Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
. AI is a branch of computer science that helps in studying how to make computers do things at which at the moment people are better. Applications Game Playing, Mathematical theorem proving, Medical field. 2. List the differences between uninformed and informed search algorithms Uninformed Se arch No Information about the number of steps or path cost from the current state to goal state. Known as Blind Search and it is les effective in search method Example Breadth First Search, Depth First search. Bi directional Search, Uniform cost search Informed Search The path cost from the current state to goal state is calculated to select the minimum path cost as the next state Known as Heuristic search and it is more effective in search method Best First search, Greedy search, A* search
11. (a) Different types of Agent Programs An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators. Agent program implements mapping between percept sequences and corresponding actions. Human agent: eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors; hands, Four basic types in order of increasing generality: Simple reflex agents Model-based reflex agents Goal-based agents Utility-based agents (b)Bidirectional Search and Depth First Search DFS Expand deepest unexpanded node. If dead end occurs backtracking is done to next immediate previous node. Implementation: fringe = LIFO queue, i.e., put successors at front EXPLAIN WITH DIAGRAM
Properties of depth-first search Complete? No: fails in infinite-depth spaces, spaces with loops Modify to avoid repeated states along path complete in finite spaces Time? O(bm): terrible if m is much larger than d but if solutions are dense, may be much faster than breadth-first Space? O(bm), i.e., linear space! Optimal? No BIDIRECTIONAL Definition Bidirectional Search is a strategy that simultaneously search both the directions. i.e forward from initial stste and backward from goal. Example Route Finding Problem
Search Procedure.
Idea: choose move to position with highest minimax value = best achievable payoff against best play E.g., 2-ply game Properties Complete? Yes (if tree is finite) Optimal? Yes (against an optimal opponent) Time complexity? O(bm) Space complexity? O(bm) (depth-first exploration) For chess, b 35, m 100 for "reasonable" games exact solution completely infeasible ALGORITHM
(b)(i) Steps in Hill Climbing Search Algorithm Problem: depending on initial state, can get stuck in local maxima
is the value of the best (i.e., highest-value) choice found so far at any choice point along the path for max
If v is worse than , max will avoid it prune that branch Define similarly for min Pruning does not affect final result Good move ordering improves effectiveness of pruning With "perfect ordering," time complexity = O(bm/2) doubles depth of search A simple example of the value of reasoning about which computations are relevant (a form of metareasoning)
13. (a)Forward
FC is data-driven, automatic, unconscious processing, e.g., object recognition, routine decisions May do lots of work that is irrelevant to the goal BC is goal-driven, appropriate for problem-solving, e.g., Where are my keys? How do I get into a PhD program? Complexity of BC can be much less than linear in size of KB EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLE. (b)Non Monotonic and minimalist reasoning
A non-monotonic logic is a formal logic whose consequence relation is not monotonic. Most studied formal logics have a monotonic consequence relation, meaning that adding a formula to a theory never produces a reduction of its set of consequences. Intuitively, monotonicity indicates that learning a new piece of knowledge cannot reduce the set of what is known. A monotonic logic cannot handle various reasoning tasks such as reasoning by default (consequences may be derived only because of lack of evidence of the contrary), abductive reasoning (consequences are only deduced as most likely explanations) and some important approaches to reasoning about knowledge (the ignorance of a consequence must be retracted when the consequence becomes known) and similarly belief revision (new knowledge may contradict old beliefs).
14. (a)(i)Decision
Tree learning
Aim: find a small tree consistent with the training examples Idea: (recursively) choose "most significant" attribute as root of (sub)tree