A BRIEF SUMMARY OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORMS

SAMUEL A. HAMBLETON
A short summary of binary quadrati forms is provided. This
in ludes lasses of forms under various equivalen e relations, the relationship
between the existen e of a primitive representation of an integer n by a binary
quadrati form Q and an ideal fa torization of (n), onstru tion of the automorph matrix, Ardnt's omposition algorithm, Gauss' bilinear transformation,
Bhargava ubes, and proof of the isomorphism between the ideal lass group
and the lass group of forms.
Abstra t.

1.

Introdu tion

There are several ex ellent introdu tory resour es on binary quadrati forms
[3, 14, 19, 20. This arti le is on erned with presenting a few important fa ts about
forms and their relation to ideals within eight pages, and is almost pre isely the
ba kground required to study the topi s overed in [11. Ideals permit onsideration
of one of the most important problems of arithmeti , unique fa torization. A binary
quadrati
form ontains more information than an ideal of a quadrati number eld
K = Q( ), an integral basis. With forms, questions on erning the ideal lass
group may be interpreted geometri ally, for example, representations of an integer
n by a form Q. The group of units of K an be thought of as representations of
1, by the prin ipal form of dis riminant , see [12, 14. Di kson's third volume
of `History of the theory of numbers' [6 is entirely on erned with forms. The main
on epts one should know about binary quadrati forms will be illustrated in this
arti le. Important fa ts about ideals will be in luded in footnotes.

Let be the fundamental dis riminant of a quadrati number eld K = Q( ).

This means that

d = 1 + 4M if d 1 (mod 4)
=
4d = 4M
if d 2, 3 (mod 4)
where d is a square-free integer. We let b {0, 1} be dened by
= b + 4M.

The prin ipal binary quadrati form may be denoted

Q0 (x, y) = x2 + bxy My 2 .

We will restri t our attention to primitive binary quadrati forms

(1)

Q(t, u) = At2 + Btu + Cu2 = (A, B, C)

Date : August 14, 2011.

2010 Mathemati s Subje t Classi ation. Primary 11E16; Se ondary 11R29.
Key words and phrases. Binary quadrati forms, quadrati number eld, Arndt's omposition,
bilinear transformation, Bhargava ubes.
1

S. HAMBLETON

of fundamental dis riminant = B 2 4AC . Let F denote the set of all binary
quadrati forms of this des ription of dis riminant . For every Q F, there exists
a unique integer satisfying B = 2 + b. The symbols , and will always
refer to the unique integers

Bb
b+
b
=
,
=
,
=
,
2
2
2

and K will always be the quadrati number eld Q( ).

There are two subgroups of the general linear group GL2 (Z) with whi h we
will be on erned. These are the spe ial linear group, SL2 (Z), the set of all 2 2
matri es with integer oe ients and determinant equal to 1, and the very spe ial
linear group, VL2 (Z), the subgroup of SL2 (Z) onsisting of all matri es of the
form Va = 10 a1 with a Z, see Lenstra [16. Dene a map between groups
: Z VL2 (Z)
 by a 7 Va . Clearly is an isomorphism.
Let M = ac db GL2 (Z). Repla ing t and u in the binary quadrati form
 
 
Q(t, u) F via ut 7 M ut , and expanding, yields a new binary quadrati form
(2)

Q(t, u) 7 Q(a, c)t2 + (2Aab + B(ad + bc) + 2Ccd)tu + Q(b, d)u2 F.

Given Q1 , Q2 F, if it is possible to transform Q1 into Q2 using a matrix M

GL2 (Z) a ording to the transformation of Eqn. (2), then we denote this relation
by Q1 Q2 . This is an equivalen e relation and hen e partitions F into equivalen e
+
lasses. Similarly, we will use Q1 Q2 and Q1 Q2 to mean that there exists a
matrix M SL2 (Z) and respe tively, N VL2 (Z) whi h transforms Q1 into Q2
+
by Eqn. (2). Again, the equivalen e relations and partition the set F into
equivalen e lasses. The number of lasses under is known as the lass number,
+
hK , while the number under is the narrow lass number, h+
K . We point out
through the following remark that the number of lasses hF of F under is not
nite.
Remark 1.1. The forms1 Q1 = (A1 , B1 , C1 ), Q2 = (A2 , B2 , C2 ) F satisfy Q1 Q2
if and only if
A1

= A2 ,

(mod A1 ).

The proof of this remark is a simple exer ise. Of ourse if 0 B1 , B2 < A1 , then
1 = 2 . There are innitely many possible oe ients A of a binary quadrati
form of dis riminant so does not partition F into nitely many equivalen e
+
lasses. We denote the sets of equivalen e lasses under , , and by Cl(),
+
Cl (), and F respe tively. These are known to be groups under omposition of
forms and former two are isomorphi to the ideal lass groups Cl(K) and Cl+ (K)
respe tively. Due to the fa t that VL2 (Z) is a subgroup of SL2 (Z), a subgroup of
GL2 (Z), we have2 hF > h+
K hK .
If Qa Qb then a = b, with Qa , Qb as in Eqn. (3).
The lass numbers hK = h+
K unless > 0 and the norm of the fundamental unit is equal to 1,
in whi h ase h+
=
2h
.
See
[4, 8.
K
K

1
2

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORMS

Let {A, + } be an integral basis for a primitive ideal a with A Z. There is

a primitive binary quadrati form
1
(2 + b)2 2
NK/Q (At + ( + )u) = At2 + (2 + b)tu +
u
A
4A
of dis riminant . The isomorphism between Cl(K) and Cl() is given by a 7 Qa .
Let Q F and let n Z. If there exist rational integers t, u satisfying Q(t, u) = n
then Q represents n. If g d(t, u) = 1 then Q represents n primitively and (t, u) is a
primitive representation.
Let Q1 , Q2 F and let n Z. It is well known that if Q1 Q2 then Q1
represents n primitively if and only if Q2 represents n primitively.
The following theorem has been used to prove Diri hlet's lass number formula
[10. It relies on Theorem 6.1.

(3)

Qa (t, u) =

Theorem 1.2. Let Q F and n Z. Q represents n primitively if and only if the

ideal (n) fa tors as (n) = aa where the ideal lass of a orresponds to the lass of
the form Q under the isomorphism between Cl(K) and Cl().

Proof. Let Q = (A, 2 + b, C) F. Assume that there exists a primitive integer

solution (t, u) to Q(t, u) = n. Let u1 (mod t) and B = 2 + n+Cu
+ b.
t
To show that B is an integer satisfying B 2 (mod 4n), observe that n + Cu
(u + 1)Cu 0 (mod t) so that B Z, and it may easily be demonstrated that
B 2
= Q(, (u + 1)/t) Z. The ideal (n) fa tors3 as
4n
 B +   B   n + Cu
  n + Cu

++ n,
++ .
(n) = n,
n,
= n,
2
2
t
t


To show that a = n, n+Cu
+

and
A
=
(A,

+
)
are
in
the
same ideal
t
lass and A orresponds to Q, the forms atta hed to A and a are respe tively
NK/Q (Ax + ( + )y)
= Q(x, y),
A
NK/Q (nx + ((n + Cu)/t + + )y )
B 2 2
Qa =
= nx2 + Bx y +
y .
n
4n


+
t

The forms QA Qa under substitution with u u+1 SL2 (Z). Conversely let
QA

2
(n) = (n, +)(n, + ). The binary quadrati form nt2 +(2+b)tu+ (2+b)
u
4n
orresponds to the ideal (n, + ) and represents n primitively with (1, 0). Sin e
this form belongs to the same lass of Cl() as Q, it follows that Q represents n
primitively.


2.

The automorph of a binary quadrati form

Let = x + y ; x, y Z be a unit of the quadrati number eld K = Q( ).

Let 1 = At1 + ( + )u1 , 2 = At2 + ( + )u2 satisfy

(4)

1 = 2 ,

a | b if and only if b a. Every non-zero ideal of OK may be written uniquely as a produ t

of prime ideals, where p is prime if and only if p | ab implies p | a or p | b. See [21. The of
ideals a1 + a2 = {1 +P
2 : 1 a1 , 1 a1 }, also (1 , 3 ) + (2 , 4 ) = (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ), see [18.
The produ t a1 a2 = { 1 2 : 1 a1 , 2 a2 }, (1 , 3 )(2 , 4 ) = (1 2 , 1 4 , 2 3 , 3 4 ).
Observe that a1 a2 a1 a2 .
3

S. HAMBLETON

and let Q F be as in Eqn. (1). Expanding the right hand side of Eqn. (4),
2

(x + y)(At2 + ( + )u2 ),

Axt2 + xu2 + (Ayt2 + xu2 + yu2 ) + yu2 2

Axt2 + (x + My)u2 + Ayt2 + (x + y + by)u2 ,

=
=

( 2 = b + M),

A(x y)t2 ( 2 + b M)yu2 + ( + ) Ayt2 + (x + y + by)u2 ,




A (x y)t2 Cyu2 + ( + ) Ayt2 + (x + y + by)u2 .

Comparing the left and right hand sides of Eqn. (4) reveals an automorph matrix
for Q = (A, B, C),
  
 
Cy
t1
t2
= xy
(5)
u1
u2 .
Ay x+(+b)y
Taking norms,4 on the left and right hand side of Eqn. (4),
NK/Q (1 )
NK/Q (2 )

= A Q(t1 , u1 ),

= A Q (x y)t2 Cyu2 , Ayt2 + (x + ( + b)y)u2 .

Sin e is a unit, NK/Q (1 ) = NK/Q (2 ). Under the substitution of Eqn. (5), the
binary quadrati form Q is un hanged.
3.

Arndt's Composition

We will now present group laws for Cl(), Cl+ (), and F a ording to the
omposition algorithm of Arndt [1. For j = 1, 2, let Qj = (Aj , 2j + b, Cj ) F.
We will always use + , , and to refer to
+ = 1 + 2 + b,

= 1 2 ,

= 1 2 + M.

Let e = g d(A1 , A2 , + ), A3 = A1 A2 /e2 , and let j, k, be Bezout numbers5 for e,

meaning that they satisfy the Diophantine equation, Eqn. (6)
(6)

(7)

b3

A1 j + A2 k + + ,
A1
A2

2 j +
1 k +
,
e
e
e

and let 3 be the least non-negative integer satisfying 3 b3 (mod A3 ). Then we

obtain a new binary quadrati form Q3 = (A3 , 23 + b, Q0 (3 , 1)/A3 ) F. This
is a omposed form. The group laws for Cl(), Cl+ (), and F take the lasses,
+
respe tively under , , and , of Q1 and Q2 and produ e the lass of Q3 . See
[17 for omputing a redu ed form in the lass of the omposed form Q3 .
The norm of an ideal diers from the norm of an element and is dened NK/Q (a) =
p

[1 , 2 ]/ DK where DK is the dis riminant of the eld K and a = (1 , 2 ). A non-zero

ideal a requires at most two 1 , 2 OK to generate a = (1 , 2 ) and K need not be quadrati .
5
Bezout numbers are not unique. For ideals a, b of OK , if e, l are respe tively the g d and l m of
a, b, then e = a + b, l = a b.
4

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORMS

4.

Bilinear transformation

Gauss writes in Art. 234 [9, `Now that we have explained the distribution of
forms into lasses, genera, and orders and the general properties that result from
these distin tions, we will go on to another very important subje t, the omposition
of forms. Thus far no one has onsidered this point.'
For j = 1, 2, let Qj = (Aj , 2j + b, Cj ) F and Q3 = (A3 , 23 + b, Q0 (3 , 1)/A3 )
be a omposed form given by Arndt's omposition algorithm. There is a multipli ative identity
(8)

Q3 (t3 , u3 ) = Q1 (t1 , u1 )Q2 (t2 , u2 ),

where
e
e
e
(2 3 )t1 u2 +
(1 3 )t2 u1 +
( 3 + )u1 u2 ,
A2
A1
A1 A2
A1
A2
+
t1 u 2 +
t2 u 1 +
u1 u2 .
e
e
e

t3

= et1 t2 +

u3

This is known as bilinear transformation and is essentially the way in whi h Gauss
omposed forms, see Art. 235, [9. For a re ent perspe tive, see [5, 14.
Given Q1 , Q2 F, there is no opportunity to obtain 3 by expanding Eqn. (8)
sin e 3 vanishes. It fa t the identity holds for all
(9)

3 Z satisfying

A1 A2
| Q0 (3 , 1).
e2

Gauss, Art. 235, [9, referred to the form Q3 of Eqn. (8) as a omposite of Q1
and Q2 if the g d of a ertain six quantities is equal to 1. In our notation these
2 ,1)
1 ,1)
are A1 , A2 , + , , Q0 (
, Q0 (
. This will o ur if e = g d(A1 , A2 , + )
A2
A1
sin e g d(e, ) = 1 be ause our forms are primitive. Arndt's omposition formula
simply nds 3 satisfying Eqn. (9).
5.

Composition with 2 by 2 by 2 Bhargava ubes

We dis uss Gauss omposition of binary quadrati forms a ording to 2 2 2

Bhargava ubes [2, 13, 14. More pre isely, this is a summary of Lemmermeyer's
[14 work on Bhargava ubes.

=
?
c

?
g

- f
- b 
?= [a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h]
- h
?
- d

Figure 1. The 2 2 2 Bhargava ube showing orientation of

the six orresponding matri es.

S. HAMBLETON

The six orresponding matri es are



M1 = ab fe ,
 
M2 = ae gc ,
 
M3 = ac db ,

N1 =

c g
dh

,

N2 = fb hd ,
 
N3 = ge hf .


To ea h Bhargava ube , the three asso iated binary quadrati forms are given
by
Qj (x, y) = det(Mj x + Nj y);
j {1, 2, 3},
whi h is

Q1

Q2

Q3

be af, bg + de ah cf, dg ch ,


ce ag, cf + de ah bg, df bh ,


bc ad, bg + cf ah de, f g eh .

Remark 5.1. The binary quadrati forms Q1 , Q2 , Q3 asso iated with the Bhargava
ube  have the same dis riminant and satisfy [Q1 Q2 Q3 ] = [Q0 ], where is
form omposition, Q0 is the prin ipal form, and [Q] is the narrow lass of the form
Q in Cl+ (). See [2, 13, 14.
Conversely, Lemmermeyer [14 has shown how we may onstru t a Bhargava
ube from the forms Q1 = (A1 , B1 , C1 ), Q2 = (A2 , B2 , C2 ) as follows. See [13, 14.
h A A +
i


2
1
 = 0,
,
,
, e = g d A1 , A2 , + , f, g, h ,
e e e
where f, g satisfy the linear Diophantine equation on the left
(10)

A1
A2
g
f = ,
e
e

h=

+ f eC2
.
A1

It may o ur that h 6 Z, in whi h ase we must adjust the ube to obtain an integer
Bhargava ube as follows. Let
A A 


1
2
e = g d A1 , A2 , + ,
= g d
,
,
e e
 + 1
+

(mod );
0 < ,
=1
.
e
e
Then an integer Bhargava ube is


h A A +
A2 f + C2 + e + f eC2 i
1
2
 = 0,
,
,
, e, f + C2 ,
,
,
e e e
A1
A1
where f, g satisfy Eqn. (10).
6.

Proof of isomorphism between lasses of forms and ideal lasses

One of the most important results on erned with binary quadrati forms, due
to Dedekind [7, states that the lass groups of forms and the lass groups of ideals
are isomorphi .

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORMS

The maps : Cl(K) Cl() and + : Cl+ (K) Cl+ () given

by : [a] 7 [Qa ] and + : [a]+ 7 [Qa ]+ are group6 isomorphisms, where Qa is as
in Eqn. (3).
Theorem 6.1.

Proof. Let a1 = {A1 , 1 + }, a2 = {A2 , 2 + }, written as integral bases for

primitive ideals of OK , let e = g d(A1 , A2 , + ), and let 3 be the least non-negative
integer satisfying 3 b3 (mod A3 ), with b3 as in Eqn. (7), and A3 = A1 A2 /e2 .
Observe that
a1 a2

= (A1 A2 , A1 (2 + ), A2 (1 + ), + + ),
(e)(A3 , 3 + ) = (e)(A3 , b3 + ) = a3 ,

see [19, sin e A1 A2 , A1 (2 + ), A2 (1 + ), + + a3 due to the identities

A1 A2

A1 (2 + ) =
A2 (1 + ) =
+ +

A3 e2 ,

 Q ( , 1)
A1
0 2
k + e(b3 + ) ,
A3 e
A2
e
 Q ( , 1)

A
0 1
2
A3 e
+ j + e(b3 + ) ,
A1
e
 Q ( , 1)
Q0 (1 , 1) 
+
0 2
A3 e
j+
k + e(b3 + )
.
A2
A1
e

Conversely, eA3 , e(b3 + ) a1 a2 sin e

e(b3 + ) = A1 (2 + )j + A2 (1 + )k + ( + + ),

and noting that g d(e, ) = 1 be ause a1 , a2 are primitive, and eA3 + , e2 A3

a1 a2 , the existen e of Bezout numbers for e and show that eA3 a1 a2 . It
follows that a1 a2 = a3 . This shows that a1 a2 a3 in Cl(K) sin e a1 a2 and a3
+
are dierent by a fa tor of the prin ipal ideal (e). Also, sin e e > 0, a1 a2 a3
+
+
in Cl (K). Therefore and are homomorphisms. These maps are learly
surje tive. Let {A, + } be an integral basis for a and assume that + (a) Q0 .
Then there exist rational integers t, u satisfying Qa (t, u) = 1 so that A, +
(At + ( + )u) and a is prin ipal. The signs of t and u may be hosen su h that
At + ( + )u, At + ( + )u > 0. ker + is equal to the lass of OK in Cl+ (K).
Similarly, is inje tive.

There are many topi s in the theory of binary quadrati forms whi h we have
not dis ussed. See [3, 14 for more information, and an appendix in [19.
A knowledgments

The material in this arti le has formed a small portion of a preliminary mathemati s hapter of a thesis written under the supervision of Vi tor S haras hkin
at the University of Queensland. The author is grateful for this supervision and
funding from the university. The books of Franz Lemmermeyer [14, 15 have been
parti ularly useful and mu h of our notation is found there. The author would like
to thank Keith Matthews for multiple dis ussions on binary quadrati forms.
The equivalen e relations for Cl(K) and Cl+ (K) are respe tively a b if and only if there exists
+
K su h that a = ()b, and a b if and only if there exists K su h that a = ()b with
either < 0 or > 0 and , > 0. See [15. a, b are fra tional ideals even though the proof
uses integers.
6

S. HAMBLETON

Referen es

1. F. Arndt, Ausung einer Aufgabe in der Composition der quadratis hen Formen, J. Reine Angew. Math. 56, (1859) 6471.
2. M. Bhargava, Higher omposition laws I : A new view on Gauss omposition,
and quadrati generalizations, Ann. of Math. 158 (2004) 217250.
3. D. Buell, Binary quadrati forms  Classi al theory and modern omputations,
Springer (1989)
4. H. Cohn, Advan ed number theory, Dover, New York, (1962)
5. H. Cohn, A se ond ourse in number theory, John Wiley & Sons, (1962)
6. L. Di kson, History of the theory of numbers, III, AMS Chelsea Publishing,
(1992)
7. L. Diri hlet, R. Dedekind, Vorlesungen Uber Zahlentheorie, Supplement X,
(1871), (1879), (1894) available at:
http://www.ar hive.org/details/vorlesungenberz04dedegoog
8. S. Fin h, Class number theory, (2005), available at:
http://algo.inria.fr/ solve/ lss.pdf
9. C. Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmeti ae, Translated to English by A. Clarke, Yale
University Press (1966)
10. A. Granville, Le ture notes in analyti number theory (2007), available at:
http://www.dms.umontreal. a/~andrew/
11. S. Hambleton, An isomorphism between the narrow ideal lass group of squared
ideals of a quadrati number eld and the kernel of a homomorphism between
ohomology groups for Pell oni s, available at:
http://arxiv.org/abs/1108.1610
12. F.
Lemmermeyer,
Coni s  A poor man's ellipti urves,
arXiv:math/0311306v1, (2003), available at:
http://www.fen.bilkent.edu.tr/~franz/publ/ oni s.pdf
13. F. Lemmermeyer, Binary quadrati forms and ounterexamples to Hasse's lo alglobal prin iple, (2010) available at:
http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~hb3/publ/pepin.pdf
14. F. Lemmermeyer, Binary quadrati forms  An elementary approa h to the
arithmeti of ellipti and hyperellipti urves, preprint (2010) available at:
http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~hb3/publ/bf.pdf
15. F. Lemmermeyer, Re ipro ity laws  From Euler to Eisenstein, Springer-Verlag,
(2000)
16. H. Lenstra Jr., On the al ulation of regulators and lass numbers of quadrati
elds, J. Armitage (ed.), Journes Arithmtiques 1980, London Math. So .
Le ture Note Ser. 56, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1982) 123
150.
17. K. Matthews, A website for omposing binary quadrati forms,
http://www.numbertheory.org/php/
18. J. Milne, Algebrai number theory, le ture notes available at:
http://www.jmilne.org/math/
19. R. Mollin, Quadrati s, Bo a Raton, (1996)
20. G. Pall, Composition of binary quadrati forms, Bull. Amer. Math. So ., 54,
(1948) 11711175.
21. I. Stewart, D. Tall, Algebrai number theory and Fermat's last theorem, Third
Ed., A. K. Peters, Massa husetts, (2002)

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF BINARY QUADRATIC FORMS

S hool of Mathemati s and Physi s, University of Queensland, St. Lu ia, Queensland, Australia 4072,

https://sites.google. om/site/samuelhambleton/

E-mail address : sahmaths.uq.edu.au