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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION, AIR MASSES, MAJOR WIND SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Significance of air motion: It is a vital determinant of weather and climate. Types of air motion: A. Vertical motion: It involves sinking and rising masses of air perpendicular to the surface. It is 100-1000 times slower than horizontal motion. Horizontal motion: It refers air movement parallel to the surface of the earth. It is much faster than vertical air movement.

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Significance of the two types of movement: A. Vertical motion: rising air: sinking air: cloudy and rainy weather clear and dry weather

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Horizontal motion: relocates warm and cold bodies of air transport water vapour causes severe environmental hazards e.g. typhoons

FORCES AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC MOTION A. PRESSURE-GRADIENT FORCE

Pressure: the weight of air on the Earths surface. It changes with height and temperature. 1. Height: Pressure decreases with increasing altitudes. For each 5 km rise in height, pressure drops by about a half. 2. Temperature: When temperature is high, hot air expands and rises. It reduces the weight of air on the Earths surface leading to low pressure.

Pressure Gradient:

Winds are dominantly horizontal air motions. Air can only move when there is a pressure difference. The difference in pressure across a horizontal surface constitutes a pressure gradient. Where a pressure gradient exists, air molecules tend to move from area of high pressure to area of low pressure. This tendency for mass movement of air is known as pressure gradient force. The magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the steepness of the gradient. 1. When isobars are close together, the velocity of the wind will be greater. 2. When the isobars are further apart, the velocity will be smaller because pressure gradient is smaller. THE CORIOLIS FORCE It is the deflecting force of the Earths rotation. The effect of Coriolis force on the moving fluid is stated in Ferrels Law. 1. Northern Hemisphere: Moving object tends to be deflected to the right of its path of motion. 2. Southern Hemisphere: Moving object tends to be deflected to the left. Properties of the Coriolis force: 1. Coriolis force does not exist right at the Equator. 2. It is proportional to the speed of the moving object. 3. It varies with the position on earth surface. In higher latitude, the effect is more felt. 4. It is perpendicular to the line of movement of object. 5. Since Coriolis force acts at right angle to the movement, it will not affect velocity of wind but affects wind direction.

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Geostrophic Wind: Meaning: Wind blows parallel to isobars under the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force. Formation: air movement is initiated by the pressure difference. As the air moves down the pressure gradient, but as soon as it begins to move, it will start to be affected by the Coriolis force. It will be deflected towards the right in the Northern Hemisphere. As the wind accelerates, its speed will increase and because the Coriolis force is related to speed, so the two forces pulling together eventually produce an equilibrium. This will occur when the two forces are equal and opposite. The resultant wind blowing parallel to the isobars, it is known as the geostrophic wind. It only occurs in free atmosphere (unaffected by surface friction). C. FORCE OF FRICTION It is a force pulling against the direction of flow (opposite to the direction of wind).

It upsets the balance between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force. When friction sets up, the velocity of wind and Coriolis force are lower. But pressure gradient force remains the same as it is governed only by pressure difference. Now, the pressure gradient force and Coriolis force become unequal. The result is that the wind may not be parallel to the isobars but at an angle usually 0-45 degrees. If friction is greater, this angle will be greater.

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CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION For a body to follow a curved path, there must be an inward acceleration towards the centre of rotation. Centripetal acceleration is important for the moving mass in changing its direction of flow. Absence of it, air cannot maintain its flow along the curved path. So, when air moves along a curved path, it will not only be affected by the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force but also the centripetal acceleration. When the three forces are in balance, the resultant wind is known as gradient wind.

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

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PRIMARY (PLANETARY) CIRCULATION Halleys Model: motion on a stationary earth In 1686, Edmund Halley proposed the existence of two great convective cells, one in Northern Hemisphere and one in Southern Hemisphere. The land near the equator was intensely heated and so the air rose rapidly and flew towards the poles at high levels. At poles, the air sank down to the surface due to the increased density. The sinking cold air moved equatorwards at the surface forming a complete circulation.

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Hadleys model: motion on a rotating earth Halleys model was modified in 1735 by George Hadley, who sought to include the effects of earths rotation on wind direction.

In the equatorial belt, airs are heated and expand. The heated airs rise and move polewards at high level. The air moving northwards from equator will be deflected by Coriolis force. So, the path of the air is turned eastwards. This eastward moving air tends to accumulate in a sub-tropical zone at about 20 to 30 . The piling up of air causes subsidence in this zone, forming a belt of high pressure at low level (i.e. the sub-tropical high pressure belt). Air reaching low levels moves away from the high pressure belt. Part of the air moves polewards and Much of it moves equatorwards. The equatorward movement of air is deflected to set up easterly wind system. (NE trade wind in the N. Hemisphere and SE trade wind in the S. Hemisphere). The two trade winds converge over the equatorial belt and rise slowly to complete the entire circulation. The Models of Ferrel and Rossby: Tricellular models Three cells suggestion was made in 1856 by Ferrel and elaborated on by Rossby in 1941. a. Low latitude thermally direct cell: Hadley cell located in the tropic direct convection cells driven by the tropical heat b. c. High latitude thermally direct cell: Polar cell located in polar regions direct convection cells driven by the polar heat sink Mid-latitude thermally indirect cell: Ferrel cell located in mid-latitudes indirect convection cell driven by other two cells.

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Modern Circulation Models: circulation at high levels in middle and high latitudes At high level, both hemispheres are dominated by the upper air westerly winds. These winds move ceaselessly around the globe, forming a huge vortex. Upper air westerlies represent the persistent motion; but there are undulations and secondary vortices i.e. cyclones and anticyclones. These upper air westerlies occur along with the undulations i.e. smooth flow of westerly is developed into a set of waves which are developed into centres of low pressure alternating with centres of high pressure. These centres of high and low may eventually weaken and dissolve so that the smooth west-east flow is resumed; the cycle of growth repeats. These centres of high and low may decay and grow and repeat regularly. The zone of contact of the polar and tropical air is called the polar front which is of strong pressure gradient. Thus the zone of contact between cold and warm air is one of very high westerly wind speed developed in a narrow zone. This intensive wind phenomenon is called jet stream. In some respects, the jet stream is like a water jet that would result from a nozzle thrusting a narrow stream into a body of

standing water. There is a central core of highest speed, surrounded by zones of decreasing speed. The jet stream that forms between polar and tropical air in the latitude range of 40 to 60 is known as polar front jet stream. Its core lies about on the tropopause. Another jet stream formed about 30 latitude is called subtropical jet stream; while the one formed in very low latitudes is called tropical easterly jet stream. Global pressure belts: Planetary pressure system If there were a uniform surface of the earth and there were no seasons, pressure belts would be arranged as: i. Equatorial Low Pressure Belt (Doldrums) ii. Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts (Horse latitudes) iii. Sub-polar Low Pressure Belts iv. Polar High Pressure Belts Seasonal distribution of pressure systems The planetary pressure systems are also affected by i. seasonal shift of overhead sun The axis of the earth is tilted at an angle at 66 to the plane of its orbit. This causes the shifting of the overhead sun and four seasons at temperate latitudes. June: The overhead sun is on Tropic of Cancer and the pressure belts move northwards. December: the overhead sun is on Tropic of Capricorn and the pressure belts move southwards. ii. effect of land and sea This is due to the differential rates of heating and cooling of land and sea. Summer: Low pressure at centre of continent Winter: High pressure at centre of continent Global Wind Belts (Surface wind) The trade winds It comes from the SAXON word tredan which means to follow a regular path. they blow form the Horse Latitudes to the Doldrums. They are deflected to become N.E. trades in the N. Hemisphere and S.E. trades in S. Hemisphere. They are very constant in strength and direction. They sometimes contain intense tropical depressions. Westerlies They blow form the Horse Latitudes to the temperate low pressure. They are deflected to become S. westerlies in the N. Hemisphere and N. westerlies in the S. Hemisphere. They are variable in both directions and strength. Polar easterlies from the polar high pressure to sub-polar low pressure better develop in the S. Hemisphere, irregular in the N. Hemisphere

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deflected to the right to become N.E. polar winds in the N. Hemisphere and to the left to become S.E. polar winds in the S. Hemisphere.

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Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The convergence of northeast trades from the N. Hemisphere and southeast trades from the S. Hemisphere at the equatorial trough results in the rising of air and forms the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This zone is characterized with light or variable winds. This zone is also known as doldrums. Polar Fronts They are located around 60 N/S where the polar easterlies collide with the westerlies. The collision of the air streams results in the frequent development of frontal depressions (temperate cyclones).

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SECONDARY CIRCULATION (MONSOON) Monsoon is derived from mausim (Arabic) which means season. It refers to winds which the direction is reversed completely form one season to the next. Monsoon winds are best developed over Asia which is the largest continent. This is due to the differential rate of heating and cooling of land and sea. Monsoon over East Asia 1. Winter (December to February) Pressure is high over interior of Asia because of rapidly cooling air. Air sinks. Pressure is low over North Australia as it is warmer when the overhead sun is over Tropic of Capricorn. The low pressure centre attracts air from Asia. Rotation of the earth cause cold air to blow outwards from Asian continent in a clockwise direction. 2. Summer (June to August) High pressure develops over Australia due to the shift of the overhead sun over Tropic of Cancer. Low pressure belt develops over Asian Interior because of intense heating overland. So, winds blow from Australia to Asian interior. TERTIARY CIRCULATIONS (LOCAL WINDS) Local winds affect only limited areas and blow for short periods of time. Land and sea breezes This occurs commonly in coastal area. a. Sea breeze During the day time, the land is heated up more quickly than the sea. The air above the land expands and rises. Then the cooler air from the sea blows towards the shore to take the place of rising warm current.

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Sea breeze is thus formed. Land breeze At night, the sea is warmer than the land because the sea loses its heat through radiation at a much slower rate than the land. This warmer air over the sea rises while the cooler air from the land blows towards the sea from the shore. Thus land breeze is set up.

Anabatic and katabatic Winds a. Anabatic winds In daytime, air on the sunny slopes of a valley is warmed to such an extent that it expands and rises up the sides of the valley. If the valley floor receives sufficient insolation, then air here will expand and move up the valley as anabatic wind. Katabatic winds At night, temperature on high ground drops rapidly owing to greater loss of heat at higher altitudes. The air in contact with the ground is also cooled rapidly. This dense cold air then flows down the mountain side into the valley below.

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Fohn winds and chinook winds Fohn is a warm dry wind blowing downslope on the leeward side of a mountain. It is usually characterized with higher temperature and lower relative humidity than the air on the windward side. Fohn is very common in the Alps in spring and autumn. Similar winds also occur in other mountainous systems. In the Rockies, it is known as the Chinook. For the formation, refer to figure . AIR MASSES

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DEFINITION A body of air in which the upward gradients of temperature and moisture are fairly uniform over a large area is known as air mass. It may have a sharply defined boundary between itself and a neighbouring air mass. This discontinuity is termed as front, for example, Polar Front between polar air mass and tropical air mass. It is a component of the large scale circulation system and the genesis of air masses over source regions and their modification during passage illustrate the basic processes of heat and moisture transfer.

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FORMATION When air remains stationary in an area for several days, it tends to assume the temperature and humidity properties of that region. The areas in which homogeneous air masses develop are called source regions. For example: 1. Air accumulates over a cold snow-covered arctic landmass. Heat is lost through radiation and air will become extremely cold (polar continental air mass). 2. Air accumulates over warm tropical ocean and is warmed by radiation and absorbs water vapour by evaporation from sea surface. Therefore, air will become warm and moist tropical maritime air mass. CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES According to latitudinal position of the source region which determines its temperature. For instance, AArctic air masses, formed over Arctic Ocean and fringing lands AA - Antarctic air masses, formed over Antarctica PPolar air masses, formed over lands and oceans at 50 60 . TTropical air masses, formed over lands and oceans at 20 - 35 . EEquatorial air masses, formed principally over oceans near the equator. According to the nature of the surface of the source region which determines moisture content. For instance, mMaritime air masses, formed over oceans, relatively moist. cContinental air masses, formed over large landmass, relatively dry. Four main types of air masses can be identified mT - tropical maritime air masses, warm and moist cT - tropical continental air masses, warm and dry mP - polar maritime air masses, cold and moist cP - polar continental air masses, cold and dry The letters w and k are added after their air mass symbol. w means that the air mass is warmer than the surface over which it is passing. k means that the air mass is colder than the surface over which it is passing. cPk: polar continental air mass which is colder than the surface over which it is passing. mTw: tropical maritime air mass which is warmer than the surface over which it is passing. MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

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When air masses move from their sources regions, they are modified by the surface over which they pass and this alters their temperature, humidity and stability. For example, a southward moving polar air becomes warmer and increasingly unstable.

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Thermodynamic modifications these result from the transfer of heat between the bottom of an air mass and the surface over which it moves. degree of modification depends upon a. original character of the air mass b. nature of the underlying surface c. the path of the air mass d. number of days it has traveled in arriving at the observation point If the air mass moves over a surface that is warmer than its own ground temperature, the consequent warming if its basal layers will result in an increase lapse rate and added buoyancy and instability. This condition favours ascent of the heated lower air and thus creates the possibility of condensation and precipitation. When an air mass moves over a surface that is colder than its own ground temperature, the basal air is chilled, and a surface inversion develops which increases the stability of the mass. Such a condition is opposed to the ascent of air and consequently also to the formation of clouds and precipitation. Mechanical modifications a. By turbulence resulting from the frictional effects of the earths surface. The effect of turbulence is to mix the atmosphere vertically, so that heat and moisture are carried upward from the surface and a layer of atmosphere several thousand feet deep may be modified. by large-scale horizontal convergence and divergence. Such circulations, which produce slow upward and downward movements of thick and extensive masses of atmosphere, thereby affect air mass stratification and possibly cloud and precipitation.

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DISTURBANCES IN THE MID-LATITUDE CIRCULATION

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INTRODUCTION The temperate depressions and anticyclones are commonest pressure pattern in middle and high latitudes. They bring great changes to weather and climate of these areas. Mid-latitude weather is characterized by a succession of alternating low and high pressure systems moving around the earth from west to east in the stream of prevailing westerlies. MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES (Temperate Depression) Introduction

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defined as a centre of low barometric pressure with roughly circular isobars. In Northern Hemisphere, it has a an anticlockwise flow of winds. Near the ground, the air will spiral inward toward the centre. They consists of fronts separating could and warm air masses. Their general movements are easterly and bring along with them changeable and unstable weather conditions.

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Formation Temperate cyclones or depressions are limited to the mid-latitudes where cold polar air meets the warm moist tropical air. A front is thus formed. On wither side of the front, air is moving in opposite direction. Cold polar air moves in general westerly direction and warm tropical air in a general easterly direction. The air along the front becomes unstable when a small portion of air in the air mass rises up as it is warmer and lighter. This will create a small area of low pressure. This alters the relative direction of air flowing on wither side of the front. A small wave starts to develop in the front. Warm air is lighter than cold air. Therefore, it will press forward over the cold air to the east of the depression. Cold air from the north will displace some of the warm air from the south. Therefore, a bulge is formed. Pressure continues to fall at the tip of the bulge and an anti-clockwise circulation of wind blows around this low pressure centre. The air circulation in the Southern Hemisphere is clockwise. At the front of the bulge, the warm air rises over the cold air. This is called the warm front. At the rear of the bulge, the colder air forces its way under the warm air. This is called the cold front. The warm air between the two fronts is called the warm sector. When more air blows into the low pressure centre, temperate depression is formed. Temperate depressions always travel from west to east. The cold front usually moves faster than warm front. Therefore, the warm sector becomes smaller as the cold front catches up with the warm air. The line which the cold and warm fronts meet is called an occlusion front. After the warm air is pushed up into the atmosphere, condensation and precipitation take place along the two fronts. As soon as occlusion front is formed, the depression begins to die away. Dissipation of the temperate depression: As occlusion continues, depth of cold air along occluded front increases and warm air is forced high into the atmosphere until it spreads out over cold air mass. Uplift of warm air ceases and the air mass is no longer

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responsible for the formation of cloud and rain. From then on, the weather is controlled by cold air masses. 3. Weather associated with a temperate depression a. b. c. d. Warm front: The advance of the warm front represent the slow retreat of colder air ahead of it. Because of the slow rate of lifting, vertical turbulence will be minimal. Cirriform clouds indicate the approach of a warm front. But, if the warm air is unstable, cumuliform clouds will be formed. Precipitation is usually steady or fall slightly. Temperature generally rises. wind is moderate in intensity, blowing from the southeast. Warm sector: Rain stops. Wind changes direction from SE to SW. Temperature rises. Air becomes humid. Cold front: Since the cold air is more dense than the warm air it displaces, cold fronts push forcibly into the warm air zone. Rapid thickening and lowering of clouds. Heavy rain occurs. Temperature falls abruptly. Wind becomes strong and gusty and blows from the NW. Vertical turbulence is common. If the displaced air is unstable, cumuliform clouds prevail. If convective currents are strong, cumilonimbus and thunderstorms may result. Occluded front: The weather associated with an occluded front displays the prominent features of both warm and cold fronts. However, the principal difference is in the absence of warm air at the surface after the passage of the warm front porting. Thus, the warm front may have little or no effect on the ensuing weather.

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ANTICYCLONE a large mass of subsiding air which produces an area of high pressure on the earths surface. The source of the air is in the upper atmosphere. The air is dry. It is due to limited amount of vapour and adiabatic warming. Isobars are not closely spaced. That means the pressure gradient is gentle resulting in weak winds or calm condition. Wind movement on land : wind blows outward and in clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere. It usually associated with fine weather and cloudless sky. Types of anticyclone:

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Cold anticyclone It is found in mid and high latitudes. It is formed by the subsidence of cold air on continent. Warm anticyclone It is found in sub-tropical horse latitude.

ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES IN THE LOW-LATITUDE CIRCULATION - TROPICAL CYCLONE A. NATURE

A typical tropical cyclone has a diameter of about 600 km, less than half of a mid-latitude depression although typhoons in China Sea are often much larger. The central pressure at sea-level is commonly 950 mb. The winds are defined arbitrarily as 74 mph or more. The great vertical development of cumulonimbus clouds with tops at about 12km. B. DISTRIBUTION Typhoons are developed in tropical latitudes, mostly between 6 and 20 north and south. They are restricted to a few oceanic areas and adjacent islands and continental margins. Once a typhoon is developed, it moves westward and poleward. Tropical cyclones are known by a variety of names - typhoon (western Pacific Ocean), hurricanes (Atlantic and eastern Pacific Ocean), willy-willies (Australia) and Cyclones (Indian Ocean). CONDITIONS FOR THE FORMATION It must be formed in a hot area so energy can be supplies adequately. Because of the steep lapse rate, the vertical circulation of the air is very fast. It must be formed in a humid area where moisture can be supplied easily and adequately. It is rarely near the equator where the Coriolis force is zero and not sufficient to enable the feature to spin. It cannot develop in zones of strong vertical wind shear (e.g. beneath a jet stream) as this factor inhibits the development of an organized vortex. There is a connection of the formation of hurricane and the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone. If there is a divergence in the upper level, the pressure becomes lower and the tropical cyclone becomes stronger. A low level disturbance is pre-existing.

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CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PASSAGE OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE On the day preceding the storm, the weather is fair and calm. When the typhoon approaches, pressure drops. Cloud cover thickens. Shower begins. Winds are violent during this period. After several hours of raging storm, an abrupt calm sets in. This is the eye of the storm. In the eye, air is subsiding rapidly and being adiabatically heated. This explains the abrupt warming reported in the eye. The period of calm may last for a half hour and then followed by the violence of the other side of the vortex. Air pressure rises gradually again as the typhoon passes. Death of a tropical cyclone. A cyclone dies rapidly once it passes over land. It is due to the removal of the source of energy over the land where the humidity is much lower and the increase surface friction which upset the forces acting on the system.

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