O'Shaughnessy 1 Matthew O'Shaughnessy AP World History Outline The Earth and its People: a Global History, Third Edition,

Test 2 I. The Formation of New Cultural Communities, 1000 BCE 600 CE (89) A. Greece and Iran, 1000 30 BCE 1. Greek historian Herodotus documented the struggles of the city-states of Greece with the Persian Empire (93) a. 700-500 BCE b. Cultural differences demonstrated by Persian King Darius I i. Asked Greeks whether they would eat their dead and Indians whether they would burn their dead ii. Used as an example of significant cultural differences, where each civilization thinks their cultural practices were better 2. Ancient Iran, 1000 500 BCE a. Iran - land of the Aryans b. Geography - links western Asia and southern/central asia c. Little written records, historians mostly use the POV of ancient Greeks: outsiders who were ignorant at best, usually hostile, and interested primarily in event that affected themselves, limits knowledge, especially about central and eastern parts of the Persian Empire d. Geography and Resources (94) i. Mountains to west, northwest, north, Desert to east and southeast, Persian Gulf to southwest Northeast less protected, open to attack by Central Asia ii. Limited water resources make populations less dense iii. First millennium BCE irrigation allowed agriculture in the plains I. Underground irrigation prevented evaporation II. Labour-intensive, led to local leaders leading expansion III. Strong central authority speeded development (95) iv. Sensitive agricultural area, settlements frequently abandoned (96) e. The Rise of the Persian Empire i. Medes first western/central asian peoples to achieve a complex level of political organization ii. Played a major role in the destruction of the Assyrian Empire c650-600, expanded southeast toward Persian Gulf and Persians I. Persian rulers cemented their relationship with Medians through marriage II. Cyrus united Persian tribes and overthrew the Median monarch c550 BCE III. Cyrus kept the framework of Median rule, appointed Medians and Persians to governments IV. Differences between Persians and Medians slight iii. Patriarchal family system iv. Social system Warriors (landowning aristocracy) dominant, Priests/Magi (religious significance), Peasants v. Cyrus redrew the map of western Asia 550 530 BCE I. Conquered most of surrounding regions II. Babylon surrendered as his armies approached

O'Shaughnessy 2 III. Showed respect to Babylonian priesthood, had son crowned in accordance with native tradition vi. Cambyses (son) prevailed over the Egyptians...the last of the great ancient kingdoms of the Middle East I. Greek sources show him as ruthless II. Egyptian documents show him as practical, like his father vii. Darius I seized throne after Cambyses' death defeated many early challengers through skill, energy, and ruthlessness I. Increased importance of Persian families over Median peoples II. Expanded to europe, Indus Valley f. Imperial Organization and Ideology i. Darius I created the largest empire in the world as of yet ii. Divided empire into twenty provinces, each ruled by a satrap (appointed based on heredity) I. Slow communication gave satrap more power II. Farther providences game satraps more power III. Each satrap was required to send a certain tribute to the king A. Some of it was disbursed for necessary expenditures, but most was hoarded B. Metal taken out of circulation causes prices to rise, harder for providences to meet quotas of metal for tribute C. Caused a gradual economic decline approx. 300 BCE iii. Well maintained and patrolled royal roads connected provinces I. Waystations assist in the fast traveling of news II. Garrisons located at strategic points iv. Empire's administrative center near Susa v. Role of Women I. Bible Esther seen as clever (saves people from massacre) II. Greeks - women of the royal family being used as pawns in the struggle for power, greek queens vicious intriguers III. Recent study shows misrepresentation - Persian elite women influential, had prominent freedoms vi. King owned vast tracts of land I. Gave away land to loyal servants II. Gave land to encourage military service vii. Administration I. Food, commodities distributed to many workers (98) A. Could be prisoners of war B. Paid according to skill, men more than (nonpregnant) women II. Laws Darius created a body of 'laws of the King' A. Court system implemented B. Each region allowed to keep culture III. Ceremonial capital at Persepolis (Parsa) built used mostly for ceremony IV. Propaganda used to control people by free will V. Inscriptions show that Darius had a mandate of the gods A. God Ahuramazda made Darius king B. Ahuramazda great god of Zoroastrianism

O'Shaughnessy 3 C. Darius and successors were Zoroastrians 1. Origins uncertain 2. Struggle between Ahuramazda and Angra Mainyu (hostile spirit) 3. Afterlife rewarded or punished based on earthly deads 4. May have been a major influence on Judaism and Christianity 3. The Rise of the Greeks, 1000 500 BCE a. Greece was had few resources, relied on trade and foreign diplomacy b. Geography and Resources i. Bounded by Atlantic Ocean on west, Mountains to the North, deserts to the south and east ii. Very similar climate, land throughout region (102) iii. Many islands in Aegean sea I. Made travel easy without losing sight of land, which lead to expansion II. The sea was always a connector, not a barrier. iv. Few rivers, rainfall required for agriculture I. Limited arable land limited population II. Little metal, timber, but stone, clay, and marble abundant v. Overland transport difficult, encouraged sea expansion c. The Emergence of Polis i. After the destruction of Mycenaean palace-states, Greece lapsed into a 'Dark Age' (mostly isolated) ii. Mostly local government, not much contact between villages iii. Phoenician trading brought Greece out of dark age c800 BCE iv. Phoenician writing system adopted, slightly modified I. Increased literacy II. Allowed for new literature, laws, religious sources, etc III. Still primarily oral culture (104) v. Explosion of population following emergence from Dark Age I. Increased agriculture, increased land usage II. Villages merged and became city-states vi. Greece made up of hundreds of polis (city-states) I. Polis = urban center + rural areas under control II. Various sizes (105) III. Typical shared characteristics A. Acropolis - top of the city, on hill, provided emergency refuge B. Agora - gathering place, government, developed into marketplace IV. Each polis fiercely jealous of its independence and suspicious of its neighbors A. Conflict frequent B. Hoplite warfare - heavily armed infantrymen fought in close formation C. Most casualties suffered by defeated army in flight (106) D. Campaigns durning nonagricultural seasons E. No special training needed apart from strength and courage F. Quick battles victors quickly returned to their homes for agriculture V. Colonization began due to increasing population A. Sometimes indigenous peoples displaced, other times lived in harmony (107)

O'Shaughnessy 4 B. Spread Greek culture C. Easier because of similarities in climate and ecology in Mediterranean D. Increased technology vii. Hellenes - self-referring term, differentiated them from barbarians I. Later changed to Graeci by Romans II. Barbaroi barbarians viii. Coined money allowed for more rapid exchanges of goods as well as for more efficient record keeping ix. Relative political instability I. Councils superseded kings, led by rich landowners II. Debt-slaves and peasants worked land III. Slowly, tyrants gained control of more city-states (typically backed by emerging middle class IV. Eventually, political power strayed toward Oligarchy or Democracy x. Religion I. Anthropomorphic gods were super-human, but experienced human emotions II. Sacrifice at specific God's alters III. Predictions and advice taken from Gods d. New Intellectual Currents i. Growing emphasis on individual I. Enforced by individualist colonists, tyrants II. Humanism (valuing of unique talents and rights) ii. Pre-Socratic philosophy challenges traditional religion I. Questioned Homerean Gods II. Sought rational explanations, not religious statements III. Founded theory of the atom (essentially lucky intuition) iii. Logographers gathered a wide range of data, somewhat like modern day historians e. Athens and Sparta i. Sparta followed typical path of development, participating in trade and fostering the arts, until they decided to invade neighboring Messenia instead of further colonization I. Hoplite tactics game Spartans the edge (110) II. Messenians became helots, mot abused and exploited population on the Greek mainland III. To prevent a Helot revolution, the Spartan state became a military camp in a permanent state of preparedness - helots worked on land owned by Spartans, who served in the military IV. Spartan army best in Greece A. Boys taken at age seven to start harsh military training B. Huge loss of arts, commerce forbidden V. Spartan foreign policy A. Mostly isolationist B. Hard to go to farther city-states for fear of a Helot revolt ii. Athens had a large population, relatively fertile landowners I. Large land area gave a buffer against attack at first II. 594 BCE Solon appointed with large powers to avert civil war

O'Shaughnessy 5 A. Divided Athenians into four classes based on farm production B. All classes allowed to participate in Assembly, all but lowest class allowed to hold office C. Abolished enslavement due to debt (guaranteed freedom of citizens) D. 546 BCE Tyrant Pisistratus took power 1. Drew people to the capital, where he had more power 2. Created festivals that expanded culture and his power 3. Hereditary rule lasted until c590 BCE, when Spartan assistance allowed Athenians to remove the tyrants E. c460-450 Pericles and political allies took the last steps in the evolution of Athenian democracy by concentrating all power into councils 1. Assembly (all citizens), Council of 500, People's Courts 2. People of lower-middle class and up could serve in office by lottery, paid 4. The Struggle of Persia and Greece, 546 323 BCE (111) a. Persia was the main enemy of Greeks b. Early Encounters i. Cyrus conquered Lydia in 546 BCE, Greek cities ruled indirectly by Persia ii. Ionian Revolt uprising of Greeks 499 BCE, ultimately failed after five years iii. Led to Persian Wars - two Persian attacks on Greece in the early fifth century BCE I. 490 BCE Persian naval fleet used to punish Eretria and Athens, two states...that had given assistance to the Ionian rebels II. Eretria betrayed by its own citizens, survivors exiled III. Athenian hoplites defeated Persian troops iv. Xerxes became king, used huge army and navy to quell Greek force I. Crossed Hellespont into central/southern Greece II. Most city-states acknowledged Persian overlordship III. Hellenic League, lead by Sparta, tried to stop the Persian advance A. Initially failed B. Three hundred Spartans + king gave their lives to buy time for their fellows to escape C. Persians sacked Athens in 480 BCE D. Persians allowed their navy to be lured into the narrow strait of nearby Salamis, where they lost their advantage...and suffered a devastating defeat E. Collapse of threat to Greek mainland, Greeks went on offensive 1. Athenian navy very strong (half of entire greek navy), allowed Athens to displace Sparta as the leader in the war 2. Mainly naval battals F. 477 BCE Delian League formed, swept the Persians from the waters of the eastern Mediterranean and freed all Greek communities except those in distant Cyprus c. The Height of Athenian Power i. Successful defense against Persians begins Classical period of Greek history (480 323 BCE) ii. Athenians became imperial power, other states gave money instead of military

O'Shaughnessy 6 forces to the alliance iii. Athenians began to demand tributes from other in the League, forcibly brought others under control (112) iv. Trireme sleek fast warship, reduced dependance on wind and increased Athen's naval military prowess v. Democratic System driven by warfare I. Hoplites became upper/middle class because they had to provide their own armor II. Rowers from lower class, but got full rights because of the importance of their job vi. Naval power allowed Athens to hold more foreign territory easier vii. Athens' cultural achievements were dependent on the profits of empire I. Allowed for advancements in science, art, philosophy II. Philosophers drawn to Athens A. Socrates, socrates' trial B. Plato C. Aristotle viii. Justice system based upon mass vote, usually by emotion more than law d. Inequality in Classical Greece i. Democracy only for free adult males of pure Athenian ancestry - only 10 to 15 percent of population ii. Slaves allowed for farming while masters were at assembly, etc iii. Relationships between master and slave caused more humane treatment, slavery rationalized by calling slaves barbarians unable to think on their own iv. Role of women I. Sparta - encouraged to exercise, and...enjoyed a level of public visibility and outspokenness that shocked other Greeks II. Athens very little, confined and suppressed, arranged marriages III. Primary function of marriage children, preferably male IV. Wives and slaves had close relationships because of the amount of time spent together (115) e. Failure of the City-State and Triumph of the Macedonians i. 431 BCE Peloponnesian War I. Struggle between Athenian and Spartan alliance systems II. Athens tried to thwart Spartan attackers by not engaging them, forcing Sparta to retreat to tend to their farms III. Drew out war for almost three decades IV. Athens finally defeated in naval battle by Sparta (Persia had assisted Sparta in building ships) V. Sparta became more like Athens, leading to more wars VI. 400-300 BCE: near constant fighting among Greeks ii. Persians take advantage of Greek internal conflict to take control of Greece iii. Philip II turning Macedonia into the premier military power in the Greek world I. Improvements to the hoplite formation: longer spears, less armor (116) II. Siege equipment allowed for effective sieges III. Calvary units

O'Shaughnessy 7 IV. Assassinated in 336 BCE iv. Alexander (son/heir) defeated King Darius III I. Kept framework of Persian administration in the lands he conquered II. Took huge amounts of land 5. The Hellenistic Synthesis, 323 30 BCE a. Alexander dies in 323 BCE with no successor, half century of power struggle between leading officers i. Empire broken up into Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Antigonid kingdoms each ruled by a Macedonian dynasty ii. Usually in conflict, but rough balance of power kept relative stability b. Called Hellenistic Age - lands said to be Hellenized (Greekenized) c. World much like our own - rise of culture and science, trade d. Seleucid lost territory, leaving them largely unprotected e. Ptolemies ruled Egypt from Alexandria (118) f. Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonian homeland g. Athens and Sparta i. Sparta made several futile attempts to take land from Macedonians ii. Athens became a cultural center, tried to maintain neutrality h. Alexandria magnificent city, built libraries and lighthouse i. Synthesis of Hellenistic culture and indigenous beliefs (119) B. An Age of Empires: Rome and Han China, 753 BCE 600 CE (123) 1. Rome's Mediterranean Empire, 753 BCE 600 CE a. Rome's central location contributed to its success in unifying Italy and then all the lands ringing the Mediterranean Sea (124) i. Italy crossroads of the mediterranean and Rome crossroads of italy ii. Geographic Advantages Tiber River and Seven Hills provided protection iii. Geography of Italy hills, mountains, rivers, mostly navigable I. 75-percent hilly II. Ample arable land in costal plains and river valleys b. A Republic of Farmers, 753 31 BCE (125) i. Rome Occupied as early as 1000 BCE ii. Original culture and language of the peninsula adopted by Rome, led to significant hospitality (127) iii. Early economy agriculture, land was the basis of wealth iv. Seven kings between 753 and 507 BCE, then senatorial class (wealthy landowners) started the Roman Republic (507 31 BCE) I. Not true democracy wealthy citizen's votes counted more than poor citizen's votes II. Roman Senate was the real center of power A. Self-perpetuating body B. Members served for life III. Inequalities between Elite (patricians) and other populous (plebeians) A. Conflicts called Conflict of the Orders B. Plebeians led strikes, forced patricians to make political concessions 1. More representation for poorer class 2. Elite blunted the reforms with trickery v. Roman Society (128)

O'Shaughnessy 8 I. basic unit...was the family -Oldest living mail exercised absolute authority II. Complex ties of obligation A. Patron/client relationship patrons provided money/loans, advice, protection, while clients went to war for, supported, and farmed for the patron B. Roman women largely unknown except in upper classes 1. Very little freedom 2. Less constrained than greek women III. Religion spirits and gods A. Tried to maintain the 'pax deorum' ('peace of the gods') B. Sacrifices, rituals undertook C. Later, they equated their gods with Greek counterparts c. Expansion in Italy and the Mediterranean i. began slowly, then picked up momentum... ii. Co-consuls had only one year in office in which to gain military glory encouraged war? iii. Conquest made to provide a buffer against attack, then buffer against the pervious buffer, etc iv. Military I. landowners required to serve II. Famous for training III. Granted citizenship to conquered peoples, but also demanded that they serve in the military IV. 264 202 BCE, prolonged wars against Carthaginians (descendants of Phoenicians) A. Romans emerged as the unchallenged master of the western Mediterranean B. Romans reluctant to occupy such distant territories, but did after the imposed governments collapsed C. Governors of providences come from Roman senators d. The Failure of the Republic i. Decline of peasant farmers ii. Constant cycles of war iii. Armies more loyal to generals than state, led to civil wars and coups 2. The Roman Principate, 31 BCE 330 CE a. Octavian Caesar eliminated all rivals by 31 BCE and [refashioned] the Roman system of government i. Carefully preserved key points of former government - offices, honors, social prerogatives of the senatorial class ii. Essentially military dictatorship, used euphemisms to disguise his power as princeps, 'first among equals' iii. Called Roman Principate iv. Ruthlessness, patience, and intuitive grasp of psychology enabled him to manipulate all the groups that made up the Roman society v. Added Egypt, parts of middle east, and central europe to the empire b. Octavian honorably named Augustus by senate

O'Shaughnessy 9 c. Allied himself with equites, class directly below the senatorial class d. Concealed the source and extent of his power, but future 'emperors' (as they are now called) were less so e. Emperor became a major source of new laws 3. An Urban Empire (133) a. Urban Empire - law administered through a network of towns and cities i. About 80 percent of population lived in villages, or in rural areas for agriculture (not cities) ii. Benefitted those living in cities most b. Wealthy upper-class citizens lived in elegant town houses c. Poor lived in crowded slums d. While the rebellion and end of the Roman Republic brought more independent farmers and landowners, this reversed in the 100s CE when a cheap labour source was needed and slaves were not available i. Tenant farmers hired to live on and cultivate land ii. Re-concentrated wealth back to a select few landowners e. Pax Romana stability and safety guaranteed by roman might i. Commerce flourished ii. Promoted Romanization spread of latin language and roman customs f. Gradual extension of citizens 4. The Rise of Christianity a. 6 CE Judaea under Roman Control i. Roman Governors insensitive to the Jewish belief in one god managed to increase tensions ii. Opposition, resentment strong b. Birth of Jesus i. Messiah presumed to be a military leader who would drive off the Romans ii. Exact views of Jesus debated among scholars - discouraged power and money, encouraged personal faith iii. Captured by Jewish authorities, turned over to romans, and killed c. Paul, Jew from Tarsus, spread Jesus' teachings i. Spread Christianity ii. Angered Romans, who insisted they worship the emperor iii. Continued to grow 5. Technology and Transformation a. Ease of travel helped merchants, spread of Christianity b. Engineering and Technological advancements i. Bridges and weapons built by army engineers ii. Aqueducts carried water using gravity iii. Concrete c. Third-century crisis - 235 to 284 CE - political, military, and economic problems almost destroy the empire i. Frequent change of rules twenty or more during that period ii. Frequent civil wars taken advantage of by raiders iii. Devastating impact on economy taxes increase, significant deficit iv. Diocletian pulled the empire back from the brink of self-destruction I. Radical transformations

O'Shaughnessy 10 II. Set maximum prices of goods to curb inflation III. Increased regulation made government look oppressive (138) v. Diocletian resigned in 305, Constantine took his place I. Reunited empire by 324 II. Ended persecution of Christians after seeing a divine sign A. Supported Christian church B. Allowed other beliefs C. Christians (esp. in office) had clear advantages over non-christians 6. Byzantines and Germans a. Next centuries crowded with disputes over theology and quarrels among religious leaders b. Emperor Justinian had a thousand years of Roman legal tradition recorded in the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law) c550 c. Byzantine empire formally broke away from Rome after 395 i. Overwhelmed Roman armies to the west, and the last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 ii. c530, old Roman Empire reduced to several smaller kingdoms under Germanic rule iii. Latin of the masses evolved into romance dialects 7. The Origins of Imperial China, 221 BCE 220 CE (139) a. Early Chinese history fragmented groups, mostly divided by geography i. Qin dynasty (of Wei valley) led massive conquests and united most of china I. Built at a great cost in human lives and labor II. Fell shortly after the death of its founder, Shi Huangdi ii. Han Dynasty ruled from 206 BCE 220 CE b. Resources and Population i. Agriculture main staple of economy - produced wealth and taxes I. Taxes allowed rulers in palace to lead a luxurious life II. Grain stored for times of famine ii. In between agricultural seasons, every able-bodied man donated one month of labor a year to public works projects palaces, temples, fortifications, and roads; transporting goods; excavating and maintaining canal channels, etc iii. Two years in military required iv. Free peasants main source of taxes and services to empire (similar to Rome) v. Growth driven by increasing population I. Often displaced other groups II. Needed land for agriculture c. Hierarchy, Obedience, and Belief (141) i. Similar to romanization, spread their beliefs when expanding ii. Family basic unit of society, imitated on a larger scale through society iii. Role of women few written records, but had very few rights; three submissions father, husband, son (142) iv. Worshipped forces of nature d. The first Chinese Empire, 221 207 BCE i. China divided into warring states, called the warring states period 480 221 BCE ii. Qin dynasty suddenly takes over and unites many other states (221 BCE)

O'Shaughnessy 11 I. Ruthless rulers exploited land and people II. Cracked down on Confucianism, very legalist (absolute power) III. Tried to break up rival power sources, demolishing aristocratic wealth system IV. Abolished slavery in an effort to equalize all people V. Standard weights & measures, laws, etc (143) VI. Built thousands of miles of roads VII. Shi Huangdi died in 210 BCE, rebellions broke out because of mass oppression e. The Long Reign of the Han, 206 BCE 220 CE i. Liu Bang (born peasant) established the Han dynasty, promising to reject the excesses and mistakes of the Qin ii. Reintroduced Confucianism iii. Emperor Wu led military expansion c140 BCE, but further expansion curtailed due to cost of maintaining foreign territory iv. Chang'an surrounded by walls and ring of hills - bustling palace v. Well to do officials and merchants lived in luxury, common people live in slums vi. Emperor I. Ruled with the mandate of heaven II. Led secluded life III. Government run my prime minister and nine ministers vii. Allied with the gentry (similar to the equities) to weaken aristocrats, made government more efficient and responsive viii. Any men could become government officials based on their knowledge of Confucius texts ix. Daoism took root (the path) f. Technology and Trade (145) i. Bronze tools allowed for more efficient work ii. Most advanced metallurgist techniques in the world iii. Crossbow and calvary helped China defend against nomadic invaders iv. Roads allowed for faster administration v. Silk very valuable by the time it got to the middle east g. The Decline of the Han Empire i. Security of borders major concern I. Chinese countered with quick, mobile calvary units II. Tributary system nomad rulers accepted Chinese supremacy, in exchange gained lavish ceremonies and gifts (146) ii. Border security weighed on Han finances, created economic downfall iii. Collapse caused by factions in the government, corruption, uprisings of peasants 8. Imperial Parallels a. Both patriarchal societies b. Agriculture fundamental economic activity, source of wealth c. Rulers gained power by taking from the Aristocrats, giving to the gentries/equities d. Similar defensive problems C. India and Southeast Asia, 1500 BCE 600 CE (150) 1. Foundations of Indian Civilization, 1500 BCE 300 CE (152) a. India large, geographically isolated

O'Shaughnessy 12 b. The Indian Subcontinent i. Indian Subcontinent = modern day Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, adjacent islands ii. Divided into three zones I. Mountainous north zone II. River basins of Indus and Ganges III. Peninsula tropical coast, desertish interior iii. Monsoons (seasonal winds) wildly swinging temperatures, caused by difference in ocean and land temperature I. Begin in June II. Extensive precipitation III. Partly irregular, causes irregular Indus water volume iv. Invasions, migrations usually from northwest corridor, but ocean routes are accessible c. The Vedic Age i. 1500 500 BCE, named after Vedas (religious texts, great primary source) ii. Nomadic Indo-European warriors migrated to Northwest India, ushered in dominance of Indo-European groups (153) iii. Collapse of Indus Valley civilization no central authority to direct irrigation efforts iv. c1000 BCE iron tools made agricultural tasks easier v. Conflicts between Aryas and Dasas (154) I. Aryas pushed Dasas into southern india II. Based on skin color Aryas had lighter skin than Dasas III. Class system evolved based on skin color A. Brahmin priests, scholars B. Kshatriya warriors, officials C. Vaishya Merchants, artisans, landowners D. Shudra peasants, laborers 1. Reserved for Dasas 2. Dasa evolved to mean slave E. Eventual fifth group: Untouchables F. Priests, scholars came up with explanations for class system (155) 1. Classes came from various parts of Brahma head, arms, etc 2. Belief in reincarnation by karma you are what you deserve to be G. Complex rules governed interactions between classes vi. Sacrifice - essential ritual to please the gods d. Challenges to the Old Order: Jainism and Buddhism i. c700 BCE, reaction against stiff class system emerged ii. Certain charismatic individuals abandoned traditional society, moved to the forest with followers I. Believed in individual pursuit of insight II. Desire viewed as negative, by stopping the desire, one achieved moksha (liberation) III. Questioned Vedic religion iii. Two new religions threatened Vedic society I. Jainism strict nonviolence A. Zealous Jainists wore masks, starved selves (in effect)

O'Shaughnessy 13 B. Most less zealous II. Buddhism A. Buddha - the Enlightened One 1. Mostly a legend, hard to differentiate actual from myths 2. Settled on a middle path of moderation 3. Belief that the solution to suffering lies in curbing desire 4. Originally centered on individual (157) 5. Gods deemphasized 6. Nirvana ultimate state, ends reincarnation and grands perpetual tranquility 7. Buddha's teachings spread through India, South/southeast Asia B. The Rise of Hinduism 1. Vedic religions evolved into Hinduism, challenged by new, spiritually satisfying, and egalitarian movements 2. Incorporated elements from Dravidian culture of the south and Buddhism 3. Transition from Vedic to Hinduism largely unknown, but upper class religious leaders kept their status 4. Important changes a. Sacrifice deemphasized b. Gods have more direct interaction with humanity c. Complex symbols, symbolism 5. Huge diversity of gods, all ultimately...seen as manifestations of a single divine force (159) 6. Pilgrimages, divine locations more common to show faith 7. Religious duties: first duties to one's society, then oneselfw 8. Resulted in ultimate victory of Hinduism over Buddhism, which was driven from the land 2. Imperial Expansion and Collapse, 324 BCE 650 CE (160) a. India has never had political unity for a significant amount of time i. Different geographical regions led to different language and cultural practices ii. Complex social hierarchy b. The Mauryan Empire, 324 184 BCE i. c600 BCE - separate kingships...and independent states dotted the landscape of north India ii. Wealth from agriculture, iron mines, and...strategic location allowed the Magadha kingdom to have an influential role in politics iii. c300 BCE Chandragupta Maurya (Vaishya or Shudra class) gained control of Magadha kindom, expanded it into the Mauryan Empire I. May have been inspired by Alexander the Great - Greek tradition claimed that Alexander met a young Indian native by the name of 'Sandracottus,' an apparent corruption of 'Chandragupta.' II. Collapse of Greek's domination of Punjab created a power vacuum in the northwest III. Mauryan control expanded to conquer that part of the world. iv. Arthashastra book written (possibly by a Brahamin who guided Chandragupta), coldly pragmatic guide to political success and survival

O'Shaughnessy 14 v. Taxes (approx. 25%) supported king, palace, military vi. Mauryan capital at Pataliputra vii. Governed by six councils viii. Ashoke, Chandragupta's grandson's reign I. Outstanding figure in early Indian history II. Beginning of reign military campaigns, expanded empire III. Overwhelmed by the brutality of this victory, the young monarch became a convert to Buddhism... IV. Ashoka encouraged others to convert to Buddhism c. Commerce and Culture in an Era of Political Fragmentation i. Ashoka's death in 232 BCE caused the empire to begin to collapse I. Dynastic disputes II. Attacks in the northwest (184 BCE) caused the empire to collapse ii. Domination by foreign powers I. First Greco-Bactrian Kingdom from 180 50 BCE A. Descendants of troops, settlers under Alexander the Great B. Greek influence evident during this period II. Shakas (Iranian peoples) from 50 BCE to 50 CE III. Kushans (from Chinese Xinjiang) from 50 to 240 CE iii. Advancements during political fragmentation I. Roads and towns built by Mauryan Empire II. Commerce and trade routes built and thrived III. Great Indian Epics written based on oral tradition Ramayana and Mahabharata A. Ramayana - exploits of Rama, a heroic prince (162) B. Mahabharata 1. Very long eight times length of Iliad and Odyssey combined 2. Battle between two sets of cousins, results in very destructive battle C. Bhagavad-Gita 1. self-contained (and perhaps originally separate episode set in the midst of those events 2. Tells of a hero who reveals himself to be time IV. Science and technology A. Medicine / Herbal remedies B. Linguistics (word forms/grammar) V. Rise of important states in central India A. Tamil kingdoms three kingdoms in frequent conflict, but lasted over two thousand years d. The Gupta Empire, 320 550 CE i. Had its roots in the Magadha empire on the Ganges Plain ii. Modeled after Magadha empire leader even took name Chandra Gupta iii. Influence eventually reached very far iv. Set up far-reaching trade networks v. Most revenue from 25% tax on agriculture vi. State held monopolies in key areas such as the mining of metals and salt, owned farmland vii. Gupta control never as effectively centralized as Mauryan authority

O'Shaughnessy 15 I. Military centered in capital II. Governors ruled outer areas, took advantage of people III. [Limited the empire's ability] to enforce its will on outlying areas (163) IV. Theater-state: used cultural and ceremonial aspects to try to control empire V. Also held together by an economic base viii. Little historical artifacts because of moist climate ix. Decline of women's rights by urbanization and emergence of a nonagricultural middle class - lost most rights x. Religion revived ancient Vedic practices, Hinduism I. Reassertion of the importance of Brahmin priests II. Religious tolerance - patrons for Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain endeavors III. Classic Hindu temples evolved xi. Commerce grew through coined money, art, trade xii. Fall defense against huns sapped military, treasury, empire collapsed c550 CE 3. Southeast Asia, 50 600 CE a. Area i. Indochina, Malay Peninsula, islands in Pacific Ocean ii. Modern-day Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and Philippines b. Natural resources and important strategical resource i. Several growing seasons due to monsoons, tropical climate, silt-bearing rivers and volcanic soil ii. Rain forests cleared as early as 2000 BCE c. Malay peoples dominant population, came from migrations from southern china c3000 BCE and later d. First political units were small - fundamental units reflected the number of people who drew water from the same source e. Northern Indochina under Chinese control from 111 BCE 939 CE f. Situated on the 'Silk Road,' gave them some control over trade g. Influenced by Hindu and Buddhist culture h. First Southeast Asian capital called 'Funan' by Chinese i. Rulers built irrigation channels to prevent flooding ii. Dominated Ismus of Kra key point on Indo-Chinese trade route iii. Influence of Indian and Chinese culture evident D. Networks of Communication and Exchange, 300 BCE 600 CE (173) 1. The Silk Road (174) a. Trade network between China and Mediterranean via Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia b. First use began c100 BCE, had several periods of heavy use (175) c. Origins and Operations i. Parthians military power by 247 BCE (people from caspian sea) I. Few written records II. Recurring wars with Greeks and Romans ii. 128 BCE Zhang Jian (Chinese General) I. Explored the deserts for Emperor Wu (Han) II. Found Horse Breeders in central asia III. Given credit as the originator of overland trade with western lands

O'Shaughnessy 16 iii. By 100 CE, Greeks could obtain Chinese silk I. Central Asian cities grew with taxes made on passing goods II. Chinese farmers adopted pistachios, walnuts, pomegranates, sesame, coriander, spinach..., metals and precious stones (176) III. China traded new fruits, spices to Western world 2. The Sasanid Empire, 224 600 a. Rise of the Sasanid Empire in Iran brought a continuation of the rivalry between Rome and the Parthians... b. Silk Road brought many exotic crops to Mesopotamia cotton, sugar cane, rice, citrus trees, eggplants c. Zoroastrianism and Christianity used as state religions to control peoples i. Both religions largely intolerant ii. Executions carried out by Zoroastrians and Christians iii. Struggle between religions d. The Impact of the Silk Road (178) i. People increasingly settled in trade cities ii. Missionary influence along silk road iii. Spread of technology stirrup, chariot warfare 3. The Indian Ocean Maritime System a. Trade network across Indian Ocean and South China sea b. Little significance other than economically and politically bonding trading regions c. Pattern in history anonymous indigenous people do not get credit they deserve for their contributions (179) d. Evidence that the Indian Ocean civilizations developed differently from Mediterranean Sea through ship design e. Origins of Contact and Trade i. Early trading between Mesopotamia, Persian Gulf, Oman, Indus Valley c2000 BCE soon broke off ii. Indian maritime migration left trade routes f. The Impact of Indian Ocean Trade i. Mariners made ocean voyages to trade for personal profit ii. Arabia - aromatic resins from scrubby trees, Persian Gulf pearls, Oman + Arabia copper, India spices and manufactured goods (182) iii. Indian Ocean had highly valued products, but the distance and thus volume of trades was much less than inter-mediterranean trading iv. Ports typically small, suffered lack of fresh water and small population v. Malay Peninsula and Indonesia could have more populated shors with easier access to inland population vi. Role of Women - played a crucial though not well-documented role as mediators between cultures 4. Routes Across the Sahara a. Trans-Saharan caravan routes small paths that traders were able to take through the harsh desert b. Early Saharan Cultures i. Early evidence comes from rock drawings of animals long extinct ii. Cultural activities depicted: dancing, etc iii. Artwork shows that horse herders came first, then cattle herders

O'Shaughnessy 17 iv. Some believe that Romans inaugurated an important trans-Saharan trade, but they lack firm archaeological evidence v. Saharan trade proportional to spread of domestic camels vi. Camels and Camel Herding made roaming the desert possible c. Trade Across the Sahara - developed into two separate trading systems (185) i. South salt, forest products to the deserts ii. North colonists from Rome provided goods 5. Sub-Saharan Africa a. Most important cultural change migrations b. A Challenging Geography i. Region bounded by Sahara, Oceans, Red Sea ii. Nile only major river, rapids limit use for trading and navigation iii. Comprises a variety of climates c. The Development of Cultural Unity i. Great traditions written records, ethical codes, other intellectual attitudes ii. Small traditions local community beliefs, etc iii. Culture of Sub-Saharan Africa very diverse over 200 languages iv. Lots of space and low population crowding was not an issue, local groups did not have much contact with each other v. Egypt could not assert control because of cataracts in Nile, only limited Roman exploration d. African Cultural Characteristics i. Culture varied, but shared several common characteristics music, agricultural traits, method of rule ii. Very loosely defined class system: nobles, commoners, slaves, nonetheless, great cultural unity iii. Migration from the increasing desert e. The Advent of Iron and the Bantu Migrations i. Traces of copper found in Sahara from 1000 BCE, in Niger Valley after 400 CE ii. Iron smelting seems likely, came from Hittites or self-invention iii. Linguistic analysis provides the strongest evidence of extensive contacts among sub-Saharan Africans I. Spread of Ironically II. Over 300 Bantu languages south of equator III. From 500 to 600 CE, Bantu traditions spread west, south, and east 6. The Spread of Ideas a. Ideas and Material Evidence - little evidence to support hypothesis b. The Spread of Buddhism i. Written sources lend evidence to theories ii. King Ashoka (Maurya ruler of India) promoted Buddhism, which further spread by missionaries and trade routes c. The Spread of Christianity i. Initially spread in Asia and Africa before its confrontation with Islam ii. Connection between religion, trade, and imperial politics iii. Armenia served recurrently as a battleground between Iranian states to the south and east and Mediterranean states to the west - each wanted to control the portion of the Silk Road

O'Shaughnessy 18 iv. Christian Church spread there as an extension of Zoroastrianism