1

THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

AND INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
The Zeroth Law
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium.
Temperature
The absolute zero temperature is defined as the temperature
where all molecular activity ceases.
2
Dimensions and Units
Primary (fundamental) dimensions
Mass (m)
Length (L)
Time (t)
Temperature (T)
Secondary dimensions
Volume (V = L
3
)
Velocity (u = L t
-1
)
Force (F = m L t
-2
)
Energy (E = m L
2
s
-2
)
Force
From Newtons 2
nd
law
Force = (mass) x (acceleration)
Example
An astronaut weighs 730 N in Houston, Texas, where
the local acceleration of gravity is g = 9.792 m s
-2
.
What are the astronauts mass and weight on the
moon, where g = 1.67 m s
-2
?
3
With a = g , Newtons law is : F = mg . Whence,
) ( 55 . 74
) ( 55 . 74
) ( 792 . 9
) ( 730
2 1
2
kg m
s m N
s m
N
g
F
m
=
= = =

This mass of the astronaut is independent of location, but

weight depends on the local acceleration of gravity. Thus
on the moon the astronauts weight is :
) ( 5 . 124 ) ( 5 . 124
) ( 67 . 1 ) ( 55 . 74
2
2
N s m kg F
s m kg mg F
moon
moon moon
= =
= =

Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid at rest per unit area
( )
area unit
Force
ressure P
normal
=
Example
A dead-weight gauge with a 1 cm diameter piston is used to
measure pressures very accurately. In a particular instance a
mass of 6.14 kg (including piston and pan) brings it into balan-
ce. If the local acceleration of gravity is 9.82 ms
-2
, what is the
gauge pressure being measured? If the barometric pressure is
748 (torr), what is the absolute pressure?
4
The force exerted by gravity on the piston, pan and weight is ;
F = mg = (6.14)(9.82) = 60.925 N
( ) ( )
) ( 77 . 76
1
295 . 60
2
2
4
1

= = = cm N
A
F
pressure Gauge

The absolute pressure is therefore:

P = 76.77 + (748)(0.013332)
= 86.74 N cm
-2
= 867.4 kPa
5
Example
At 27
o
C the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is
60.5 cm. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.784 m s
-2
.
To what pressure does this height of mercury correspond?
( )
g h
A
g Ah
A
mg
A
F
P

= = = =
P = 60.5 (cm) x 13.53 (g cm
-3
) x 9 784.(m s
-2
)
= 8009 (g m s
-2
cm
-2
)
P = 8.009 (kg m s
-2
cm
-2
) =8.009 (N cm
-2
)
= 80.09 (kPa) = 0.8009 (bar)
Work
Work W is performed whenever a force acts through
a distance

=
=
2
1
l
l
Fdl W
Fdl W
6
Expansion or compression work
The force exerted by the piston on the fluid
( ) ( )

=
=
=
2
1
l
l
PAdl W
PA F
area piston pressure force
Because A = constant,

=
2
1
V
V
PdV W
The minus signs are made necessary by the sign convention adopted for work
7
Example
A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes an expansion
process for which the relationship between pressure and volu-
me is given by
PV
n
= constant
The initial pressure is 3 bar , the initial volume is 0.1 m
-3
, and
the final volume is 0.2 m
-3
. Determine the work for the process,
in kJ, if (a) n = 1.5 , (b) n = 1.0 , and (c) n = 0 .
Substituting the relationship
P = const / V
n
( )
( ) ( )
n
V const V const
W
dV
V
const
PdV W
n n
V
V
n
V
V

=
= =


1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
8
The constant can be evaluated at either end state:
n n
V P V P const
2 2 1 1
= =
( )
( ) ( )
( )
n
V P V P
W
n
V V P V V P
W
n n n n

=

1
1
1 1 2 2
1
1 1 1
1
2 2 2
This expression is valid for all values of n except for n = 1.0
To evaluate W, the pressure state at P
2
is required. Use
n n
V P V P
2 2 1 1
=
( ) 06 . 1
2 . 0
1 . 0
3
5 . 1
2
1
1 2
=
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
n
V
V
P P
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) kJ W
m N
kJ
bar
m bar m bar
n
V P V P
W
m
N
6 . 17
. 10
1
1
10
5 . 1 1
1 . 0 3 2 . 0 06 . 1
....
1
3
5
3 3
1 1 2 2
2
=

=
9
Energy
By Newtons 2
nd
law ma F =
The acceleration is defined as
dt
du
a =
where u is the velocity of the body
|

\
|
=
dt
du
m F
Using the chain rule, this can be written as :
u
dl
du
m
dt
dl
dl
du
m
dt
du
m F
|

\
|
=
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
|

\
|
=
where
dt
dl
u =
Substituting F into

=
|

\
|
= =
2
1
2
1
2
1
u
u
l
l
l
l
mudu W
dl
dl
du
mu Fdl W
10
Kinetic energy
For a constant mass m, this equation may now be integrated for
a finite change in velocity from u
1
to u
2
.
2 2
2 2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
mu mu
W
u u
m udu m W
u
u
=
|
|

\
|
= =

By definition:
2
2
1
mu E
kin
=
|
|

\
|
= =
2
2
1 , 2 ,
mu
E E W
kin kin
Potential energy
The weight of a body of mass m is the force of gravity on it
mg ma F = =
where g is the local acceleration of gravity
The work required to raise the body upward from z
1
to z
2
W = F(z
2
z
1
) = mg(z
2
z
1
)
= mgz
2
mgz
1
By definition: E
pot
= mgz
W = (E
pot
)
2
(E
pot
)
1
= (mgz)
11
Energy conservation
The work of accelerating a body produces a change in
its kinetic energy
|
|

\
|
= =
2
2
mu
E W
kin
The work done on elevating a body produces a change in
its potential energy
( ) mgz E W
pot
= =
For a freely falling body, E
kin
+ E
pot
= 0
( )
const mgz
mu
mgz
mu
mgz mgz
mu mu
= + = +
= +
|
|

\
|

1
2
1
2
2
2
1 2
2
1
2
2
2 2
0
2 2
Example
An elevator with a mass of 2,500 kg rests at a level 10 m above the base of
an elevator shaft. It is raised to 100 m above the base of the shaft, where
the cable holding it breaks. The elevator falls freely to the base of the shaft
and strikes a strong spring. The spring is designed to bring the elevator to
rest and by means of a catch arrangement, to hold the elevator at the posi-
tion of maximum spring compression. Assuming the entire process to be
frictionless, and taking g = 9.8 ms
-2
, calculate:
(a) The potential energy of the elevator in its initial position relative
to the base of the shaft
(b) The work done in raising the elevator.
(c) The potential energy of the elevator in its highest position relative
to the base of the shaft.
(d) The velocity and kinetic energy of the elevator just before it
strikes the spring.
(e) The potential energy of the compressed spring.
12
Let subscript-1 designate the initial conditions; subscript-2, conditions when
the elevator is at its highest position; and subscript-3, conditions just before
the elevator strikes the spring.
(a) E
pot,1
= mgz
1
= (2,500)(9.8)(10 0) = 245,000 J
(b)
( )
1 2
2
1
2
1
z z mg mgdl Fdl W
z
z
z
z
= = =

W= (2,500)(9.8)(100 10) = 2,205,000 J
(c) E
pot,2
= mgz
2
= (2,500)(9.8)(100 0)
= 2,450,000 J
Note that W= E
pot,2
E
pot,1
E
kin,23
+ E
pot,23
= 0
E
kin,3
E
kin,2
+ E
pot,3
E
pot,2
= 0
However, E
kin,2
= E
pot,3
= 0
therefore E
kin,3
= E
pot,2
= 2,450,000 J
With
( )
( )
1
3
3 , 2
3
2
3 2
1
3 ,
. 27 . 44
500 , 2
000 , 450 , 2 2
2

=
= =
=
s m u
m
E
u
mu E
kin
kin
From the principles of conservation of mechanical energy,
the sum of the kinetic- and potential-energy changes during
the process from condition-2 to condition-3 is zero,
(d)
13
Because the changes in the potential energy of the spring
and the kinetic energy of the elevator must sum to zero,
(e)
E
kin,elevator
+ E
pot,spring
= 0
The initial potential energy of the spring and the final kinetic en-
ergy of the elevator are zero; therefore, the final potential ener-
gy of the spring must equal the kinetic energy of the elevator
just before it strikes the spring.
E
kin,elevator,3
= E
pot,spring,3
= 2,450,000 J
Heat
Heat is the energy which is transferred across the boundaries
of a system interacting with the surroundings by virtue of a tem-
perature difference
Conduction
dx
dT
A Q
x cond
=
,
&
Fouriers law
Convection
( )
f s conv
T T hA Q =
&
Newtons law of cooling
Radiation
( )
4
2
4
1
T T A Q
emit
=
&
Stefan-Boltzmann law