N95- 13910

ON

THE

THEORY

OF

QUANTUM
A. Haus

MEASUREMENT

Hermann

Fraxtz X. K_rtner Department of Electrical Research Massachusetts Engineering Laboratory Institute MA and Computer Science

of Electronics of Teehnologzt 0_189

Cambridge,

Abstract Many equipment so called is treated paradoxes of quantum system. mechanics are clarified when the measurement processes.

as a quantized

Every measurement

involves nonlinear

Selfconsistent measurements,

formulations of nonlinear quantum optics are relatively simple. Hence optical such as the quantum nondemolition (QND) measurement of photon number,

are particularly well suited for such a treatment. It shows that the so called %ollapse of the wave function" is not needed for the interpretation of the measurement process. Coherence of the density matrix of the signal is progressively reduced with increasing accuracy of the photon number determination. If the QND measurement is incorporated into the double slit experiment, the contrast ratio of the fringes is found to decrease on the photon number in one of the two paths. with increasing information

1
The

Introduction
Theory of Quantum Measurement of quantum of its long has a long and venerable history. Many of the original

discussions of the founders and Zurek[Z]. Yet, inspite have not been fully settled.

mechanics are contained history, the issues raised

in the reprint in these well

volume known

of Wheeler discussions

In this paper we are guided of phenomena ment." vation, language includes tional rectly just

we attempt

to make of Niels

a modest which to cause lines

contribution reads: "...

to this weighty one sometimes since words to atomic

problem. speaks objects

In doing by measureand with

so

by a quote

Bohr

of "disturbance obserthe

by observation" however, and as attributes

or "creation are apt measurements, On the to observations experimental

of physical confusion, are here obtained

attributes used

Such phrases, and practical an account problem reminded

like phenomena [I advocate whose terminology,

in a way incompatible description, circumstances In such

common using]

definition.

of objective arrangement.

word phenomenon

to refer only in quantum that every obtained

under

description the observa-

of the whole

physics is deprived atomic phenomenon by means of suitable marks

of any special intricacy and we are, moreover, diis closed in the sense that its observation is based amplification devices plate, with caused irreversible by the functioning penetration of

on registrations such

as, for example,

permanent

on a photographic

pA__

INTE_ITIONALLY"EANK, B

107

electrons particularly Further, is required.

into

the

emulsion" of note.

[Ref.

1, p.

3].

We have

underlined of the whole in classical even

the

words

that large

we consider arrangement. amplification by the ad"Physical equipment

worthy

Bohr requires

a description

experimental language,

if one is to state

the outcome statements school,

of the experiment that may

At the risk of making herents reality provides Much it is very describe of the Einsteinian cannot the be formulated and treated classical

be considered equipment The large

more

controversial by saying:

we should

like to strengthen

Bohr's gain of the

quote

until the measurement system. output quantum measuring at the well the

used to determine measurement apparatus." is the consequence according

the observables

is specified

as a quantum interface involving

of the measurement measurements equipment_

of the controversy difficult it quantum optics The is well yet to describe

of the fact that to

to our interpretation,

mechanically. we have made great well progress and self-phase amply natural in describing confirmed optical components quantum Less extenfibers via of description of this number of the see the of error case, theory has been tested experimentally. modulation apparatus apparatus. The squeezing experimentally[2-6]. and squeezing and test some is the follow in optical quantum of the main of the the output. this by a parametric

In quantum mechanically. amplifier sively the optical of optical quantum paper. composite that if the density ment photon terpreted operator does the the gain of a signal explored, devices

understood

theoretically is the

also tested, to construct using such

Kerr effect [_-9]. Hence mechanics

it appears a measurement

to use the well tested This We with

a measurement a Quantum

predictions photon

objective

We start via wave photon of the matrix equipment, number

by describing a nonlinear function number

Nondemolition interferometer. measurement be determined is large since enough. over the and is not if the

Measurement apparatus Further, (Hilbert) not very with gain the large, Bohr's of the to the when

Mach-Zehnder of the signal in the signal and can

development probability is the

We shall

a negligible

measurement is diagonalized. approaches zero,

apparatus obtained each when Finally,

of the signal,

by tracing

coordinates whole the

of the measurea particular can be inprojection matrix we can put equipment are passed of opposite emerge meanumber ac-

the probability This corresponds

of error of measuring ensemble, signal dictum to the yon Neumann that

measurement, result. This language and the gain

as yielding interpretation.

an interpretable However, it is not diagonalized.

density

not decohere, measurement large. When

is consistent only the

results

into classical is performed,

measurement beams coefficient wave

is very on into sign,

no measurement a second entire This apparatus nonlinear action with confirms the in each

signal can

and

"measurement" a Kerr the

Mach-Zehnder first the double of the reversibility slit two

interferometer of quantum We As beams.

with be undone;

the We

of the

intefferometer experiment. light

functions

disentangled! surement cordingly.

mechanics. put the of the a nonlinear accuracy interference Mach-Zehnder of the photon fringes decreases

conclude

determination

is systematically

increased,

the contrast

108

2
Figure

The
1 shows

Quantum
a nonlinear beam

Nondemolition
Mach-Zehnder frequency they beam interferometer. enter

Measurement
The signal beam _n at one frequency mirror. At A portion of the of the of a Kerr medium by another giving through a dichroic

and the probe

b_ at another

the end of the Kerr medium probe a phase beam shift has been on the passed probe

are again separated that

dichroic

mirror.

on directly mechanically,

for interference. can be measured the process

Classically, is described

the Kerr medium by the Hamiltonian

produces intensity of the

an indication

the signal beam. Kerr medium [1]

Quantum

- ^t ^ = n_aeaso _t_ o where signal _ is a factor proportional to the Kerr coefficient; photons, b that of the probe photons. They obey [a,,a]] = 1 _, is the annihilation the usual commutation operator relations:

(1) of the

(2)

: 1
It should been would left be noted out that the Hamiltonian A medium a simplified beam are (1) does resonant Hamiltonian. combined by a beam splitter with the Hamiltonian: not account sum for a self-phase frequency shift. This and for convenience. by such portions at the of signal

(3)
has probe

be described

The two

of the probe

= hM[bt_ As usual, system. one If the may beam consider splitter the wave packets

-I- 8t/_] in time as they

C4)
propagate
along the be chosen

to evolve

is 50/50,

the parameter

M must

v0 where of the l is the three length of the medium are

4 group input, velocity, l/vg is the travel time.

(5)

and v e is the determine at the products operators

From the known input the We denote output

Hamiltonian ports. They of the annihilation

one may

the evolution

of the wave function entangled photodetector

I), ll3)10) output. measures

and become ] = it]

at the

by ] and operator

_. The balanced

the expectation

values

difference

current

_ Ot_ and

its moments[

TM.

(]) = I 1' sin(, ala)

The expectation photon operator. operator. The mean value If the square traced sine over the Hilbert can follow space from function be expanded

, l l'ala.
of the probe to first second yields order, moment it becomes and are [u ] the

(6)
the sine of the signal photon

fluctuations

the

(IMI') = I 1'
if the the signal is in a photon beam. number state. This is shot noise since 1/312 is the photon number probe

(7)
in

109

Dichroic Mirrors Kerr Medium

v

_tout

Signal Subsystem

/ / kin \

n
v ==..= v

Io)

_in

Measurement Subsystem

(
FIG. tector. 1. Schematic of nonlinear Mach-Zehnder interferometer and balanced de-

I---1

IV>s/

",

/
_ v S

FIG. opposite

2.

Two

nonlinear

Mach-Zehnder

interferometers

with

media

of equal

and

Kerr coefficients.

110

The probability of error follows from the mean sians in the large photon number limit{Ill:

square

fluctuations

(7) that

approach

gaus-

1 iDerror _'_ 25/--'re-'re

,,,,2, 8 TM pI /

(8)
small. shift mean The physical two meaning photons, has to easily of

If [_/_[2 >> 1, the this quantitity is the very Here, can itself be made achieved. apparatus, we find that :_eans that measurement, von Neumann an eigenstate. Mach-Zehnder

probability shift

of error

can

be made

arbitrarily

be fathomed If we used with

as follows. fiber

_lfl[ 2 is the phase The geometric these that with

due to the parameters from one may This it.

probe products

phase large.

due to one photon. we are not concerned the theoretical

of these realization

interferometers, conclusions error

operating

are not

however,

the practical small,

of the measurement In particular, This every to the into the with interpret the state

but only each and

can be drawn Hence result.

the probability measurement not only

of error can be made has vanishing the ensemble, which gain interpretation at large

arbitrarily

for ]_/_1 = 10, it is 10 -e. is analogous

probability. a definite we can the signal a measurement

as yielding interprets further, projects

projection Pursuing

postulate this

as projecting a photon state.

say that into

a measurement

interferometer

3
The

The
trace

Density
of the density system of Fig.

Matrix
matrix over the measurement system part wave at the output function[Ill: of the signal1 can be evaluated for a signal

measurement

=
n

chin)

(9)

It is

r_=O

lr/,!

(10)
O0 2 2

m,t=O

error

probability

In the limit diagonal factor!). the gain at the Hence, of the

of large gain, same again, rate

the density as the system the

matrix signal

traced acquires

over the measurement approaches a classical very large. zero (decohered)

equipment (note the appearance

becomes when

probability (l_#t)

of error is made

exponential

we see that

measurement

4
If one

Reversibility
does not perform as entirely shown the a measurement in Fig. wave functions. on the has This probe shows, beam, but reintroduces of opposite the reversibility it in the sign, second one can 2, which a Kerr coefficient

Mach-Zehnder disentangle

of course,

of quantum

111

mechanics been the Indeed, current act

if no measurement because present then statistics. the of measurement. in the operator Only

intervenes probe the A measurement

in the process. beam was is an beam

Of course,

no measurement This that brings prevents detector

could

have to it the

undertaken,

completely irreversible is passed photon

recycled. process detection

us back recycling. in which

example

probe

into a balanced

is absorbed.

can one apply

the homodyne

formula

to evaluate

Tracing,
matrix space. the the

Decoherence
of the signal Tracing evaluates reduced of the signal between signal system expectation density after and probe matrix

and
becomes values. can

the
diagonal operation In the

Act

of Measurement
Hilbert space when of the traced of on by the signal

The density over the quantum density the that statement in fact of quantum density

in the signal which, context

probe matrix, that

is a mathematical

according of the

to the postulates

mechanics, matrix exists

derivation

be interpreted never

as a "Gedankenexperiment" Accompanied again, the and the entanglement works facto"

passage systems could

through would never

the Mach-Zehnder. be combined of course, in that space, be reversed.

the two systems is broken. partial or total

In this sense, leads

the reversibility on to "de

mechanics

In an actual

measurement, decoherence

apparatus

the probe subspace, causes an irreversible action.

6
Finally,

Two
let of the of the of the and

Slit
us look two

Experiment
at the arms have "two-slit" beams. to show the interference If the perfect number thus arm. 4) two experiment A phase beams shifter were of Fig. perfectly through the 3. The two arms the QND slits are here the at in The of the of the

replaced phase the each gain

by the

of an interferometer.

in one of the coherent, two them we mount

changes intensity apparati

superimposed would arms apparati to ascertain can passing

detector

extinction. of photons changing

However, passing the

individually. value

be adjusted, through each

accuracy compute

of the

measurement

photon contrast

number

One can then

expectation

finds it to be [11] (see Fig.

(i) = e -I_BI_/4cos #
Thus, the and performed. that number a similar Here determines exponential contrast. we find much again how factor The that the as the one that factor one. transition The behaves appears in the error probability two measurements of the photon the behavior of the

(11) determines are being as a wave photon of the

extinction

of the

is squared, between accuracy

because

of a particle

is a continuous

determination

the photon

as a particle.

112

18)

A.

bm

_in
l

_in

10)

E7

FIG.

3. An

interferometer apparati.

representing

two-slit

interference

and

attached

QND

measurement

1 0.5

0 -25

o i
/ _
([)= e-]_13] /4 cos e 2
0

oC_

FIG. of photon

4. Expectation number

value

of detector

current

versus

phase

and error probability

determination.

113

Conclusion
with the postulate apparatus of photon photons that a proper The formulation quantum of a quantum formalisms gain yields we chose measurement for optical apparatus. measurement has to the measuring apparatus language: as well. quantum number developed results a particle that comThe appa-

We started quantize ponents in classical

enable

one to do a full

analysis

of an optical (since

measurement

measurement

with infinite

can be described

behave

as particles

ratus). When the gain is not infinite, the behavior is more duplicitous, it is not what one would call the behavior of a classical particle. This confirms Bohr's statement that it is necessary to have large that gain to obtain measurement with infinite the results gain that can be put into classical language. operation states We on the can be also found signal. If no fully a measurement is equivalent of the to a projection signal and

measurement by the

is undertaken, apparatus. experiment

entanglement

probe

undone Finally,

an inverse "double-slit"

can also be described If the knowledge

in terms is only

of partial there

knowledge can still

of be

the photon interference

number of the

in each of the two beams.

paths.

partial,

8
This

Acknowledgments
work was supported by the Office of Naval Research, Grant N00014-92-J-1302.

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115