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This study examines parenting self-efficacy (PSE) in a sample of 652 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse mothers and children at high risk for early conduct problems. The study has three goals: 1) To examine how PSE changes developmentally from ages 2 to 4; 2) To investigate the relationship between age 2 PSE and children's behavior problems at age 4, controlling for initial problem behavior; 3) To test whether maternal depression at age 3 mediates the relationship between PSE and child problem behavior. The study aims to advance understanding of PSE longitudinally and potential mechanisms underlying its association with child outcomes.
This study examines parenting self-efficacy (PSE) in a sample of 652 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse mothers and children at high risk for early conduct problems. The study has three goals: 1) To examine how PSE changes developmentally from ages 2 to 4; 2) To investigate the relationship between age 2 PSE and children's behavior problems at age 4, controlling for initial problem behavior; 3) To test whether maternal depression at age 3 mediates the relationship between PSE and child problem behavior. The study aims to advance understanding of PSE longitudinally and potential mechanisms underlying its association with child outcomes.
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This study examines parenting self-efficacy (PSE) in a sample of 652 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse mothers and children at high risk for early conduct problems. The study has three goals: 1) To examine how PSE changes developmentally from ages 2 to 4; 2) To investigate the relationship between age 2 PSE and children's behavior problems at age 4, controlling for initial problem behavior; 3) To test whether maternal depression at age 3 mediates the relationship between PSE and child problem behavior. The study aims to advance understanding of PSE longitudinally and potential mechanisms underlying its association with child outcomes.
Droits d'auteur :
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Téléchargez comme PDF, TXT ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development 1
Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
PARENTINGSELF-EFFICACY Terelationshipbetweenparentingandchildrens healthy development has been well-documented (Dishion&McMahon,1998;Gardner,Ward,Bur- ton,&Wilson,2003),andthisassociationhasbeen foundtobeparticularlyevidentduringearlychild- hoodwhenparentsplayamoreprominentrolein childrenssocializationprocessrelativetoolderages (Campbell,Shaw,&Gilliom,2000;Gardner,1987; Shaw & Bell, 1993). Also during early childhood, parentingself-efcacy(PSE),orperceivedcompe- tenceintheparentingrole,hasbeenpositivelylinked withobservedparentingcompetence(e.g.,warmth, sensitivity,engagement).Infact,PSEhasbeenfound tomediateassociationsbetweenparentingandchil- drensdevelopmentaloutcomes(Coleman&Karraker, 2003).InlightofthispromisingresearchonPSE,it issomewhatsurprisingtofndadearthofliterature onthedevelopmentalcourseorstabilityofPSEor longitudinaldatalinkingitsdevelopmentwithchil- drenssocioemotionaloutcomes.Inaddition,most Parenting Self-Efcacy and Problem Behavior in Children at High Risk for Early Conduct Problems: Te Mediating Role of Maternal Depression ChElSEA M. WEAVER, DANIEl S. ShAW, ThoMAS J. DIShIoN, MElVIN N. WIlSoN AbstrAct Parenting self-efcacy (PSE) has been positively linked to childrens adjustment and negatively as- sociated with maternal depression. however, most PSE research has been cross-sectional, limited to predominantly white, middle-class samples, and has not examined potential mechanisms underlying associations of PSE with childrens behavior. The present study investigates (1) how PSE changes over time, (2) the relationship between age 2 PSE and childrens behavior problems two years later, (3) and the potential mediating role of maternal depression in relation to the association between PSE and child problem behavior. Participants are 652 ethnically and geographically diverse mothers and their children, at high risk for conduct problems. PSE increased between ages 2 and 4 and higher initial lev- els predicted lower maternal- and alternate caregiver-reported age 4 conduct problems after control- ling for initial problem behavior. Maternal depression at age 3 mediated these relationships. Implica- tions for parenting interventions, focusing on PSE and maternal psychopathology, are discussed. Key words: Parenting Self-Efcacy, Child Problem Behavior, Early Childhood, Maternal Depression researchonPSEhasbeenconductedwithpredomi- nantlyEuropean-American,middle-classfamilies (seeRaver&Leadbeater,1999,andZayas,Jankowski, &McKee,2005fornotableexceptions).Evenfewer studieshaveexaminedpotentialmediatingfactors thatmightaccountforassociationsbetweenPSEand childproblembehavior.WhilePSEhasbeenfound tomediateassociationsbetweenparentingandchild outcomes,itispossiblethatunderlyingintrapersonal characteristicssuchasparentalwellbeingmightcon- tributetoPSEanditsassociationwithchildoutcomes. Tecurrentstudysoughttoadvanceourknowledge onPSEbyexaminingitsdevelopmentalcoursefrom thetoddlertopreschoolperiod,byexploringitslon- gitudinalrelationwithemergingchildrensconduct problems,andtestingwhetherassociationsbetween PSEandchildrensconductproblemswerepotentially mediatedbymaternaldepressivesymptoms.Testudy wascarriedoutwithalargesampleof652children athighriskfordevelopingearlyconductproblems 2 MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. WEAVER,SHAW,DISHION,WILSON basedonthepresenceofsocioeconomic,family,and childriskfactors. Parenting self-Efficacy and General self-Efficacy theory PSEhasbeendefnedasthedegreetowhichparents expecttocompetentlyandefectivelyperformtheir rolesasparents(Teti&Gelfand,1991),anditisrooted ingeneralself-efcacytheory.Guidedbysociallearn- ingtheory,generalself-efcacyreferstothebeliefin onesabilitytoperformbehaviorssuccessfully(Ban- dura,1977).Overall,self-efcacyincludesthemoti- vation,cognitiveresources,andcoursesofaction necessarytoimplementcontroloveraspecifctask orevent(Ozer&Bandura,1990).Self-efcacyrefects perceivedself-competenceasopposedtoexpectations oftasksuccessorfailure(Bandura,1977).Inother words,anindividualwithhighself-efcacymayantic- ipatetaskfailureinasituationthatwouldrealistically requireadvancedexpertiseinaspecifcdomain. Ingeneral,peoplewhohavehighself-efcacyhave beenfoundtotrusttheircompetenceinthefaceof environmental demands, conceptualize difficult situationsaschallenges,havelessnegativeemotional arousalinthefaceofstress,andexhibitpersever- ancewhenchallenged(Jerusalem&Mittag,1995). Incontrast,peoplewithlowerself-efcacytendto doubtthemselvesandexperiencehighlevelsanxiety whenfacedwithadversity,assumemoreresponsi- bilityfortaskfailurethansuccess,interpretchal- lengesasthreats,avoiddifculttasks,andcopedys- functionally.Inlightofthesecognitive,emotional, andbehavioralmanifestations,itiscriticaltostudy self-efcacywithinthedomainofparenting.Specif- cally,itisimportanttounderstandhowPSEunfolds overtime,particularlyduringearlychildhoodwhen childrenarequicklygainingincreasedmobilityand independenceinthecontextoflimitedcognitiveabili- ties,therebypresentinguniquechallengestoparents toprotecttoddlerssafetyandthesafetyofvaluables, pets,andotherfamilymembers,particularlyyounger siblings(Shaw&Bell,1993). the Developmental course of Parenting self-Efcacy DespitethetheoreticalsignifcanceofPSE,weknow relativelylittleaboutitsdevelopmentalcourseduring earlychildhood,aperiodoftimethathasbeenfound tobecriticalforparentingandchildrenssubsequent adjustment(Shaw,Bell,&Gilliom,2000).During toddlerhood,childrenrapidlyacquirearepertoireof cognitive,social,andmotorskills,challengingpar- entstotailortheirparentingtechniquestochildrens changingneeds.Inturn,childrenduringthiskey developmentalperiodareespeciallydependentonthe infuenceoftheircaretakersintermsoftheirsocial andemotionaladjustment.Becauseoftheuniquecir- cumstancespresentedduringthisperiodofdevelop- mentnotonlyforchildren,butalsoforthegrowthof parents,itiscriticaltounderstandhowPSEunfolds specifcallyduringearlychildhood.Onestudyfol- lowedchangesinPSEamonglow-incomeminority mothersfromthethirdtrimesterofpregnancyto threemonthspost-partum(Zayasetal.,2005).Te authorsfoundthatPSEsignifcantlyincreasedduring thetransitiontomotherhood.Inoneofthefewother longitudinalstudiesusinganethnicallydiverse,mid- dle-classsample,Gross,Conrad,Fogg,andWothke (1994)examinedchangesinPSEamongtwocohorts ofchildrenfromages1to2and2to3,respectively, withmeasurementsofPSEthreetimeseachyear.PSE wasfoundtoincreasebetweenages1and2inCohort 1,butremainstablefromages2to3inCohort2. Inlightofthesestudies,thereissomeevidencethat PSEinitiallyincreasesinthefrstcoupleofyearsof childrenslivesandthenshowsmoderatestability; however,longitudinalmodelingofgrowthparameters acrossatleastthreemeasurementwavesisneededto elucidatethedevelopmentaltrajectoryofPSE. Parenting self-Efcacy and childrens socioemotional Adjustment Asearly-onsetbehaviorproblemsbeginningasearly asthetoddlerperiodhavebeenlinkedtothedevel- opmentofmoresevereconductproblemsinmiddle childhoodandadolescence,suchasdelinquencyand substanceuse(Campbelletal.,2000;Shaw&Gross, inpress),itiscriticaltoidentifyfactorsinearlychild- hoodthatcontributetoorprotectchildrenfromthe maintenanceofproblembehavior.BasedonPSEs theoreticalandempiricallinkstoseveraldimensions ofparentingbehavior(Bor&Sanders,2004;Coleman, Trent,Bryan,King,Rogers,&Nazir,2002),itislogi- caltoconsideritsassociationswithproblembehavior duringearlychildhood.Infact,PSEhasbeenlinkedto childrensdevelopmentintermsofbehavioraladjust- ment(Bor&Sanders,2004).Forexample,asearly as5months,PSEwasfoundtobepositivelyrelated toconcurrentratingsofinfantsoothability(Leerkes & Crockenberg, 2002). At age 2, Raver and Lead- beater(1999)foundthatPSEwasinverselyrelatedto childrensconcurrentdifculttemperamentamong asampleofurbanimpoverishedfamilies.Further- more,childrensobservedcompliance,negativity,and avoidanceofmotheratage2wasfoundtobeassoci- atedwithconcurrentratingsofPSEamongpredomi- nantlymiddle-class,mother-toddlerdyads(Coleman &Karraker,2003).Amongademographicallysimilar sampleofmotherswithschool-agedchildren,higher PSEwasconcurrentlyassociatedwithlessemotionally reactiveandmoresociablebehavior(Coleman&Kar- MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development 3 Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. PARENTINGSELF-EFFICACY raker,2000).Intermsofproblembehavior,lowerlev- elsofPSEamongmothersofpreschool-agedchildren athighriskfordevelopingconductproblemswere foundtobeassociatedwithhigherlevelsofconcur- rentchildrensdisruptivebehaviors(Bor&Sanders, 2004).Furthermore,mothersofclinically-referred,2- to8-year-oldchildrenwithconductproblemsreport- edlowerlevelsofPSEthanacomparativecommunity sample(Sanders&Woolley,2005). Despitetheexistenceofseveralstudiesexamining relationsbetweenPSEanddiferentdimensionsof childfunctioning,mostworkinthisareahasbeen cross-sectional.Furthermore,withnotableexceptions (Raver&Leadbeater,1999;Zayasetal.,2005),most work on PSE has been conducted using predomi- nantlywhite,middle-classsamples(e.g.,Colemanet al.,2002;Leerkes&Crockenberg,2002;Teti&Gel- fand,1991).Tus,moreresearchthatincorporates culturallyandsocioeconomicallydiversesamplesis neededtoextendpreviousfndingstounder-repre- sentedgroups. Parenting self-Efcacy and childrens conduct Problems and the Mediating role of Maternal Depression Inadditiontoneedingmorestudiesthattracethe developmentcourseofPSEovertimeandlinkPSE tospecifcchildoutcomesusingsamplesofchildren atriskforhighratesofclinically-meaningfulpsycho- pathology,fewresearchershaveattemptedtoexam- inepotentialmediatorsofassociationsbetweenPSE andchildadjustment.Tedevelopmentofgeneral self-efcacyisthoughttoresultfromfourdomains ofexperiences,includingindividualhistoriesoftask successesversusfailures,vicariouslylearningthrough thesuccessesandfailuresofothers,verbalpersua- sionfromothers,andaversivephysiologicalarousal, suchasstressresponses(Bandura,1989).WhilePSE hasbeentheoreticallylinkedtoanumberofearlylife experiences(e.g.,historyofchildhoodmaltreatment, maternalstress),maternaldepressionrepresentsone importantintrapersonalflterthroughwhichthedet- rimentalefectsofmaternalPSEonchildrensfunc- tioningmaybetransmitted.Specifcally,hallmarksof depressionsuchasfeelingsofhelplessnessandworth- lessnessmayunderlieanddrivefeelingsoflowmater- nalPSEandleadtothedevelopmentofchildrens problembehavior.Tus,associationsbetweenlowPSE andchildrensconductproblemsmaybeaccounted forbythenegativecognitionsandafectassociated with depression. As both clinical depression and subclinicalelevateddepressivesymptomatologyhave bothbeenassociatedwithchildrensmaladjustment (Cummings,Keller,&Davies,2005;Farmer,McGuf- fn,&Williams,2002),thetermsmaternaldepressive symptomsanddepressionareusedthroughoutthis papertodescribeelevatedsymptomsthatweremea- suredonacontinuousscale. Tobuildalogicalcaseforconsideringmaternal depressionasamediatorbetweenPSEandchildcon- ductproblems,itisimportanttoestablishitsrelation- shipwithbothPSEandchildfunctioning.Infact, maternaldepressionhasbeenfoundtobeassociated withbothlowPSE(Bor&Sanders,2004;Haslam,Pak- enham,&Smith,2006;Teti&Gelfand,1991;Zayaset al.,2005)andchildrensproblembehavior,including conductproblems(Owens&Shaw,2003;Shawetal., 1994).Forexample,BorandSanders(2004)foundthat maternaldepressivesymptomswerenegativelyrelated toconcurrentPSE.However,asmostresearchonthe relationshipbetweenmaternaldepressionandPSE hasbeencross-sectional,itisdifculttodetermine theprecisedirectionofefects.Overall,studiesexam- iningassociationsbetweenmaternaldepressionand diferentfacetsofchildadjustmenthavebeenmore prevalent,includinglongitudinalstudiesexamining associationswithchildconductproblemscarriedout inearlychildhood.Whilenotuniformlyconsistent andsometimessuferingfrominformantresponse bias(Fergusson,Lynskey,&Horwood,1993)byrely- ingononeinformantforreportsofbothmaternal depressionandchildproblembehavior,thepattern ofoverallresultssuggestalongitudinalassociation betweenmaternaldepressioninearlychildhoodand bothpreschoolandlaterschool-ageconductproblems (Shawetal.,2000). IntermsofestablishingthelinkbetweenPSEand maternaldepression,researchongeneralself-efcacy andnegativelifeeventsconsideredtobedependent onmaternalbehavior(e.g.,divorce,changeinresi- dence,lossofjob)suggestthatlowerself-efcacyis more prevalent among mothers with histories of depression(Maciejewski,Prigerson,&Mazure,2000). Tesefndingssuggestthatmaternaldepressioncould playanimportantroleinafectingthecourseofPSE, andultimatelyaffectingtheimpactoflowPSEon childrensproblembehavior.Giventheestablished linkbetweenmaternaldepressionandchildproblem behavior,particularlyconductproblems(Owens& Shaw,2003;Shawetal.,1994),wesoughttotestthe possibilitythatmaternaldepressionmayserveasan underlyingmechanismlinkingPSEtochildrenscon- ductproblems. Present study Thecurrentstudyhadthreeprimarygoals.First, wesoughttocharacterizethetrajectoryofPSEover threetimepointsduringearlychildhoodamonga largesampleoffamiliesfacinghighlevelsofsocio- economic,family,andchildrisk.Second,associations betweenPSEandlaterchildconductproblemswere 4 MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. WEAVER,SHAW,DISHION,WILSON explored,controllingforage2childproblembehavior andusingmultiplereportersofchildproblembehav- iortwoyearsaferinitialassessmentofPSE.Athird goalwastoexploretheroleofmaternaldepressive symptomsasapotentialmediatoroftherelationship betweenPSEandsubsequentchildconductproblems. Incomparisontothevastmajorityofpriorresearch onPSE,thecurrentstudy,theEarlyStepsMultisite Project,includedalongitudinaldesign,theuseofa large,ethnicallydiversesampleofchildrenathigh riskforclinically-meaningproblembehavior,andthe explorationofapotentialmechanismunderlyingthe relationshipbetweenPSEandchildconductproblems: maternaldepression. Intermsofhypotheses,basedonthelimitedlongi- tudinalresearchonPSE(Grossetal.,1994;Zayaset al.,2005)andmothersincreasingexperienceinthe parentingrole,weexpectedtoseeincreasesinPSE overtime.Second,basedonpriorresearch(Bor& Sanders,2004,Sanders&Woolley,2005),weexpected PSEtobenegativelyassociatedwithchildrenslater conductproblemsevenaferaccountingforinitial conductproblemsusingbothmaternalandalternate caregiver(AC)reports(testedasseparatestructural models).Finally,basedonpriorcross-sectionalstud- ieslinkingPSEtomaternaldepression(Haslametal., 2006;Zayasetal.,2005)andmaternaldepressionto laterchildconductproblems(Owens&Shaw,2003), maternaldepressivesymptomsatage3wereexpected tomediateassociationsbetweenPSEatage2andboth maternalandACreportsofchildconductproblems atage4. Method Participants Participantswereasampleof652mother-childdyads drawnfromalargerpreventiveinterventionstudy(N =731)recruitedbetween2002and2003fromWIC ProgramsinthemetropolitanareasofPittsburgh, PA,andEugene,Oregon,andwithinandoutsidethe townofCharlottesville,VA(Shaw,Wilson,Gardner, &Dishion,2007).FamilieswereapproachedatWIC sitesandinvitedtoparticipateiftheyhada2-year- oldchild,followingascreentoensurethattheymet thestudycriteriabyhavingsocioeconomic,family, and/orchildriskfactorsforfuturebehaviorproblems. Riskcriteriaforrecruitmentweredefnedatorabove one standard deviation above normative averages withinthefollowingthreedomains:(a)childbehavior (conductproblems,high-confictrelationshipswith adults),(b)familyproblems(maternaldepression, dailyparentingchallenges,substanceuseproblems, teenparentstatus),and(c)socio-demographicrisk (loweducationachievementandlowfamilyincome usingWICcriterion).Twoormoreofthethreerisk factorswererequiredforinclusioninthesample. Ofthe731families(49%female),272(37%)were recruited in Pittsburgh, 271 (37%) in Eugene site, and188(26%)inCharlottesville.Moreparticipants were recruited in Pittsburgh and Eugene because ofthelargerpopulationofeligiblefamiliesinthese regionsrelativetoCharlottesville.Acrosssites,the childrenwerereportedtobelongtothefollowing racialgroups:27.9%AfricanAmerican(AA),50.1% EuropeanAmerican(EA),13.0%biracial,and8.9% otherraces(e.g.AmericanIndian,NativeHawaiian). Intermsofethnicity,13.4%ofthesamplereported beingHispanicAmerican(HA).Duringtheperiodof screeningfrom2002to2003,morethantwo-thirdsof thosefamiliesenrolledintheprojecthadanannual incomeoflessthan$20,000,andtheaveragenumber offamilymembersperhouseholdwas4.5(SD=1.63). Forty-onepercentofthesamplehadahighschool diplomaorGEDequivalency,andanadditional32% hadonetotwoyearsofposthighschooltraining.Te childreninthesamplehadameanageof29.9months (SD=3.2)atthetimeoftheage2assessment. Retention.Ofthe731familieswhoinitiallypar- ticipated,659(89.9%)wereavailableattheone-year follow-upand619(84.7%)participatedatthetwo-year follow-upwhenchildrenwere4yearsold.Atages3 and4,selectiveattritionanalysesrevealednosignif- cantdiferencesinprojectsite,childrensrace,eth- nicity,orgender,initiallevelsofmaternaldepression orchildrensexternalizingbehaviors(parentandAC reports).Furthermore,nodiferenceswerefoundin thenumberofparticipantswhowerenotretainedin thecontrolversustheinterventiongroupsatbothages 3(n=40andn=32,respectively)and4(n=58and n=53,respectively). Forthepresentstudy,participantswhocomplet- edonlyoneassessmentwave(n=52)andprimary caregiverswhowerenotthebiologicalmotheratall timepoints(n=27)wereomittedfromallanalyses, yieldingatotalsamplesizeof652forthecurrent study.Omittedparticipants(n=79)didnotdifer fromtheremainderofthesamplebasedonrace,site, treatmentgroupstatus,maternallevelofeducation, orage2levelsofmaternaldepressionorchildrens problembehaviorasindicatedbytheEybergIntensity andProblemScales(bothmaternalandACreports) andtheACreportoftheChildBehaviorChecklist Externalizingsubscale.However,theomittedpartici- pantsdidhavesignifcantlyhighermaternal-report- edExternalizingsubscalescoresascomparedtothe retainedchildren,t(728)=2.16,p=0.03. ForanalysesusingACreportsofchildrensproblem behaviors,participantswereincludediftheyhada participatingACforboththeages2and4assessment MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development 5 Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. PARENTINGSELF-EFFICACY waves,yieldingasamplesizeof267.Forthecurrent studyatage2,51%ofACswerebiologicalfathers,19% weregrandmothers,7%werematernalparamours, andtheremainderrangedinrelationshipfromstep- fathertocousin.Atage4,44%ofACswerebiological fathers,19.5%weregrandmothers,7.5%werematernal paramours,and7.5%wereaunts,withtheremainder ranginginrelationshipstatus.Sixty-threepercentof ACswerethesamereporterfromage2toage4. Design and Procedure Mothersand,ifavailable,ACs,whoagreedtopartici- pateinthestudywerescheduledfora2.5-hourhome visitwhenchildrenwerebetween2yearsand2years 11monthsold.Eachassessmentinvolvedaseriesof interactivetasksandcaregiverscompletedseveral questionnaires,includingthoseaboutPSE,maternal well-being,andchildproblembehavior.Tehome visitprotocolwasrepeatedatages3and4. Familiesreceived$100forparticipatingintheage 2homevisit,$120attheage3assessment,and$140 attheage4assessment.Randomizationtotreatment wasbalancedongendertoassureanequalnumber ofmalesandfemalesinthecontrolandinterven- tionsub-sample.Toensureblindness,theexaminer openedasealedenvelope,revealingthefamilysgroup assignmentonlyafertheassessmentwascompleted, andsharedthisinformationwiththefamily.Exam- inerscarryingoutfollow-upassessmentswerenot informedofthefamilysassignedcondition.Fora detaileddescriptionoftheintervention,seeShaw etal.(2007).Forthepurposesofthecurrentstudy, treatmentgroupstatuswasusedasacovariateinall analyses. MaternalreportsofPSEfromages2,3,and4,were usedforthecurrentstudy.MaternalandACreports ofchildproblembehaviorwereusedfromtheages2 and4assessments,withmaternalreportsofdepres- sionbeingusedfromtheage3assessment. Maternal Measures Demographics questionnaire. Demographic data werecollectedfrommothersduringtheage2visit. This measure included questions about family structure,parentaleducationandincome,parental criminalhistory,andareasoffamilialstressand strengths. Parenting self-efcacy.Maternalself-efcacyspe- cifcallyrelatedtoparentingwasmeasuredusingthe 10-itemEfcacysubscaleoftheParentingSenseof CompetenceScale(Johnston&Mash,1989).Items were rated on a 6-point likert scale ranging from stronglyagreetostronglydisagree.Becauseofthe high-risknatureofoursample,itemswerereworded torefectan8thgradereadinglevel.Forexample,the originalitem,Teproblemsoftakingcareofachild areeasytosolveonceyouknowhowyouractions afectyourchild,anunderstandingIhaveacquired wasrewordedasInowrealizetheproblemsoftaking careofachildareeasytosolveonceyouknowhow youractionsafectyouchild.Alphareliabilityofthe itemswithineachtimepointinthecurrentsample rangedfrom0.69to0.72. Center for Epidemiological Studies on Depression scale (CES-D).TeCES-D(Radlof,1977)isawell- established and widely used 20-item measure of depressivesymptomatologythatwasadministeredto mothersattheage3homeassessment.Participants reportedhowfrequentlytheyhadexperiencedalist ofdepressivesymptomsduringthepastweekona scalerangingfrom0(lessthanaday)to3(5-7days). Itemsweresummedtocreateanoveralldepressive symptomsscore.Forthecurrentsample,theinternal consistencywas0.77. childrens Measures Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000).TeCBCLforAges1.5-5isa99- itemquestionnairethatassessesbehavioralproblems inyoungchildren.MotherscompletedtheCBCLat theages2and4visits.Tebroad-bandExternal- izingfactorwasusedtoevaluatethefrequencyof problembehaviorduringthestudyperiod.Internal consistenciesforExternalizingwere0.86and0.91 formaternalreportsatages2and4,respectively, andwere0.90and0.91forACreportsatages2and 4,respectively. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory. This 36-item behaviorchecklistalsowasadministeredattheages 2and4assessments(Robinson,Eyberg,&Ross,1980). TeEybergincludestwofactorsthatfocusontheper- ceivedintensityandwhetherornotthebehaviorisa problemforcaregivers.TeIntensityfactormeasures thecaregiver-reportofthestrengthoftheproblem behaviorusingaseven-pointscale.TeProblemfac- torconsistsofdichotomousratingsofwhetherornot eachbehaviorservesasaproblemforthecaregiver. TeInventoryhasbeenhighlycorrelatedwithinde- pendentobservationsofchildrensbehavior,difer- entiatedclinic-referredandnon-clinicpopulations (Robinsonetal.,1980),andshowedhightest-retest reliability(0.86)andinternalconsistency(0.98;Web- ster-Stratton,1985).Inthecurrentstudy,alphareli- abilitiesfortheProblemfactorwere.85and.92atages 2and4formaternalreports,respectively,and.91and .93atages2and4forACreports,respectively.Alpha reliabilitiesfortheIntensityfactorwere.86and.94at ages2and4formaternalreports,respectively,and.92 and.94atages2and4forACreports,respectively. 6 MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. WEAVER,SHAW,DISHION,WILSON results Descriptive statistics and Intercorrelations Meansandstandarddeviationsforstudyvariablesare presentedinTable1.ItshouldbenotedthatT-scores (M=50,SD=10)arepresentedforallmeasuresof childrensconductproblems.Onaverage,children werenearlyonestandarddeviationabovethenorma- tivemeanformaternalreportsofage2externalizing behaviorsasmeasuredbytheChildBehaviorCheck- list(M=59.23,SD=7.95),age2maternal-reported Eybergintensityofbehavior(M=58.94,SD=7.95), andmaternal-reportedEybergproblembehaviorscale atbothages2and4(M=59.07,SD=8.40andM= 59.72,SD=10.94,respectively).Intermsofmaternal depression,scoresof16andaboveontheCES-Dhave beenfoundtorefectclinically-meaningfuldepressive symptoms(Eaton&Kesslerm,1981;Myers&Weiss- man,1980).Specifcally,thiscut-ofscoreshoweda modestrelationshipwithclinicaldepressionincom- munitysamples(Wetzler&vanPraag,1989).Onaver- ageatage3,mothersinthesamplereportedelevated levelsofdepressivesymptomatology(M=15.59,SD= 11.02),withover60%scoringatorabove16. Intercorrelationsofstudyvariablesarepresentedin Table2.Withtheexceptionofthenon-signifcantcor- relationbetweenage2PSEandAC-reportedEyberg problemscoreatage4andthetrendbetweenage2 PSEandAC-reportedexternalizingproblems(r=- .10,p=0.10),allvariablesweresignifcantlycorrelated intheexpecteddirections.Specifcally,(1)PSEscores werepositivelyassociatedacrosstime,(2)PSEscores werenegativelycorrelatedwithchildrensproblem behaviorsatages2and4andmaternaldepression atage3,and(3)age3maternaldepressionwasposi- tivelyassociatedwithallfactorsofchildrensproblem behaviorsatages2and4. Data Analysis Approach Latentgrowthcurvemodeling(LGCM)wasusedto modelinitiallevelsof,andchangesin,PSEovertime. LGCMcapturesindividualdiferencesindevelopment longitudinallybyusingstructuralequationmodeling toestimatethemeanintercept(startingpoint)and slope(rateofchange)ofindividualsbasedontheir observedscoresonmultipleindicatorsofaspecifc constructofinterest.Giventhescoresontheobserved variables,maximumlikelihoodestimatesareusedto fndthemostlikelyvaluesoftheunobservedlatent growthparameters.Temeanlatentinterceptand slopearethenusedtodescribetheshapeoftheaver- agegrowthcurve(McArdle&Bell,2000). LGCMscanbeusedtomakepredictionsaboutthe meansandcovariancesofthedata,yieldingftindi- cesincludingChi-squaregoodnessofftsignifcance test,theComparativeFitIndex(CFI;Bentler,1990), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973), RootMeanSquareErrorofApproximation(RMSEA; Browne&Cudeck,1993),andtheStandardizedRoot MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development 7 Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. PARENTINGSELF-EFFICACY MeanSquareResidual(SRMR).CFIandTLIvalues greaterthan0.95andRMSEAandSRMRvaluesless than0.05indicategoodmodelft.Anonsignifcant Chi-squarevalueindicatesthattheproposedcovari- ancematrixdoesnotdiferfromtheobservedcovari- ancematrix,suggestingadequatemodelft.Because theChi-squaretestissensitivetosamplesize(Wida- man&Tompson,2003),theratioofChi-square/df providesabetterftindexwithlargersamplesizes (Bollen,1989),withvalueslessthan2.5indicating adequatemodelft.Forallanalyses,missingdatawere handled using full information maximumlikelihoodestimation inMplusVersion4.0(Muthn,& Muthn,1998). Tests of mediation were con- ductedusingthebootstrapsam- plingmethodtotestthesignifi- canceoftheindirectpath(Shrout &Bolger,2002).Dataarerandomly drawnwithreplacementfromthe observeddatasettocreateanew datasetofthesamesize.Tispro- cedureisrepeatedaspecifednum- beroftimes(1000forthecurrent study),andtheindirecteffectis estimatedfromeachofthedatas- ets,yieldingaconfdenceinterval. An advantage of the bootstrap methodisthatitdoesnotassume a normally distributed param- eterestimate,whichisimportant given that distributions of indi- rect effect estimates repeatedly havebeenfoundtobepositively skewed(Mackinnon,Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002; Shrout&Bolger,2002).Assuch, when assuming normality, the resulting confidence intervals produceasymmetricerrorrates, therebydecreasingthepowernec- essarytodetecttheindirectefect (MacKinnonetal.,2002).Because bootstrapmethodologydoesnot assumeanormaldistribution,it isamorepowerfultestthantra- ditional multi-step approaches, andisrecommendedforsmallto moderatesamplesizes(Shrout& Bolger,2002). Unconditional Latent Growth curve Model of PsE Goal 1: Change in PSE over chil- drens ages 2, 3, and 4.First,inorder tomodelchangeinPSEovertime,anunconditional (i.e.,nocovariateswereincludedinthemodel)LGCM wasftusingMplusVersion4.0(Muthn,&Muthn, 1998).Allftindicesindicatedthatthemodelwasa goodfttothedata,2(2)=4.93,p>.05;CFI=0.99; TLI=0.99,RMSEA=0.04;SRMR=0.03.Parameter estimatesoftheunconditionalLGCMsuggestedthat averageinitiallevelsofPSEweresignifcantlydiferent fromzero(b=30.40,SE=0.17,p<.01);however,this isnotparticularlymeaningfulgiventherewasnozero Figure 1.Latentgrowthcurvemodelofparentingself-efcacy(PSE)fromages2 to4,maternaldepressionatage3,andmaternal-reportedchildrensproblembe- haviorsatage4(showingunstandardizedpathcoefcients;mediationalmodelin boldforemphasis). Figure 2.Latentgrowthcurvemodelofparentingself-efcacy(PSE)fromages2to 4,maternaldepressionatage3,andalternatecaregiver-reportedchildrensprob- lem behaviors at age 4 (showing unstandardized path coefcients; mediational modelinboldforemphasis). 8 MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. WEAVER,SHAW,DISHION,WILSON pointonthePSEscalethatwasadministered.More importantly,therewassignifcantindividualvariabil- ityaroundtheintercept(b=13.08,SE=0.95,p<.01), meaningthatindividualssignifcantlydeviatedfrom averagelevelsofPSEatage2.Intermsofgrowth, PSEsignifcantlyincreasedbetweenages2and4(b =0.40,SE=0.08,p<.01).Terewasnotsignifcant individualvariationaroundtheaverageslope.Asa result,predictorsandoutcomeswereonlyextendedto theinterceptparameterforallconditionalLGCMs. conditional Latent Growth curve Models of PsE Goals 2 and 3: Relationships between PSE, childrens problem behaviors, and maternal depression.Separate conditionallatentgrowthcurvemodelswereftfor maternalversusACreportsofchildrensproblem behavior.Parameterestimatesofbothmodelsarepre- sentedinFigures1(usingmaternalreportsofproblem behavior)and2(usingACreportsofproblembehav- ior).Inbothmodels,errortermswereallowedtocor- relatebetweeneachmanifestindicatorofchildrens behaviorproblemsanditscounterpartacrossages 2and4toaccountforsharedmethodvariance.For example,theage2externalizingerrortermwascorre- latedwiththeage4externalizingerrorterm.Further- more,errorvariancesbetweentheEybergintensity scoreandtheEybergproblemscorewereallowedto correlatewithintimepointatage2andatage4to accountforsharedmethodvariance.Forparsimony, errorvarianceswerenotrepresentedinthemodels. IntermsoftheLGCMusingmaternalreportsof childrensbehaviorproblems,allftindicessuggested thatthemodelwasagoodft,2(54)=109.19,p=.00; 2/df=2.02,CFI=0.98;TLI=0.97,RMSEA=0.04; SRMR=0.04.AsshowninFigure2,lowerlevelsof PSEatage2(i.e.intercept)predictedhigherlevelsof maternal-reportedchildrensproblembehavioratage 4(b=-0.35,SE=0.10,p<.01)afercontrollingforthe signifcantefectsofage2levelsofproblembehavior onbothinitiallevelsofPSE(b=-0.25,SE=0.04,p< .01)andage4problembehavior(b=0.70,SE=0.09, p<.01),aswellasmaternaleducationalattainment onPSE(b=-0.47,SE=0.14,p<.01)andsignifcant treatmentefectsonbothmaternaldepression(b= -1.71,SE=0.81,p<.05)andchildrensbehaviorprob- lems(b=-1.77,SE=0.55,p<.01).Sitediferences werealsocovariedinthemodel;however,efectswere non-signifcant. Signifcantrelationshipsbetweeninitiallevelsof PSEandmaternaldepressionatage3andbetween age-3depressionandchildrensbehaviorproblemsat age4wereintheexpecteddirection(b=-.89,SE= 0.14,p<.01andb=0.09,SE=0.03,p<.01,respec- tively).Intermsofthemediatingefectofmaternal depressionatage3,theconfidenceintervalofthe indirectefectbasedon1000bootstrapsamplesdid notincludezero(95%CI:-0.13to-0.02),suggest- ingsignifcantmediationofmaternaldepressionon therelationshipbetweenPSEatage2andmaternal- reportedchildrensproblembehavioratage4.Next, becausethebootstrappingtechniqueisrecommended whenfttingmodelswithmoderatesamplesizesand theSobeltestrequiresmorepowertodetectefects (Mackinnonetal.,2002),mediationalsowastested usingthemorerigorous,largesample,Sobelmethod (Sobel,1982).ResultsusingtheSobeltestwerealso signifcant(z=-2.69,p<.01),furthersupportingthe mediatingroleofmaternaldepression. BecauseofthepotentialreporterbiasintheLGCM usingonlymaternalreports,theidenticalmodelwas fit using AC reports of childrens problem behav- ioratages2and4.Allftindicessuggestedthatthe modelwasaverygoodfttotheobserveddata,2 (54)=87.53,p=.00;2/df=1.62,CFI=0.97;TLI= 0.96,RMSEA=0.04;SRMR=0.04.Resultsshowed similarpatternsofefectswithasignifcantnegative relationshipbetweenPSEatage2andchildrensprob- lembehaviorsatage4(b=-0.34,SE=0.15,p<.01). Again,signifcantrelationshipsbetweeninitiallevels ofPSEandmaternaldepressionatage3andbetween age-3maternaldepressionandchildrensbehavior problemsatage4wereintheexpecteddirection(b =-.96,SE=0.25,p<.01andb=0.09,SE=0.04,p <.05,respectively).Ascomparedtothemodelwith onlymaternalreports,themodelwithAC-reported childrensproblembehaviorshowednonsignifcant pathwaysbetweenmaternallevelofeducationandini- tialPSEandbetweenage2problembehaviorandage 3maternaldepression.Terewerealsononsignifcant treatmentefectsonmaternaldepressionandage4 problembehavior. Withrespecttomediation,theconfdenceinter- valoftheindirectefectofdepressionbasedon1000 bootstrapsamplesdidnotincludezero(95%CI:-0.17 to-0.01),providingfurtherconfrmationofthemedi- atingroleofmaternaldepression.Resultsusingthe Sobeltestoftheindirectefectwerealsosignifcant fortheAC-reportmodel(z=-2.13,p<.01). Discussion Three primary goals were pursued in the current study:(1)toexaminethestabilityanddevelopmental courseofPSEovertime,(2)toexaminelongitudinal associationsbetweenPSEandchildrensbehavior problems,(3)andtotestthemediatingroleofmater- naldepressioninreferencetoassociationsbetween PSEandchildrenslaterbehaviorproblems.Interms ofthefrstgoal,consistentwithourexpectationsand thelimitedavailableextantliterature(Grossetal., 1994;Zayasetal.,2005)aswellaslogicalexpectations MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development 9 Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. PARENTINGSELF-EFFICACY frommothersgainingmoreexperienceintheparental role,wefoundthatPSEsignifcantlyincreasedfrom thetoddlertopreschoolperiod.Furthermore,individ- ualmotherslevelsofPSEdidnotsignifcantlydevi- atefromtheaveragetrajectoryoftheentiresample, suggestingthatmothersvariedlittleintheirrateof changefromages2to4.Intermsofthesecondgoal, aspredicted,lowerlevelsofPSEatage2(i.e.,intercept parameter)predictedhigherratesofchildrensprob- lembehavioratage4evenafercontrollingforini- tiallevelsofconductproblems.Tisrelationshipwas foundusingbothmaternalandACreportsofproblem behavior.Importantly,ACreportsofchildconduct problemsprovidedcorroboratingevidenceofmater- nalreportsofassociationsbetweenPSEandlaterchild adjustment,acommonlimitationofpriorresearch inthisarea.Last,usingbootstrapmethodology,we foundthatmaternaldepressionatage3mediatedthe relationshipbetweenage2PSEandage4childrens problembehaviorasreportedbybothmothersand ACs.Tisresult,alsocorroboratedbytwoinformants, isconsistentwiththenotionthatmaternaldepression representsonefactorthatmayunderlielowPSEand accountforassociationsbetweenPSEandchildcon- ductproblems.Itisalsoworthnotingthatmediation efectswerecorroboratedusingtheSobeltest,which requiresmorepowertodetectasignifcantefect. These findings extend the current literature by assessing the course and stability of PSE at three timepointsoverthecourseoftwoyears.Asprevi- ouslydiscussed,moststudiesexaminingPSEhavenot beenlongitudinalindesignorwerelimitedbytheuse oftwotimepoints(e.g.,Zayasetal.,2005).Byusing threeassessmenttimepoints,wewereabletomodel latent growth parameters to describe the average growthcurveofthesample,whichbothcorroborated andextendedpreviousfndingsregardingincreasesin PSEduringearlychildhood(Grossetal.,1994;Zayas etal.,2002).Moreover,thecurrentsamplewasethni- callydiverseandlow-income,furtherextendingthe extantresearchonPSE,whichhastypicallyfocused onmajority,middleclasssamples(e.g.,Colemanetal., 2002;Leerkes&Crockenberg,2002;Teti&Gelfand, 1991). InadditiontomodelingPSEovertime,thecur- rentstudyaddstotheliteraturebydemonstrating thatage2levelsofPSEpredictedalatentconstruct ofage-4childrensproblembehavior,usingfactors fromtwopreviouslyvalidatedinstruments(i.e.,CBCL andEybergInventory).Importantly,theseassocia- tionsremainedevidentevenafercontrollingforage 2levelsofchildconductproblems.Veryfewstudies havelinkedPSEtochildrensbehavioraladjustment (seeBor&Sanders,2004;Sanders&Wooley,2004for notableexceptions),muchlessoveratwo-yearperiod andcontrollingforchildrensbehavioraladjustment. Inadditiontocontrollingforinitiallevelsofproblem behavior,theefectofage2levelsofproblembehavior oninitiallevelsofPSEwerealsocovaried.Tis,in essence,controlledforchildefectsintheestimation ofage2PSE,whichisimportantgiventhesample consistedofchildrenalreadyshowingelevatedrates ofbehavioralmaladjustmentuponrecruitment. Tecurrentstudyalsoextendedpreviousresearch examiningassociationsbetweenPSEandchildadjust- mentbyinvestigatingthepotentialmediatingfunc- tionofmaternaldepression.Teresultsareconsis- tentwiththehypothesisthatnegativecognitionsthat characterizedepressionlikelyprovidetheframework throughwhichlowPSE,orfeelingsofincompetence intheparentingrole,directlyafectsthesocioemo- tionaladjustmentofchildren.Inotherwords,depres- sivecharacteristicssuchaswithdrawal,sadafect,and worthlessnesslikelyprovideavehiclethroughwhich PSEelicitschildrensdisruptivebehavior. Intermsofatheoreticalexplanationaccounting forthemediatingroleofmaternaldepression,learned helplessness(Abramson,Seligman,&Teasdale,1978) representsonepotentialintrapersonalmechanism. Tetheoryoflearnedhelplessnesspositsthatwhen confrontedwithanegativeevent,individualswho attributepooroutcomestointernal,stable,and/or global factors are more likely to have depressive responsesthanthosewhoattributenegativeoutcomes toexternal,unstable,orspecifcfactors.Intermsof PSEinthecontextofdepression,foramotherhighon learnedhelplessness,lowPSEmaybeduetoattribu- tionsthatherchildsbehaviorisuncontrollable.As aresult,childrensnegativebehaviorswouldlikely worsen,withmaternalfeelingsofincompetencerein- forced.Moreover,lowerPSEmaypersistasdepressed mothersbecomefocusedonthechallengesofsynchro- nizingparentingtechniqueswithchildrenschang- ingdevelopmentalneeds,especiallyamongchildren showingearlymarkersofbehavioralmaladjustment. Asaresult,childrensconductproblemsmaygener- ateaviciousintrapersonalcycle,learnedhelplessness fuelinglowPSE,whichinturnreinforcesfeelingsof learnedhelplessness. Tefndingsofthecurrentstudyhaveimplications forpreventionprogramstargetingchildrensconduct problems.Specifcally,giventheassociationsfound betweenPSEandbothmaternalandACreportsof laterchildconductproblems,thefindingssuggest thatpreventionprogramsbeaimedatincreasingPSE amongmothersduringearlytoddlerhood.Although thecurrentresultsarelimitedbythestudyscorrela- tionaldesign,limitinginferencesaboutcausality,they dosuggestthatassociationsbetweenPSEandchild conductproblemsareevidentfortoddlersathigh 10 MANUSCRIPT UNDER REVIEW: Infant Behavior and Development Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. WEAVER,SHAW,DISHION,WILSON riskforshowingearly-startingconductproblems. TargetingPSEinfuturepreventiontrialswouldthus bealogicalnextsteptotestwhetherincreasingPSE wouldresultinimprovementsinchildbehavior.Tat maternaldepressionmediatedassociationsbetween PSEandchildconductproblemssuggestsmaternal depressionisanothertargetforimprovingbothPSE andchildbehavior.Itislikelythatimprovementsin motherscognitionsandattributionsmightleadto improvementsinPSE.Assuccessfulpsychological (e.g.,cognitive-behavioraltherapy)andpharmaco- therapeutic(SSRIs)methodsfortreatingdepression alreadyexist,intheshorttermitmightbeeasierto testtheseideasbytargetingmaternaldepression. Animportantlimitationofthecurrentstudythat warrantscarefulconsiderationismethodbias.Allof themainstudyvariableswerequestionnairereports, andinthemodelusingallmaternalreportsofchil- drens problem behavior, all of the variables were fromthesamereporter.ByusingtheACreportsof childrens behavioral maladjustment, we direct- ly addressed reporter bias; however, method bias remainsproblematic.Itshouldbenotedthattwoof thethreeconstructsofinterestinthecurrentstudy (i.e.,PSEanddepressivesymptomatology)areopti- mallymeasuredusingselfreportsastheyrepresent internalfeelingsandcognitions.Intermsofassessing childrensproblembehavior,futureresearchshould usemultiplemethodsofdatacollectionincluding directobservationsofchildrenengagedwithseveral salientcaretakers,andideally,acrossvariousenvi- ronmentalcontexts. FuturedirectionsinthestudyofPSEshouldalso examinelongitudinaltransactionalprocessesbetween bothPSEandchildrensproblembehavioraswellas PSEandmaternaldepression.First,aswehaveshown thatmotherscognitionsandbehaviorsimpacttheir children,itislikelythatchildrensbehaviorsimpact mothersdevelopmentaltrajectoriesofPSE.Forexam- ple,achildmayrespondwithrule-breakingbehavior toelicitaresponsefromamotherwhoiswithdrawn. 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Inattentionhyperactivity and Aggression From Early Childhood To Adolescence Heterogeneity of Trajectories and Differential Influence of Family Environment Characteristics