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In the SEM, high energy electrons are focused into a fine beam, which is scanned across the surface of the specimen. The beam electrons interact both elastically and inelastically with the specimen, forming the limiting interaction volume from which the various types of radiation emerge, including backscattered, secondary electrons and characteristic x-ray. A mixture of this radiation is collected by a detector, most commonly the Everhart-Thornley scintillator-photomultiplier detector, and the resulting signal is amplified and displayed on a cathode ray tube or television screen scanning in synchronous with the scan on the specimen. In order to study more than a single location and eventually construct an image, the beam must be moved from place to place by means of a scanning system, as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
Scanning action is usually accomplished by energizing electronmagnetic coils arranged in sets consisting of two pairs, one pair each for deflection X and Y directions. Scanning action is produced by altering the strength of the current in the scan coils as a function of time, so that the beam is moved through a sequence of positions on the specimen (e.g., locations 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. in Fig. 4.1). In an analog scanning system, the beam is moved continuously, with a rapid scan along the X-axis (the line scan), and a slow scan, typically at 1/500 of the line rate, at right angle along the Y-axis (the frame scan). The image is constructed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) scanning in synch with the scan of the specimen, controlled by the same scan generator. The signal derived from one of the detectors is amplified and used to control the brightness of the CRT, often with some form of signal processing applied to enhance the visibility of the features of interest.
Magnification
The magnification of the SEM image is defined by the ratio of the length of the scan on the CRT and the length of the scan on the specimen. M = LCRT/Lspec This means that SEM magnification can be changed by adjusting the length of the scan on the specimen corresponding to a constant length of scan on the CRT. Table 4.1 gives the size of the area sampled on the specimen as a function of magnification.
When the SEM is used to survey a specimen to determine its significant features, a combination of both low-magnification and high-magnification imaging should be used.
The Divergence Causes the Beam to Broaden above and below the Plane of Optimum Focus
Note the strong focusing action as electrons are repelled by the negative field lines around the grid cap. This focusing action forces the electrons to a crossover of diameter do and divergence angle o between the grid cap and the anode.
Changing the magnification is usually not generally an option. This leaves the divergence as the adjustable parameter. The divergence is adjusted by the selection of the final aperture radius, RAP and the working distance Dw. = RAP / Dw D (mm) 0.2/M
A typical set of final aperture size, specified by the diameter, are 100 m, 200 m, and 600 m, and a typical working distance is 10 mm, with a possible increase to 50 mm or more in some instruments, depending on the sample stage.
Images with Different Depth of Focus Obtained by Varying the Aperture Size and the Working Distance
Detectors
In order to form an image in the SEM, an appropriate detector must be employed to convert the radiation of interest that leaves the specimen into an electrical signal for manipulation and display by signal processing electronics. In general, the SEM detector for imaging is the type designed to collect backscattered and secondary electrons:
(1) Backscattered electrons: are beam electrons which escape the specimen as a result of multiple elastic scattering and have an energy distribution 0 EBSE Eo, with the energy distribution peaking in the range 0.8-0.9Eo for targets of
Positive Bias:
The positively biased E-T detector behaves in a profoundly different manner. The direct effect of the positive bias is to permit secondary electrons to enter the Faraday cage for subsequent acceleration by the bias on the scintillator. In addition to those secondaries emitted from the specimen into the solid angle of collection of the E-T detector, the attractive positive bias acts to deflect the trajectories of secondaries emitted from the specimen over a much wider range of solid angle into the detector, as shown in Fig. 4. 20.
The vast majority of backscattered electrons follow trajectories which miss direct collection by the E-T detector. These trajectories do cause the backscattered electrons to strike the pole-piece and the specimen chamber walls, where they cause the emission of secondary electrons, the SEIII component.