2.html
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RTCM Message Type

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25,26
27
2830
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38..58
59
60..63
Description
DifferentialGPScorrections
DeltaDifferentialGPScorrections
GPSreferencestationparameters
ReferencestationDatum
GPSconstellationhealth
GPSnullframe
DGPSbeaconalmanac
Pseudolitealmanac
GPSpartialcorrectionset
P-Code-differentialcorrections
C/A-Code,L1,L2deltacorrections
Pseudolitestationparameter
Groundtransmitterparameter
GPStimeofweek
Ionosphericdelaymessage
GPSspecialmessage
GPSephemerides
RTKuncorrectedcarrierphases
RTKuncorrectedpseudorange
RTKcarrierphasecorrections
RTKpseudorangecorrectionsforhighaccuracy
Extendedreferencestationparameters
Antennatypedefinition
ReferenceStation:antennareferencepoint(ARP)
Undefined
ExtendedDGPSradiobeaconalmanac
Undefined
DifferentialGLONASScorrections
DifferentialGLONASSreferencestation
GLONASSconstellationhealth
GLONASSpartialdifferentialcorrectionset
GLONASSradiobeaconalmanac
GLONASSspecialmessage
GNSSSystemTimeOffset
Undefined
Proprietarymessages
Multipurposemessages
Table 31: RTCM SC-104 Version 2.3 message types
8.2.4 Proprietary data interfaces

The majority of manufacturers offer proprietary data interfaces for their GNSS receivers. In comparison to the
NMEAstandard,proprietarydatainterfaceshavethefollowingadvantages:
Emissionofanaugmenteddatascope;e.g.,informationwhichisnotsupportedbytheNMEAProtocol.
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Higherdatadensity:mostproprietaryprotocolsusebinarydataformatswithwhichnumericalandBoolean
information can be transmitted in a more consolidated way. Data intensive notifications e.g. satellite
ephemeris, can be contained in a notification. With higher data density, a higher emission interval witha
constantdatatransmissionspeedcanbecarriedout.
ExtensiveconfigurationpossibilitiesfortheGNSSreceiver.
Optimal linking to manufacturer-specific evaluation and visualization tools enables precise analysis of the
receptionbehavior.
Possibility of downloads from the current versions of the manufacturer-specific GNSS firmware. This
functionisonlysupportedinGNSSreceiverswiththesuitableFlashmemory.
From the GNSS manufacturers point of view, an improved distribution of GNSS information to different
datasetswiththeobjectiveofavoidingredundancyandthetransmissionofdatawhicharenotrequiredfor
theapplication.
Verygoodintegritysecurityprovidedbychecksums.
Minimum work for the host computer in reading and accepting the received data. The conversion of
numericaldataintoASCIIformatinaninternalbinaryformatisnotrequired.
Threedifferenttypesofproprietarydatainterfacesaretypicallyused:
AdditionalNMEAdatasets:theinformationiscodedintousualNMEAdataformat(textbased,separationof
the data with commas etc.). However, immediately after the initial symbol (Dollar sign) a manufacturerspecificaddressdatafollows.ManyGNSSmanufacturersusetheadditionalnotificationstoconveyfurther
frequently used information. The NMEA format is, however, not suitable for efficiently sending large
amountsofinformationduetoinadequatedatadensityandtheintensiveconversionofbinarydataintotext
format.
Binaryformat(e.g.u-bloxUBX).
Textbasedformat.
8.2.4.1
Example: UBX protocol for u-blox GNSS receivers
Apart from NMEA and RTCM, u-blox GNSS receivers by u-blox support the binary UBX protocol. As with the
NMEAformat,aframeworkformatisgivenasfollows:
Symbol
SYNC
CHAR1,2
CLASS
ID
LENGTH
PAYLOAD
CHECKSUM
Explanation
Synchronization
character
Message
class
Message
identification
Length of the
datablock
Structureddata
content
Checksum
Length(Bytes)
LENGTH
Checksumcoveragearea
Figure 132: Structure of the UBX data sets
Eachdatasetbeginswithtwoconstantsynchronizationcharacters(Hexadecimalvalues:alwaysB5,62).These
charactersareusedforrecognizingthestartofanewdataset.Thefollowingtwofields,CLASSandID,identify
thedatasettype.Thistwo-tieridentificationallowsacleanstructuringofthedifferentdatasetsaccordingto
classes. The overview is obtained also after adding new data sets. Symbolic concepts, which are easy to
understand such as NAV-POSLLH (CLASS 01, ID 02), are used for the documentation. Following this, the
length information and the actual data content are given. u-blox stipulates specific data types for the data
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content.Finally,eachdatasetendswitha2-bytechecksum.Adatasetisonlyvalidifthecorrectsynchronization
charactersareavailableandthecalculatedandpredeterminedchecksumcoincide.
Message class
NAV(01)
Description
Navigationinformation
RXM(02)
ReceiverManagement:
AmplifiedGNSSreceptiondata
Configurationnotifications
(Configureandrequest)
Receptionconfirmationofthe
configurationnotifications
OperationalstatusoftheGNSSreceiver
CFG(06)
ACK(05)
MON(0A)
AID(0B)
INF(04)
TIM(0D)
UPD(09)
USR(4*)
Content (Extract)
Position,speed,time,DGPSandSBAS
information
GNSSrawdata,e.g.pseudo-ranges,
ephemeris,yearbook,satellitestatus
Serialinterfaces,emissioninterval,receptionand
navigationparameters,energysavingmethods
Acceptedorrejected
CPUcapacityutilization,conditionofthe
operatingsystem,useofsystemresources,
antennamonitoring
Feedingofauxiliaryinformationto
Ephemeris,yearbook,coldstart,lastposition,
acceleratethestartup.
time,satellitestatus
Issuingoftextbasedinformationnotifications
Configurationtimepulseandtimemeasurementofinputsignals
Downloadofnewsoftware
Userspecificnotifications
Table 32: Message classes (Hexadecimal values in brackets)
With the aid of customer specific software additional data sets can be integrated to existing protocols or
additionaluser-specificprotocols.Furthermore,u-bloxreceiverssupportseveralprotocolsonthesameinterface,
e.g.nestedNMEAandUBXdatasetsinbothdirectionssothattheadvantagesofseveralprotocolscanbemade
useof.
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8.3 Hardware interfaces

8.3.1 Antennas
GNSSsatellitestransmitsignalsthatarebaseduponpolarizedwaves.Withthetermpolarizationtheoscillation
directionofafieldisdescribed.Iftheelectricfieldvector(andthemagneticone)turnsinaclockwisemanneras
itpropagates,thewaveiscalledright-handcircularpolarized(RHCP).Withcircularpolarizationnoadjustmentof
theantennaisnecessary.GNSSsignalsareright-handcircularpolarized(RHCP).Thisrequiresadifferenttypeof
antennathanthewell-knownwhipantennastypicallyusedforlinearpolarizedsignals.
GNSSreceiversoperatewitheitherpassiveoractiveantennas.Anactiveantennacontainsabuilt-inLNA(Low
NoiseAmplifier)preamplifier.TheGNSSreceiverprovidespowertotheactiveantennaovertheRFsignalline.For
mobilenavigationpurposesacombinedantenna(e.g.GSM/FMandGNSS)isused.
ThemostcommontypesofGNSSantennaavailableonthemarketare:
Patchantennas
Helixantennas
Chipantennas
Patchantennasareflat,consistofaceramicandmetalizedbodyandareplaceduponametallicgroundplane.
In order to achieve enough selectivity, the relationship between ground plane and patch area must be
appropriately matched. Patch antennas are often combined with a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) and cast in a
housing(Figure133leftshowsapassivepatchantennaandrightapatchantennacombinedwithanLNAina
plastichousing 100 ).Patchantennasareespeciallysuitableforapplicationsinwhichaflatassemblyisrequired.
Figure 133: Passive open (left) and active enclosed Patch antennas
Helix antennas (also helical antennas) are cylinder shaped (Figure 134 101 ) and have a spiral wire rolled up or
etchedontotheceramicbody.Theyhaveamorepronounceddirectivitythanpatchantennas.
100
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101
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Figure 134: Passive (left) and active helix antenna
Chip antennas are especially small and can be built directly into a board (Figure 135 102 ). Generally, the RF
characteristicsofchipantennasarenotaswellsuitedforGNSSaspatchorhelixantennas.Theytargetprimarily
low-costandmassmarketapplications.
Figure 135: Chip antenna
For more information about GPS antennas see the GPS Antennas Application Note, available on the u-blox
website.
8.3.2 Supply
GNSSmodulesmustbepoweredfromanexternalvoltagesourceof3.3Vto6Volts.Ineachcase,thecurrent
consumptionisverydifferent.
102
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8.3.3 Time pulse: 1PPS and time systems

Most GNSS receivers generate a time pulse every second, referred to as 1 PPS (1 pulse per second), which is
synchronizedtoUTC.ThissignalusuallyhasaTTLlevel(Figure136).
ca. 200ms
1s40ns
Figure 136: 1PPS signal
Thetimepulsecanbeusedtosynchronizecommunicationnetworks(PrecisionTiming).
8.3.4 Converting the TTL level to RS-232

8.3.4.1
Basics of serial communication
ThepurposeoftheRS-232interfaceismainly
tolinkcomputerstoeachother(mostlybidirectional)
tocontrolserialprinters
toconnectPCstoexternalequipment,suchasGSMmodems,GNSSreceivers,etc.
The serial ports in PCs are designed for asynchronous transfer. Persons engaged in transmitting and receiving
operationsmustadheretoacompatibletransferprotocol,i.e.,anagreementonhowdataistobetransferred.
Bothpartnersmustworkwiththesameinterfaceconfiguration,andthiswillaffecttherateoftransfermeasured
inbaud.Thebaudrateisthenumberofbitspersecondtobetransferred.Typicalbaudratesare4800,9600,
19200, 38400, 57600and 115200baud, i.e. bits per second.These parameters are laiddown inthe transfer
protocol. In addition, agreement must be reached by both sides on what checks should be implemented
regardingthereadytotransmitandreceivestatus.
During transmission, 7 to 8 data bits are condensed into a data word in order to relay the ASCII codes. The
lengthofadatawordislaiddowninthetransferprotocol.
Astartbitidentifiesthebeginningofadataword,andattheendofeveryword1or2stopbitsareappended.
Acheckcanbecarriedoutusingaparitybit.Inthecaseofevenparity,theparitybitisselectedinsuchaway
thatthetotalnumberoftransferreddataword1bitsiseven(inthecaseofunevenparitythereisanuneven
number).Checkingparityisimportant,becauseinterferenceinthelinkcancausetransmissionerrors.Evenifone
bitofadatawordisaltered,theerrorcanbeidentifiedusingtheparitybit.
8.3.4.2
Determining the level and its logical allocation
DataistransmittedininvertedlogicontheTxDandRxDlines.TstandsfortransmitterandRforreceiver.
Inaccordancewithstandards,thelevelsare:
Logical0=positivevoltage,transmitmode:+5..+15V,receivemode:+3..+15V
Logical1=negativevoltage,transmitmode:-5..-15V,receivemode-3..-15V
The difference between the minimum permissible voltage during transmission and reception means that line
interferencedoesnotaffectthefunctionoftheinterface,providedthenoiseamplitudeisbelow2V.
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Converting the TTL level of the interface controller (UART, universal asynchronous receiver/ transmitter) to the
required RS-232 level and vice versa is carried out by a level converter (e.g. MAX3221 and many others). The
followingfigure(Figure137)illustratesthedifferencebetweenTTLandRS-232levels.Levelinversioncanclearly
beseen.
1: ( ca. Vcc)
TTLLevel
Start
Bit
Stop
Bit
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
0: ( ca. 0V)
Data-Bits
RS-232Level
0: ( U>0V)
Start
Bit
Stop
Bit
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
1: ( U<0V)
Data-Bits
Figure 137: Difference between TTL and RS-232 levels
8.3.4.3
Converting the TTL level to RS-232
ManyGNSSreceiversandGNSSmodulesonlymakeserialNMEAandproprietarydataavailableusingTTLlevels
(approx.0Vorapprox.Vcc=+3.3Vor+5V).ItisnotalwayspossibletoevaluatethisdatadirectlythroughaPC,
asaPCinputrequiresRS-232levelvalues.
Asacircuitisneededtocarryoutthenecessaryleveladjustment,theindustryhasdevelopedintegratedcircuits
specificallydesignedtodealwithconversionbetweenthetwolevelranges,toundertakesignalinversion,andto
accommodate the necessary equipment to generate negative supply voltage (by means of built-in charge
pumps).
Acompletebidirectionallevelconverterthatusesa"MaximMAX3221" 103 isillustratedonthefollowingcircuit
diagram(Figure138).Thecircuithasanoperationalvoltageof3V...5Vandisprotectedagainstvoltagepeaks
(ESD)of15kV.ThefunctionoftheC1...C4capacitorsistoincreaseorinvertthevoltage.
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TTL-
Level
RS-232
Level
Figure 138: Block diagram pin assignment of the MAX32121 level converter
Thefollowingtestcircuit(Figure139)clearlyillustratesthewayinwhichthemodulesfunction.Inthecaseofthis
configuration,aTTLsignal(0V...3.3V)isappliedtolineT_IN.Theinversionandvoltageincreaseto5Vcanbe
seenonlinesT_OUTandR_INoftheRS-232output.
TTL-
Level
RS-232
Level
Figure 139: Functional test on the MAX3221 level converter
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9 GNSS RECEIVERS

o
knowhowaGNSSreceiverisconstructed
understandwhyseveralstagesarenecessarytoreconstructGNSSsignals
knowhowanRFstagefunctions
knowhowthesignalprocessorfunctions
understandhowbothstagesinteract
knowhowareceivermodulefunctions
9.1 Basics of GNSS handheld receivers

AGNSSreceivercanbedividedintothefollowingmainstages(Figure140).
Ante nna
15 75 .4 2M Hz
LN A1
RF filter
IF filter
Signal Processor
RF Stage
n
.
LN A
M ixe r
AG C
Digita l IF
ADC
.
3
Lo cal
O scillator
Co ntrol
T im in g
Da ta
Co ntrol
Co rrelator 2
1
AG C
Con trol
R efe ren ce
O scillator
Spre ad
sig na l
pro cesso r
(SSP)
Interface
Sync hron isatio n
C/A-Code
generator
T im e b ase
(RT C )
Crysta l
Crysta l
Display
La t.:
Controller
1214 '15 ''
Lo ng .: 0732 '28 ''
Pow er Supply
Altitu de : 6 55 ,00 m
Micro
controller
M em ory
(RAM /R OM )
Keyboard
DG PS
(RT C M )
1
5
9
-
2
6
0
3
7
.
* #
4
8
+
=
Figure 140: Simplified block diagram of a GNSS receiver
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Antenna: The antenna receives extremely weak satellite signals on a frequency of 1572.42MHz. Signal
outputisaround163dBW.Some(passive)antennashavea3dBgain.
LNA 1:Thislow-noiseamplifier(LNA)amplifiesthesignalbyapprox.15...20dB.
RF filter: The GNSS signal bandwidth is approx. 2MHz. The RF filter reduces the affects of signal
interference.TheRFstageandsignalprocessoractuallyrepresentthespecialcircuitsinaGNSSreceiverand
areadjustedtoeachother.
RF stage:TheamplifiedGNSSsignalismixedwiththefrequencyofthelocaloscillator.ThefilteredIFsignal
ismaintainedataconstantlevelinrespectofitsamplitudeanddigitalizedviaAmplitudeGainControl(AGC)
IF filter: The intermediate frequency is filtered out using a bandwidth of several MHz. The image
frequenciesarisingatthemixingstagearereducedtoapermissiblelevel.
Signal processor: Up to 16 different satellite signals can be correlated and decoded at the same time.
Correlation takesplace byconstant comparisonwiththe C/A code. The RF stage and signal processorare
simultaneously switched to synchronize with the signal. The signal processor has its own time base (Real
Time Clock, RTC). All the data ascertained is broadcast (particularly signal transit time to the relevant
satellites determinedbythe correlator),and this is referredtoassource data.The signal processorcan be
programmedbythecontrollerviathecontrollinetofunctioninvariousoperatingmodes.
Controller: Usingthesourcedata,thecontrollercalculatesposition,time,speedandcourseetc.Itcontrols
the signal processor and relays the calculated values to the display. Important information (such as
ephemeris,themostrecentpositionetc.)aredecodedandsavedinRAM.Theprogramandthecalculation
algorithmsaresavedinROM.
Keyboard:Usingthekeyboard,theusercanselect,whichcoordinatesystemhewishestouseandwhich
parameters(e.g.numberofvisiblesatellites)shouldbedisplayed.
Display: Theposition calculated (longitude, latitudeand height) must be madeavailable to the user.This
can either be displayed using a 7-segment display or shown on a screen using a projected map. The
positionsdeterminedcanbesaved,wholeroutesbeingrecorded.
Power supply: Thepowersupplydeliversthenecessaryoperationalvoltage toallelectronic components.
9.2 GNSS receiver modules

9.2.1 Basic design of a GNSS module
GNSS modules have to evaluate weak antenna signals from at least four satellites, in order to determine a
correct three-dimensional position. A time signal is also often emitted in addition to longitude, latitude and
height. This time signal is synchronized with UTC (Universal Time Coordinated). From the position determined
and the exact time, additional physical variables, such as speed and acceleration can also be calculated. The
GNSSmoduleissuesinformationontheconstellation,satellitehealth,andthenumberofvisiblesatellitesetc.
Figure141showsatypicalblockdiagramofaGNSSmodule.
Thesignalsreceived(1575.42MHz)arepre-amplifiedandtransformedtoalowerintermediatefrequency.The
referenceoscillatorprovidesthenecessarycarrierwaveforfrequencyconversion,alongwiththenecessaryclock
frequencyfortheprocessorandcorrelator.Theanalogintermediatefrequencyisconvertedintoadigitalsignal
bymeansofanADC.
SignaltraveltimefromthesatellitestotheGNSSreceiverisdeterminedbycorrelatingPRNpulsesequences.The
satellitePRNsequencemustbeusedtoestablishthistime,otherwisethereisnocorrelationmaximum.Datais
recoveredbymixingitwiththecorrectPRNsequence.Atthesametime,theusefulsignalisamplifiedabovethe
interference level 104 . Up to 16 satellite signals are processed simultaneously. A signal processor carries out the
104
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control and generation of PRN sequences and the recovery of data. Calculating and saving the position,
includingthevariablesderivedfromthis,iscarriedoutbyaprocessorwithamemoryfacility.
Power supply
(3,3V ... 5V)
DGPS Input
RTCM
Active Passive
antenna antenna
LNA
Signal
Supply
RF amplifier
Mixer
A/D converter
Correlators
Signal processor
PRN generator
Time mark
1 PPS
RAM
Reference
Oscillator
Processor
NMEA
ROM
Proprietary
Interface
Figure 141: Typical block diagram of a GNSS module
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10 GNSS applications

o
knowwhatvariablescanbedeterminedusingGNSS
knowwhatapplicationsarepossiblewithGNSS
knowhowtimeispreciselydetermined
10.1 Introduction
UsingGNSSthefollowingtwovaluescanbedeterminedanywhereonEarth:
Exact position (longitude, latitude and height coordinates) accurate to within a range of 20 m to approx.
1mm
Precisetime(UniversalTimeCoordinated,UTC)accuratetowithinarangeof60nstoapprox.1ns.
Inaddition,othervaluescanalsobedetermined,suchas:
speed
acceleration
course
localtime
rangemeasurements
The established fields for GNSS usage are surveying, shipping and aviation. However, satellite navigation is
currentlyenjoyingasurgeindemandforLocationBasedServices(LBS)andsystemsfortheautomobileindustry.
ApplicationssuchasAutomaticVehicleLocation(AVL)andthemanagementofvehiclefleetsalsoappeartobe
on the rise. In addition, GNSS is increasingly being utilized in communications technology. For example, the
preciseGNSStimesignalisusedtosynchronizetelecommunicationsnetworksaroundtheworld.Since2001,the
US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has required that, when Americans call 911 in an emergency,
theirpositionbeautomaticallydeterminedtowithinapprox.125m.Thislaw,knownasE-911(Enhanced911),
necessitatesthatmobiletelephonesbeupgradedwiththisnewtechnology.
In the leisure industry, GNSS is becoming increasingly widespread and important. Whether hiking, hunting,
mountain biking, or windsurfing across Lake Constance in Southern Germany, a GNSS receiver provides
invaluableinformationforagreatvarietyofsituations.
GNSScanessentiallybeusedanywhereonEarthwheresatellitesignalreceptionispossibleandknowledgeof
positionisofbenefit.
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10.2 Description of the various applications

GNSS aided navigation and positioning is used in many sectors of the economy, as well as in science,
technology,tourism,researchandsurveying.GNSScanbeutilizedwhereverprecisethree-dimensionalpositional
datahasasignificantroletoplay.Afewimportantsectorsaredetailedbelow.
10.2.1 Location Based Services (LBS)

LocationBasedServices(LBS)areservicesbasedonthecurrentpositionofauser(e.g.,MobileCommunications
Network users equipped with a cell-phone). Normally, the mobile station (e.g. cell-phone) must be logged on
anditspositiongiveninordertorequestorobtainspecificinformation/servicesfromtheprovider.Anexampleof
this is the distribution of local information, such as the location of the nearest restaurant or automatically
providingthecallerpositiontoemergencynumberservices(E-911orE-112).
The prerequisite for LBS is the determination of accurate position information. Location is determined either
throughsignalsfromthecell-phonenetworkorthroughusingsatellitesignals.
Thelocationoftheuseriseithergivenwithabsolutegeographiccoordinates(longitudeandlatitude)orrelative
to the position of a given reference point (e.g., the user is located within a radius of 500m to the
monument).Therearebasicallytwokindsofservicesprovided,knownaspushservicesorpullservices.
Apushservicesendstheuserinformationonthebasisofhisorherpositionwithouttheirhavingtorequestit
(e.g.Inthevicinityis).Apullservicerequiresthattheuserfirstrequesttheinformationfromtheservice
(e.g.,callinganemergencynumberE-911orE-112).
Knowinglocationisofcriticalimportanceforsurvivingemergencies.However,publicsecurityandrescueservices
have shown in a study that 60% of those making emergency calls with mobile telephones were unable to
communicatetheirexactposition(incomparisonto2%ofcallersfromfixed-nettelephones).Everyyearwithin
theEuropeanUnionthereare80millionemergencycallsmade,ofthese50%aremadewithmobiletelephones.
The determination of the users position can either be obtained within the mobile station or by the mobile
network.Fordeterminingthepositionthemobilestationreferstoinformationfromthemobilecommunication
networkorsatellitesignals.
Countlesstechnologiesforpositioninghavealreadybeenintroducedandhavebeenstandardized.Fewofthese
are currently being used and it remains to be seen if all the ideas will ever be realized. In Europe, the most
commonapplicationscurrentlybeingusedare:
Positiondeterminationthroughtheidentificationofactivecellsinthecell-phonenetwork(Cell-ID).This
procedureisalsoknownasCellofOrigin(COO)orCellGlobalIdentity(CGI).
PositiondeterminationbythetimedelayofGSM-SignalsTA(TimingAdvance).TAisaparameterin
GSM-Networksthroughwhichthedistancetothebasestationcanbedetermined.
SatellitePositioningthroughSatelliteNavigation:e.g.GNSS
10.2.2 Commerce and industry

Forthetimebeing,roadtransportationcontinuestobethebiggestmarketforGNSS.Ofatotalmarketvalue
estimated at 60 billion US-$ in 2005, 21.6 billion alone was accounted for by road transportation and 10.6
billionbytelecommunicationstechnology 105 .Vehicleswillbeequippedwithacomputerandascreen,sothata
suitable map showing position can be displayed at all times. This will enable selecting the best route to the
destination.Duringtrafficjamsalternativeroutescanbeeasilydeterminedandthecomputerwillcalculatethe
journeytimeandtheamountoffuelneededtogetthere.
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Vehiclenavigationsystemswilldirectthedrivertohisorherdestinationwithvisualandaudibledirectionsand
recommendations. Using the necessary maps stored on CD-ROM and position estimates based on GNSS, the
systemwilldeterminethemostfavorableroutes.
GNSSisalreadyusedasamatterofcourseinconventionalnavigation(aviationandshipping).Manytrainsare
equippedwithGNSSreceiversthatrelaythetrainspositiontostationsdowntheline.Thisenablespersonnelto
informpassengersofthearrivaltimeofatrain.
GNSScanbeusedforlocatingvehiclesorasananti-theftdevice.Armoredcars,limousinesandtruckscarrying
valuable or hazardous cargo will be fitted with GNSS. An alarm will automatically be set off if the vehicle
deviatesfromitsprescribedroute.Withthepressofabuttonthedrivercanalsooperatethealarm.Anti-theft
deviceswillbeequippedwithGNSSreceivers,allowingthevehicletobeelectronicallyimmobilizedassoonas
monitoringcentersreceiveasignal.
GNSS can assist in emergency calls. This concept has already been developed to the marketing level. An
automobile is equipped with an onboard GNSS receiver connected to a crash detector. In the event of an
accident this signals an emergency call center providing precise information about which direction the vehicle
wastravelinganditscurrentlocation.Asaresult,theconsequencesofanaccidentcanbemadelesssevereand
otherdriverscanbegivenadvancedwarning.
Railways are other highly critical transportation applications, where human life is dependent on technology
functioningcorrectly.Precautionsneedtobetakenhereagainstsystemfailure.Thisistypicallyachievedthrough
backupsystems,wherethesametaskisperformedinparallelbyredundantequipment.Duringidealoperating
situations, independent sources provide identical information. Well-devised systems indicate (in addition to a
standardwarningmessage)iftheavailabledataisinsufficientlyreliable.Ifthisisthecase,thesystemcanswitch
toanothersensorasitsprimarydatasource,providingself-monitoringandcorrection.GNSScanprovideavital
rolehereinimprovingsystemreliabilityandsafety.
OtherpossibleusesforGNSSinclude:
Navigationsystems
Fleetmanagement
Geographicaltachographs
Railways
Transportcompanies,logisticsingeneral(aircraft,water-bornecraftandroadvehicles)
Automaticcontainermovements
Extensivestoragesites
Layingpipelines(geodesyingeneral)
Positioningofdrillplatforms
Developmentofopen-pitmining
Reclamationoflandfillsites
Explorationofgeologicaldeposits
10.2.3 Communications technology

Synchronizingcomputerclocksisvitalinsituationswithseparatedprocessors.Thefoundationofthisisahighly
accuratereferenceclockusedtoreceiveGNSSsatellitesignalsalongwithNetworkTimeProtocol(NTP),specified
inRFC1305.
Synchronizationofsystemtime-staggeredmessagetransfer
Synchronizationincommonfrequencyradionetworks
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10.2.4 Agriculture and forestry

GNSScontributestoprecisionfarmingintheformofareaandusemanagement,andthemappingofsitesin
terms of yield potential. In a precision farming system, combined harvest yields are recorded by GNSS and
processedinitiallyintospecificplotsondigitalmaps.SoilsamplesarelocatedwiththehelpofGNSSandthedata
addedtothesystem.Analysisoftheseentriesthenservestoestablishtheamountoffertilizerthatneedstobe
appliedtoeachpoint.Theapplicationmapsareconvertedintoaformthatonboardcomputerscanprocessand
aretransferredtothesecomputerusingmemorycards.Inthisway,optimalpracticescanbedevisedoveralong
termthatcanprovidehightime/resourcesavingsandenvironmentalconservation.
Useandplanningofareas
Monitoringoffallowland
Planningandmanagingofcroprotation
Useofharvestingequipment
Seedingandspreadingfertilizer
Optimizingloggingoperations
Pestmanagement
Mappingdiseasedandinfestedareas
For the forest industry as well, there are many conceivable GNSS applications. The USDA (United States
Department of Agriculture) Forest Service GPS Steering Committee 1992, has identified over 130 possible
applicationsinthisfield.
Examplesofsometheseapplicationsarebrieflydetailedbelow:
Optimizinglogtransportation:ByequippingcommercialvehiclefleetswithonboardcomputersandGNSS,
andusingremotedatatransferfacilities,transportvehiclescanbeefficientlydirectedfromcentraloperations
units.
Inventory Management: Manual identification prior to timber harvesting is made redundant by satellite
navigation.Fortheworkersonsite,GNSScanbeusedasatoolforcarryingoutspecificinstructions.
SoilConservation:ByusingGNSS,remoteroadsandtracksusedinharvestingwoodcanbeidentifiedand
theirfrequencyofuseestablished.
Managementofprivatewoodlots:Inwoodedareasdividedupintosmallparcels,cost-effectiveandhighly
mechanized harvesting processes can be employed using GNSS, allowing the transport of increased
quantitiesoftimber.
10.2.5 Science and research

With the advent of the use of aerial and satellite imaging in archaeology, GNSS has also become firmly
established in this field. By combining GIS (Geographic Information Systems) with satellite and aerial
photography,aswellasGNSSand3Dmodeling,ithasbeenpossibletoanswersomeofthefollowingquestions:
Whatconclusionsregardingthedistributionofculturescanbemadebasedonthelocationofthefinds?
Isthereacorrelationbetweenareasfavoringthegrowthofcertainarableplantsandthespreadofcertain
cultures?
Whatdidthelandscapelooklikeinthisvicinity2000yearsago?
Surveyorsuse(D)GPS,inordertocarryoutsurveys(satellitegeodesy)quicklyandefficientlytowithinanaccuracy
ofamillimeter.Forsurveyors,theintroductionofsatellite-basedsurveyingrepresentsaprogresscomparableto
that between the abacus and the computer. The applications areendless. Theserangefrom land registry and
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property surveys to surveying roads, railway lines, rivers and the ocean depths. Geological variations and
deformationscanbemeasuredandlandslidesandotherpotentialcatastrophescanbemonitored,etc.
In land surveying, GNSS has virtually become the exclusive method for pinpointing sites in basic grids.
Everywherearoundtheworld,continentalandnationalGNSSnetworksaredevelopingthat,inconjunctionwith
the global ITRF, provide consistent and highly accurate networks of points for density and point-to-point
measurements. At a regional level, the number of tenders to set up GNSS networks as a basis for geoinformationsystemsandcadastrallandsurveysisgrowing.
GNSS already has an established place in photogrammetry. Apart from determining coordinates for ground
referencepoints,GNSSisregularlyusedtodetermineaerialsurveynavigationandcameracoordinatesforaerotriangulation. Using this method, over 90% of ground reference points can be dispensed with. Future
reconnaissancesatelliteswillbeequippedwithGNSSreceiverstoaidtheevaluationofdataforproducingand
updatingmapsinunderdevelopedcountries.
In hydrography, GNSS can be used to determine the exact height of a survey boat. This can simplify the
establishment of clearly defined reference points. The expectation is that usable GNSS procedures in this field
willbeoperationalinthenearfuture.
OtherpossibleareasofapplicationforGNSSare:
Archaeology
Seismology(geophysics)
Glaciology(geophysics)
Geology(mapping)
Surveyingdeposits(mineralogy,geology)
Physics(flowmeasurements,timestandardizationmeasurement)
Scientificexpeditions
Engineeringsciences(e.g.shipbuilding,generalconstructionindustry)
Cartography
Geography
Geo-informationtechnology
Forestryandagriculturalsciences
Landscapeecology
Geodesy
Aerospacesciences
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10.2.6 Tourism and sport

In sailplaneand hangglider competitions GNSSreceiversareoftenused tomaintain protocolswithno riskof
bribery.
GNSS can be used to locate persons who have found themselves in a maritime or alpine emergency. (SAR:
SearchandRescue)
Route planning and selecting points of particular significance (natural and culturally/historically significant
monuments)
Orienteering(trainingroutes)
Outdooractivitiesandtrekking
Sportingactivities
10.2.7 Military
GNSS is used anywhere where combatants, vehicles, aircraft and guided missiles are deployed in unfamiliar
terrain. GNSS is also suitable for marking the position of minefields and underground depots, as it enables a
locationtobedeterminedandfoundagainwithoutanygreatdifficulty.Asarule,themoreaccurate,encrypted
GNSSsignal(PPS)isusedformilitaryapplications,andcanonlybeusedbyauthorizedagencies.
10.2.8 Time measurement

GNSS provides the opportunity to exactly measure time on a global basis. Around the world time (UTC
UniversalTimeCoordinated)canbeaccuratelydeterminedtowithin1...60ns.MeasuringtimewithGNSSis
much more accurate than with so-called radio clocks, which are unable to compensate for signal travel times
between the transmitter and the receiver. If, for example, the receiver is 300 km from the radio clock
transmitter, the signal travel time already accounts for 1ms, which is 10,000 times less accurate than time
measuredbyaGNSSreceiver.Globallyprecisetimemeasurementsarenecessaryforsynchronizingcontroland
communicationsfacilities,forexample.
Currently,themostcommonmethodformakingprecisiontimecomparisonsbetweenclocksindifferentplaces
is a common-view comparison with the help of GNSS satellites. Institutes that wish to compare clocks
measurethesameGNSSsatellitesignalsatthesametimeandcalculatethetimedifferencebetweenthelocal
clocksandGNSSsystemtime.Asaresultofthedifferencesinmeasurement,thedifferencebetweentheclocks
at the two institutes can be determined. Because this involves a differential process, GNSS clock status is
irrelevant.TimecomparisonsbetweenthePTBandtimeinstitutesaremadeinthiswaythroughouttheworld.
ThePTBatomicclockstatus,determinedwiththehelpofGNSS,isalsorelayedtotheInternationalBureaufor
WeightsandMeasures(BIPM)inParisforcalculatingtheinternationalatomictimescalesTAIandUTC.
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Appendix
A Resources in the World Wide Web
If you would like to...
o
know,whereyoucangetmoreinformationaboutGNSS
know,wheretheGPSsystemisdocumented
becomeaGNSSexpert
A.1 Summary reports and links

GlobalPositioningSystemOverviewbyPeterH.Dana,UniversityofColorado
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html
GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)ResourcesbySamWormley,
http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/gps.html
NMEA-0183andGPSInformationbyPeterBennett,
http://vancouver-webpages.com/peter/
JoeMehaffey,YeazelandDaleDePriestsGPSInformation
http://gpsinformation.net
TheGlobalPositioningSystems(GPS)ResourceLibrary
http://www.gpsy.com/gpsinfo/
GPSSPSSignalSpecification,2ndEdition(June2,1995),USCGNavigationCenter
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/default.htm
A.2 Differential GPS

DifferentialGPS(DGPS)bySamWormley,
http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/dgps.html
DGPScorrectionsovertheInternet
http://www.wsrcc.com/wolfgang/gps/dgps-ip.html
EGNOSOperationsManager
http://www.essp.be/
WideAreaDifferentialGPS(WADGPS),StanfordUniversity
http://waas.stanford.edu/
A.3 GPS institutes

InstituteforappliedGeodesy:GPSinformationandobservingsystem
http://gibs.leipzig.ifag.de/cgi-bin/Info_hom.cgi?de
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GPSPRIMER:AerospaceCorporation
http://www.aero.org/publications/GPSPRIMER/index.html
U.S.CoastGuard(USCG)NavigationCenter
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/
U.S.NavalObservatory
http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html
RoyalInstituteofNavigation,London
http://www.rin.org.uk/
TheInstituteofNavigation
http://www.ion.org/
UniversityNAVSTARConsortium(UNAVCO)
http://www.unavco.org
A.4 GNSS newsgroup and GNSS technical journal

Newsgroup:sci.geo.satellite-nav
http://groups.google.com/groups?oi=djq&as_ugroup=sci.geo.satellite-nav
Technicaljournal:GPSWorld(appearsmonthly)
http://www.gpsworld.com
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B Index
B.1 List of figures
Figure1:Thebasicfunctionofsatellitenavigation........................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure2:Determiningthedistanceofalightningflash ................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure3:Inthesimplestcasedistanceisdeterminedbymeasuringthetraveltime ....................................................................................... 13
Figure4:Withtwotransmittersitispossibletocalculatetheexactpositiondespitetimeerrors. .................................................................. 14
Figure5:Foursatellitesareneededtodeterminelongitude,latitude,altitudeandtime ................................................................................ 14
Figure6:Determiningthesignaltraveltime.................................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure7:Thepositionofthereceiverattheintersectionofthetwocircles ................................................................................................... 16
Figure8:Thepositionisdeterminedatthepointwhereallthreespheresintersect ....................................................................................... 16
Figure9:Foursatellitesarerequiredtodetermineapositionin3-Dspace. ................................................................................................... 17
Figure10:AgeoidisanapproximationoftheEarthssurface....................................................................................................................... 19
Figure11:Producingaspheroid ................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure12:Customizedlocalreferenceellipsoid ............................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure13:Differencebetweengeoidandellipsoid ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure14:IllustrationoftheCartesiancoordinates ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure15:Illustrationoftheellipsoidalcoordinates ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure16:Geodeticdatum........................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure17:Gauss-Krgerprojection .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure18:Principleofprojectingonezone(ofsixty) ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Figure19:DesignationofthezonesusingUTM,withexamples.................................................................................................................... 26
Figure20:Theprincipleofdoubleprojection................................................................................................................................................ 27
Figure21:Fromsatellitetoposition.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure22:RastermapwithpixelcoordinatesX,Y(left)andvectormapwithgeographiccoordinatesX,Y(right)........................................ 29
Figure23:Definitionofthesourcepoints ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure24:The3calibrationpointsmustbewelldistributedonthemap....................................................................................................... 30
Figure25:Rastermapwiththreecalibrationpoints ...................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure26:DeterminingpositionwiththepixelcoordinatesX=643andY=370 ......................................................................................... 33
Figure27:VerifyingthecalculatedgeographiccoordinateswithGoogleEarth ............................................................................................. 33
Figure28:Satellitesmovealongaplane ....................................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure29:DepictionofKepler'ssecondlaw ................................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure30:Determiningtheorbitalaltitude(h)ofasatellite .......................................................................................................................... 36
Figure31:Satelliteorbits .............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure32:Almanac ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure33:Azimuth....................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure34:ThethreeGPSsegments .............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure35:GPSsatellitesorbittheEarthon6orbitalplanes .......................................................................................................................... 44
Figure36:24hourtrackingofaGPSsatellitewithitseffectiverange ........................................................................................................... 44
Figure37:PositionoftheGPSsatellitesat12:00hrsUTCon14thApril2001 .............................................................................................. 45
Figure38:AGPSsatellite ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
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Figure39:SpectralPowerDensityofreceivedsignalandthermalnoise ........................................................................................................ 47
Figure40:PseudoRandomNoise(PRN) ........................................................................................................................................................ 48
Figure41:Simplifiedsatelliteblockdiagram ................................................................................................................................................. 49
Figure42:DatastructureofaGPSsignal...................................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure43:DetailedblockdiagramofaGPSsatellite ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure44:ImprovementofpositionaccuracyafterthedeactivationofSAonMay2,2000........................................................................... 51
Figure45:Improvementofpositionaccuracyasfunctionoftime ................................................................................................................. 52
Figure46:Measuringsignaltraveltime ........................................................................................................................................................ 53
Figure47:Demonstrationofthecorrectionprocessacross30bits ................................................................................................................ 53
Figure48:Searchforthemaximumcorrelationinthecodeandcarrierfrequencydomains .......................................................................... 54
Figure49:Spectralpowerdensityofthecorrelatedsignalandthermalsignalnoise...................................................................................... 55
Figure50:Structureoftheentirenavigationmessage .................................................................................................................................. 57
Figure51:Ephemeristerms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure52:WithBPSKthenavigationdatasignalisfirstspreadbyacode...................................................................................................... 60
Figure53:PowerspectraldensityofBPSK(1)signals(signalstrengthnormalizedat1Wpersignal) .............................................................. 60
Figure54:BlockschematicofaBOC(10,5)modulator .................................................................................................................................. 61
Figure55:WithBPSK(1)andBOC(1,1)thesignalmaximaareseparated(signalstrengthnormalizedat1Wpersignal) ................................ 62
Figure56:MBOC(6,1,1/11)modulatorsforL1CandL1OS........................................................................................................................... 62
Figure57:PowerspectraldensityofMBOC(6,1,1/11)comparedwithBPSK(1)(P=1Wpersignal)................................................................ 63
Figure58:GPSIIFsatellite(left)undGPSIIIsatellite(right) ............................................................................................................................ 64
Figure59:WithmodernizationthenumberofavailableGPSfrequencieswillbeincreased ........................................................................... 65
Figure60:StatusofGLONASSasofJuly2009.............................................................................................................................................. 67
Figure61:ThethreeorbitalsofGLONASS .................................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure62:GLONASS-MsatelliteandthelaunchofaProton-K-DM2rocket .................................................................................................. 69
Figure63:GLONASSdevelopmentplan........................................................................................................................................................ 69
Figure64:BycompletionofdevelopmentthemeasuredpositioningaccuracyshouldequalthatofGPS ....................................................... 70
Figure65:RubidiumandHydrogen-Maseratomicclocks.............................................................................................................................. 71
Figure66:UnlikeSARSAT-COSPAS,GALILEO'sSearchandRescueservicealsoprovidesareplytothedistresssignal.................................... 73
Figure67:ConstellationoftheGALILEOsatellites(picture:ESA-J.Huart) ....................................................................................................... 75
Figure68:GALILEOsatellite(Picture:ESA-J.Huart) ........................................................................................................................................ 75
Figure69:Ariane5rocketdelivering8GALILEOsatellitesintospace(GALILEO-industries.net)...................................................................... 76
Figure70:FrequencieswithreservedbandwidthsforGALILEOservices ........................................................................................................ 77
Figure71:PlannedGALILEOfrequencies ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
Figure72:GIOVE-AanditslaunchonDecember28,2005(pictureESA) ...................................................................................................... 78
st
Figure73:Launchof1 CompassMEOsatelliteinApril2007withChangZheng3Arocket .......................................................................... 80

Figure74:Foursatellitesignalsmustbereceived .......................................................................................................................................... 81
Figure75:Three-dimensionalcoordinatesystem .......................................................................................................................................... 82
Figure76:ConversionoftheTaylorseries..................................................................................................................................................... 83
Figure77:Estimatingaposition.................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Figure78:Determinationofrange(R)basedonthesignaltraveltimet(c=speedoflight) ......................................................................... 86
Figure79:Correlationbysearchingthemaxima ........................................................................................................................................... 87
Figure80:Determinationofthesatellitesignalarrivaltime........................................................................................................................... 87
Figure81:Reconstructionofthenavigationmessage ................................................................................................................................... 88
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Figure82:TelemetryWord(TLM)andHandoverWord(HOW)ofthenavigationmessage ............................................................................ 88
Figure83:Determinationoftraveltimeerror................................................................................................................................................ 89
Figure84:Exampleofdeterminationofcorrectedtraveltime ....................................................................................................................... 90
Figure85:TheflattertheanglewithwhichthecircleswithrangesR1andR2intersect,thehighertheDOPvalue........................................ 92
Figure86:Thelargertheenclosedvolume,thesmallertheDOPvalue.......................................................................................................... 93
Figure87:DOPvaluesandthenumberofsatellitesoveranopenareaduringa24-hourperiod ................................................................... 94
Figure88:24-hourHDOPvalues,inareawithwithnoshadow/obstructionofsatellitevisibility(max.HDOP<1.9)....................................... 95
Figure89:24-hourHDOPvalues,inareawithwithstrongshadow/obstructionofsatellitevisibility(max.HDOP>20).................................. 95
Figure90:DOPvalueswithunfavorablesatelliteconstellation ...................................................................................................................... 96
Figure91:DOPvalueswithfavorablesatelliteconstellation .......................................................................................................................... 96
Figure92:Descriptionofsatelliteanduserpositionwithcartesiancoordinates............................................................................................. 97
Figure93:Effectofthetimeofmeasuringonthereflections...................................................................................................................... 101
Figure94:PSRMeasurementerroranditsdependenceonIonizationandFrequency................................................................................. 102
Figure95:PrincipleofDGPSwithaGPSbasestation.................................................................................................................................. 104
Figure96:Determinationofthecorrectionfactors ..................................................................................................................................... 105
Figure97:Transmissionofthecorrectionfactors ........................................................................................................................................ 105
Figure98:Correctionofthemeasuredpseudoranges................................................................................................................................. 106
Figure99:Principleofthephasemeasurement ......................................................................................................................................... 106
Figure100:ComparisonofDGPSsystemsbasedonRTCMandRTCAstandards......................................................................................... 109
Figure101:RadiobeaconcoverageforAustralia ........................................................................................................................................ 111
Figure102:Coverageareasofthe6Omnistarsatellites(twozonesoverlapeachother) ............................................................................. 111
Figure103:CoverageareaofStarfire ......................................................................................................................................................... 112
Figure104:WAASareaofcoverage ........................................................................................................................................................... 113
Figure105:SatelliteorbitsandgroundtracksofQZSS................................................................................................................................ 114
Figure106:QZSSsatelliteorbits,groundtracksandelevationoverTokyo................................................................................................... 114
Figure107:PositionandcoverageofWAAS,EGNOS,GAGANandMSAS .................................................................................................. 115
Figure108:PrincipleofallSatelliteBasedAugmentationSystemsSBAS...................................................................................................... 116
Figure109:LandStar-DGPSandOmnistarilluminationzone ....................................................................................................................... 117
Figure110:MobilereceiverandblockdiagramshowingintegratedGPSmodule........................................................................................ 119
Figure111:TimetoFirstFix(TTFF)withdifferentAiding-Dataasafunctionofsignalstrength.................................................................... 120
Figure112:AccelerationofthesearchprocedurewithA-GPSbyreducingthesearcharea......................................................................... 120
Figure113:IGSreferencestations(asofNovember2007)withapprox.340activestations........................................................................ 121
Figure114:Assisted-GPSsystem ................................................................................................................................................................ 122
Figure115:WithOnlineA-GPS,Aiding-Dataiscontinuouslytransmitted.................................................................................................... 123
Figure116:FromtheAlmanacdatapreciseorbitaldata(TrueOrbits)arecalculated ................................................................................... 123
Figure117:WithControlPlaneArchitecturethemobilenetworkmustbealtered ...................................................................................... 124
Figure118:WithUserPlaneArchitecturethemobilenetworkrequiresnoalteration .................................................................................. 125
Figure119:BlockdiagramwithcomponentsaccordingtoOMA ................................................................................................................ 127
Figure120:BlockDiagramofinputstages ................................................................................................................................................. 128
Figure121:GNSSRepeater(externalantenna,electricaladapterandpowercord,amplifierandinternalantenna) ..................................... 129
Figure122:BlockdiagramofaGNSSreceiverwithinterfaces..................................................................................................................... 130
Figure123:NMEAformat(TTLandRS-232level) ....................................................................................................................................... 132
Figure124:GoogleEarthwithDetail.......................................................................................................................................................... 142
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Figure125:Track,consistingof3measurements,displayedbyu-center ..................................................................................................... 143

Figure126:Depictionoflatitudeandlongitudevalues ...............................................................................................................................144
Figure127:KMLFile(3_point_Chur.kml)ofthetrack ................................................................................................................................. 144
Figure128:KMLfile,displayedwithGoogleEarth...................................................................................................................................... 145
Figure129:ConstructionoftheRTCMmessageheader ............................................................................................................................. 146
Figure130:TotalframeswithRTCMSC-104(Version2.x) .......................................................................................................................... 147
Figure131:ConstructionofRTCMmessagetype1 .................................................................................................................................... 148
Figure132:StructureoftheUBXdatasets ................................................................................................................................................. 151
Figure133:Passiveopen(left)andactiveenclosedPatchantennas............................................................................................................. 153
Figure134:Passive(left)andactivehelixantenna....................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure135:Chipantenna........................................................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure136:1PPSsignal .............................................................................................................................................................................. 155
Figure137:DifferencebetweenTTLandRS-232levels ...............................................................................................................................156
Figure138:BlockdiagrampinassignmentoftheMAX32121levelconverter ............................................................................................. 157
Figure139:FunctionaltestontheMAX3221levelconverter ...................................................................................................................... 157
Figure140:SimplifiedblockdiagramofaGNSSreceiver ............................................................................................................................ 158
Figure141:TypicalblockdiagramofaGNSSmodule ................................................................................................................................. 160
B.2 List of tables

Table1:Nationalreferencesystems.............................................................................................................................................................. 21
Table2:TheWGS-84ellipsoid...................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Table3:Datumparameters .......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Table4:Satellitecommunicationandnavigationfrequencies ....................................................................................................................... 39
Table5:Timesystems,January2009 ............................................................................................................................................................ 41
Table6:L1carrierlinkbudgetanalysismodulatedwiththeC/Acode ........................................................................................................... 46
Table7:Comparisonbetweenephemerisandalmanacdata ........................................................................................................................ 58
Table8:PlannedpositioningaccuraciesforGALILEO .................................................................................................................................... 74
Table9:FrequencyplanofGALILEOanddistributionofservices................................................................................................................... 76
Table10:ComparisonofthemostimportantpropertiesofGPS,GLONASSandGALILEO(asofFebruary2008) ........................................... 79
Table11:Errorcauses(typicalranges) ......................................................................................................................................................... 91
Table12:TotalerrorinHDOP=1.3.............................................................................................................................................................. 97
Table13:Transmissionprocessofthedifferentialsignal(forcodeandphasemeasurement) ...................................................................... 107
Table14:StandardsforDGPScorrectionsignals ......................................................................................................................................... 108
Table15:TheGEOsatellitesusedbyWAAS,EGNOSandMSAS(asofFebruary2008) ............................................................................... 115
Table16:DesignationoftheSBASstations ................................................................................................................................................ 116
Table17:PositioningaccuracywithoutandwithDGPS/SBAS ..................................................................................................................... 118
Table18:ComparisonofadvantagesofUser-planevs.Control-planeArchitectures ................................................................................... 126
Table19:DescriptionoftheindividualNMEADATASETblocks.................................................................................................................. 133
Table20:RecordingofanNMEAprotocol.................................................................................................................................................. 133
Table21:DescriptionoftheindividualGGAdatasetblocks ....................................................................................................................... 134
Table22:DescriptionoftheindividualGGLdatasetblocks ........................................................................................................................ 135
Table23:DescriptionoftheindividualGSAdatasetblocks ........................................................................................................................ 136
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Table24:DescriptionoftheindividualGSVdatasetblocks ........................................................................................................................ 137

Table25:DescriptionoftheindividualRMCdatasetblocks ....................................................................................................................... 138
Table26:DescriptionoftheindividualVTGdatasetblocks ........................................................................................................................ 139
Table27:DescriptionoftheindividualZDAdatasetblocks ........................................................................................................................ 140
Table28:DeterminingthechecksuminthecaseofNMEAdatasets .......................................................................................................... 141
Table29:ContentsoftheRTCMmessageheader ...................................................................................................................................... 146
Table30:ContentsofRTCMmessagetype1 ............................................................................................................................................. 149
Table31:RTCMSC-104Version2.3messagetypes ................................................................................................................................... 150
Table32:Messageclasses(Hexadecimalvaluesinbrackets)........................................................................................................................ 152
B.3 Sources
[I]
GlobalPositioningSystem,StandardPositioningSystemService,
nd
SignalSpecification,2 Edition,1995,page18,http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf
nd
[II]
[III]
NAVCEN:GPSSPSSignalSpecifications,2 Edition,1995,http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf
LemmeH.:SchnellesSpread-Spectrum-ModemaufeinemChip,Elektronik1996,
H.15p.38top.45
[IV]
http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/1890
[V]
ParkinsonB.,SpilkerJ.:GlobalPositioningSystem,Volume1,AIAA-Inc.
[VI]
GPSStandardPositioningServiceSignalSpecification,2ndEdition,June2,1995
[VII]
JournaloftheInstituteofNavigation,2002,Vol.48,No.4,pp227-246,Author:JohnW.Betz
[VIII]
http://www.glonass-center.ru/nagu.txt
[IX]
http://www.dlr.de/dlr/News/pi_191004.htm
[X]
http://www.cospas-sarsat.org/Status/spaceSegmentStatus.htm
[XI]
http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo/documents/brochure_en.htm
[XII]
http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMT498A9HE_Austria_0.html
[XIII]
http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/de/lvb/l24004.htm
[XIV]
http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltraum/0,1518,392467,00.html
[XV]
http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMQ36MZCIE_Improving_0.html
[XVI]
http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM0198A9HE_Germany_0.html
[XVII]
ManfredBauer:VermessungundOrtungmitSatelliten,Wichman-Verlag,Heidelberg,1997,
ISBN3-87907-309-0
[XVIII]
http://www.geocities.com/mapref/mapref.html
[XIX]
B.Hofmann-Wellenhof:GPSinderPraxis,Springer-Verlag,Wien1994,ISBN3-211-82609-2
[XX]
BundesamtfrLandestopographie:http://www.swisstopo.ch
[XXI]
ElliottD.Kaplan:UnderstandingGPS,ArtechHouse,Boston1996,
ISBN0-89006-793-7
[XXII]
http://www.tandt.be/wis
[XXIII]
http://www.egnos-pro.esa.int/IMAGEtech/imagetech_realtime.html
[XXIV]
http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/
[XXV]
GPS-World,November2003:VittoriniundRobinson:OptimizingIndoorGPSPerformance,page40
[XXVI]
www.maxim-ic.com/quick_view2.cfmDatenblattMAX2640,MAX2641
[XXVII]
NMEA0183,StandardForInterfacingMarineElectronicsDevices,Version2.30
[XXVIII]
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/dgps/rctm104/Default.htm
[XXIX]
GlobalPositioningSystem:TheoryandApplications,VolumeII,BradfordW.Parkinson,page31
GPS-X-02007-D
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[XXX]
[XXXI]
[XXXII]
swipos,PositionierungsdiensteaufderBasisvonDGPS,page6,BundesamtfrLandestopographie
[XXXIII]
http://www.potsdam.ifag.de/potsdam/dgps/dgps_2.html
[XXXIV]
http://www.maxim-ic.com
[XXXV]
SatellitenortungundNavigation,WernerMansfield,page157,ViewegVerlag
[XXXVI]
http://www.alliedworld.com
C Revision history
Revision
Date
Name
Status / Comments
-
A
11/10/2001
1/12/2006
jzog
jzog
Initialrelease
UpdateofChapters:
27/2/2007
tgri
UpdateofChapters:
26/4/2007
7/9/2009
SBAS(WAAS,EGNOS)
GPSModernization
Galileo
HighSensitivityGPS
AGPSErrorsandDOP
UTM-Projection
DGPS-Services
ProprietaryDataInterfaces
GPSReceivers
IntroductiontoSatelliteNavigation
SatelliteNavigationmadesimple
tgri
UpdateofSections:
jzog
SpaceSegment
UserSegment
TheGPSMessage
Calculatingaposition(equations)
DGPSServicesforreal-timecorrection
WideAreaDGPS
HardwareInterfaces
GNSSReceiverModules
Completelyrevisededition
GPS-X-02007-D
Appendix
Page 174 of 174

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Satellite navigation made simple..............................................................................12

Foundations of satellite technology .........................................................................34

GNSS technology: the GPS example .........................................................................42

GLONASS, GALILEO and Beidou/Compass................................................................66

Calculating position ...................................................................................................81

Improved GPS: DGPS, SBAS, A-GPS and HSGPS .....................................................100

DGPSbasedonsignaltraveltimedelaymeasurement ............................................................... 103

DGPSpost-processing(signaltraveltimeandphasemeasurement) ........................................... 106

DGPSclassificationaccordingtothebroadcastrange ................................................................ 108

Standardsforthetransmissionofcorrectionsignals .................................................................. 108

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 110

TerrestrialservicesbasedonRTCMSC-104 ............................................................................... 110

SatelliteservicesbasedonRTCMSC-104 .................................................................................. 111

WideAreaDGPS(WADGPS) ............................................................................................................. 112

Satellitebasedaugmentationsystems,SBAS(WAAS,EGNOS) ................................................... 112

OverviewofplannedRNSS ........................................................................................................ 115

AchievableaccuracywithDGPSandSBAS ........................................................................................ 118

Assisted-GPS(A-GPS,AGPS) ............................................................................................................. 118

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 118

PrincipleofA-GPS ..................................................................................................................... 119

Referencenetwork .................................................................................................................... 121

A-GPSnetwork ......................................................................................................................... 121

A-GPSwithonlineaidingdata(real-timeA-GPS) ....................................................................... 122

A-GPSwithofflineaidingdata(predictedorbits) ....................................................................... 123

Architectures ............................................................................................................................. 124

OMA-SecureUserPlaneLocationArchitecture(OMA-SUPL) ...................................................... 126

HighSensitivityGPS(HSGPS) ............................................................................................................ 127

Improvedoscillatorstability ....................................................................................................... 127

Correlatorsandcorrelationtime ................................................................................................ 128

Overviewofthedifferentcorrectionservices ............................................................................. 109

Pseudolitesforindoorapplications ................................................................................................ 129

Data formats and hardware interfaces...................................................................130

Datainterfaces ................................................................................................................................. 131

TheNMEA-0183datainterface ................................................................................................. 131

ConversionfromNMEAtoKML ................................................................................................ 142

Hardwareinterfaces ......................................................................................................................... 153

Supply ....................................................................................................................................... 154

BasicdesignofaGNSSmodule ................................................................................................. 159

10 GNSS applications ....................................................................................................161

Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 161

Descriptionofthevariousapplications .......................................................................................... 162

Commerceandindustry ............................................................................................................ 162

Communicationstechnology ..................................................................................................... 163

Scienceandresearch ................................................................................................................. 164

Tourismandsport ..................................................................................................................... 166

Summaryreportsandlinks ............................................................................................................... 167

DifferentialGPS ................................................................................................................................ 167

GPSinstitutes ................................................................................................................................... 167

Listoftables ..................................................................................................................................... 172

Revision history ........................................................................................................174

Figure 1: The basic function of satellite navigation

1 Satellite navigation made simple

Then you should read this chapter!

1.1 The principle of measuring signal transit time

Figure 2: Determining the distance of a lightning flash

distance travel time speed of sound

1.1.1 Basic principles of satellite navigation

1.1.2 Signal travel time

Signal transmission (start time)