( ) t cos I I K

2
1
I k F
2
m
2
m
2

UNIT-II
OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND RELAY CONSTRUCTION
Electromagnetic relays
Over current Relays
Directional Relays
Distance Relays
Differential Relays
Under frequency relays
Static relays
Basic Circuit
Electro Magnetic Relays
Attracted Armature Type
Balanced Beam Type
Induction Disc Type
Induction type
Attracted Armature Type
Plunger
Hinged armature
Balance Beam
Moving Iron Polarised
Simpler which respond to A.C. and D.C.
6
Hinged Armature Type
Coil is energized by current or voltage a proportionate
operating
quanitiy which produces magnetic flux creating
electromagnetic force.
Force is proportional to square of flux in the airgap or square
of current
This force increases as the approaches pole of
electromagnet.
7
Balanced Beam Type
Balanced Beam Type
Balnced Beam Type
An electromagnetic force is produced by magnetic flux which
in turn is produced by operating quantity
The force on moving element is proportional to square of flux
in airgap or square of current.
If this force exceeds restraining force, relay operates.
Has fixed beam and an electromagnet
Electromagnet has two winding one energized by voltage
and another by current.
Voltage is restraining quantity and current is operating
quantity
Under normal condition resrainig quantity will be more
hence contact remain in open.
When fault occurs operating quantity increase hence contact
closes for tripping.
8
Induction Disc Type
Construction
Horizontal beam pivoted centrally with one armature
attached to either side.
Two coils one on each side.
Beam remains horizontal till operating force greater than
restraining force.
Current in one coil gives operating force and the other gives
retraining force
When operating torque increases the beam tilts and contacts
close.
Relay actuates tripping mechanism of circuit breaker
Induction Disc Type
Rotating disc is made of aluminum
Half of pole of electromagnet is surrounded by shaded ring.
Shaded pole portion produces flux which is displace by
space and time with respect to the unshaded portion.
Two alternating flux cuts the disc and produce eddy current
in it.
Torque produced by interaction of each flux with eddy
current produced other flux - Resultant torque causes disc to
rotate.
Spring is used for restraining torque.
Permanent magnet is used for eddy current breaking to disc.
Breaking torque is proportional to speed of disc.
When operating current exceeds pick up value, driving
torque is produced and disc accelerates to speed where
braking torque balances driving torque.
Disc rotates at speed proportional to driving torque.
At current below pick up value, disc remains stationery by
tension of spring against normal direction of rotation of disc.
9
The disc rests against a back stop which is adjustable, so
that the relay travel can be varied called as Time Setting of
a relay.
THEORY OF INDUCTION
Induction Cup Relays
Double actuating quantity relay
High sensitive
High speed
Steady non vibrating torque
Reset to pick up ratio is high
Operating time is less than 0.01 sec.
Operates as Induction Motor
Stationery rotor iron core and moving rotor conductor (cup)
Moving element is a hollow cylinder or cup which turns on its
axis.
10
i
2
i
1
i
1
i
2

2
F
1
F
2
Driving element is four or eight pole structure placed around
cylinder
It is high speed because of less inertia
Coils displaced by 90
0
to produce rotating magnetic field
Rotor cuts magnetic field and an emf is induced in rotor
which results current due to short circuit nature of rotor.
Torque produced due to interaction between rotating flux
and induced current which causes rotation of cylinder
Torque produced is proportional to | I1| , | I2| sin or 1,
2 sin where 1, 2 are fluxes due to I1,I2 of coil pairs
and is phase difference between two fluxes.
It has high torque(3 times of disc) because of low weight
Moving Coil Relays
Permanent magnet, coil wound on non-magnetic former, spring,
Spindle
Coil is energized by fault current
Due to interaction of permanent magnetic field and field coil,
moving torque is developed.
Spindle rotates and closes the trip circuits.
F NHIL N No. of turns
H Magnetic field
I Current in the coil
L Length of coil
11
Inverse Extremely ....... ..........
1
80
Inverse .Very ........ ..........
1
5 . 13
IDMT .... ..........
1
014 . 0
2
02 . 0

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|

I
t
I
t
I
t
Ratio CT X setting Current
current Fault
PSM

CURRENT PICK UP
CURRENT SECONDARY CT
PSM

OR
Operating characteristics
Relay operating time vs actuating quantity
Relay has to overcome the inherent inertia of the controlling spring
and then only commence to operate.
This value is called as pick up value.
After relay picks up, it takes a minimum time to operate and trip the
faulty line / equipment these characteristics called as Definite
Minimum Time Characteristics (DMT).
Irrespective of magnitude of current, above the pick up value, the
operating time is same and however DMT Relays are slightly
Inverse.
Inverse Time Characteristics, relays operating time decreases as
the current above pick up value increases
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) - it has inverse time
characteristics for lower values of fault current and definite time
characteristics for higher values.
Very Inverse and Extremely inverse time characteristics acts
faster and suited for ground faults and over heating of machines.
Current setting
The ratio of secondary current flowing through the relay coil due to
fault to the pick up current is called as
Plug Setting Multiplier(PSM)
12
quantity Actuating - I
operation of Time ..... ..........
1
*
2 2
2

t
I I
K
t
K t I
Time Setting
Time Setting Multiplier(TSM) is a measure of adjusting the time
of operation of the relay
Angular distance travel is adjusted to get different operating time
Over Current Relays (O/C)
Instantaneous Type
No time differnence between occurrence of fault and
operation of relay
Realay operates when relay current exceeds pick up value.
Operating time is less than 0.1 sec.
Definite Time delay type
Time delay is between occurrence of fault and operation of
relay
Realy coil is energized by fault current and attracts moving
contact of trip circuit
Dash Pot arrangement will oppose the free movement of
moving contact will make a time delay
IDMT, VI, EI Type
Time lag is provided by connecting a fuse across the relay
coil
Depending on current flow through CT, the fuse will blow up
and relay gets energised to initiate Trip Circuit.
13
Distance Relay Protection
Earth Fault Protection
When fault current flows through earth return path, the fault
is called Earth Fault or ground Fault.
Employs the principle of residual current that actuates relay
unbalance current which operates relay
Employs the leakage current through metal that actuates
Directional Over Current Relays
Employs actuation of relay when fault current flows into relay
in particular direction
Whenever the fault occurs close to relay location, the voltage
will be insufficient to produce torque. For that a modified
connection which is 30
0
connection and the other is 90
0
connection is needed.
Relay will develop maximum torque when the current and
voltage are in phase.
Relay will develop maximum torque when the current leads
voltage by 45
0
.
14
Shaded pole type
Directional feature is achieved by incorporating directional
unit.
Main fluxes split into two fluxes displaced in time and space
with help of a shaded ring.
Shaded pole lags unshaded pole flux.
Directional unit consisting capacitance or resistance
capacitance circuits.
Directional unit controls angle between two fluxes by varying
the R-X parameters of lower electromagnet
Another method is to supply lower winding from separate
voltage source.
When voltage of this source is equal and opposite to the
output of upper magnet secondary winding, there is no
current in lower winding no torque is produced.
If it opposes and less than secondary output, there is an
operating torque.
If it opposes and exceeds secondary output, the current in
the lower winding reverses giving reverse torque used in
TRANSLAY relay.
Features
High Speed
High Sensitivity
Operates in low voltage
Short time thermal rating
Burden must not be excessive
No creep voltage and current
Distance Protection
Impedance Relays
Reactance Relays
MHO Relays or Admittance Relays
Impedance Relays
Measures impedance at realy location
Measured impedance is between the relay location and fault point.
It is proportional to the length of the line.
Voltage drop along the line and current flowing in the faulted line is
considered for impedance neasurement.
Operating principle:
15
Three Zone Impedance Relay Characteristics
Current produces operating torque
Volatge produces restraining torque
Oerating Torque T = K1 I
2
K2 V
2
K3
Condition K1 I
2
> K2V
2
(neglecting spring constant K3)
V
2
/ I
2
< K1 / K2
Z < K
Relay will be in verge of operation, when Z = K .
Relay will be in operation when Z < K
Constant is depending on total length of HT /EHT line to be protected.
V-I Diagram
Voltage at X-Axis
Current at Y-Axis
Slightly bent near origin due to spring
For static realy it is straight line no spring
Operating zone positive torque region above characteristics
Non - Operating zone negative torque region below
Characteristics
R-X Diagram
Z = K Radius of circle
If fault impedance is within the circle, the relay operates
If fault impedance is outside the circle, relay will not sense and it
will block
Impedance relay is non-directional relay
Operates on magnitude of operating quantity not on angle
Operating time is constant irrespective of distance within protective zone.
Zones of Protection
Three zones of protection
I Unit - protects from 80% to 90% of protected line
High speed unit
Instantaneous operation 1 to 2 cycles
16
II Unit - 20% of remaining in I Unit + 50% of adjoining line
Operates with time delay
Dealy 0.2 to 0.5 sec.
III Unit - back up proterction of adjoining line
Protected line + longest second line + 25% of third line
Time delay 0.4 to 1 sec.
Stepped time distance charactyersitics
Reactance Relays
Electromagnetic induction Relay (cup type)
Produces flux in upper, lower and right hand side poles.
Right side pole flux is out of phase with lower and upper fluxes
because secondary winding which is closed by a phase shifting
circuit.
Polarizing flux and right hand side flux interacts to produce
operating torque
Left hand side flux and polarizing flux interacts to produce
restraining torque
Phase angle adjustment circuit is connected in series with
voltage coil.
T= K1 I
2
K2 VI sin K3 sin = cos (90- )
VI sin - reactive components
K1 I
2
= K2 VI sin
K1 I = K2 Vsin
V / I = K1 / K2 sin
Z sin = constant
For operation
K1 I
2
> K2 VI sin
Z sin < constant
X < constant
Reactance relay will trip under normal load conditions when
power factor of load is unity or near unity.
Restraining volt-ampere at UPF will be near zero.
17
Must have directional unit for making relay inoperative during
normal load condition
For this MHO unit is introduced having circular characteristics
Used for short lines having less than 20kA

MHO (Admittance or Angle Admittance) Relay
ElectroMagnetic induction-cup type MHO Relay
Upper and lower poles are energized by voltage to produce
polarizing flux.
Left poles is energized by current is operating quantity
Both fluxes interacts to produce operating torque K1V I cos ( -
)
varied by adjusting resistance in phase shifting circuit provided
on
left pole
Right pole is energized by voltage and flux produced by it
interacts
With polarizing flux for restraining torque.
Characteristic is circle passing through origin
It is inherently directional as it detects fault only in the forward
direction.
Relay is called as MHO Relay because its characteristic is straight
line when plotted on an admittance diagram (G-B Axis)
T= K1 VI cos( - ) K2 V
2
Operating)K1 VI cos( - ) > K2 V
2
(restraining)
V / I < (K1 / K2) cos ( - )
Z < (K1 / K2) cos ( - )
18
I / V < K / cos ( - )
Y < K / cos ( - )
Differential Relay
Operates when the vector difference of two electrical
quantities (current) exceed a predetermined value.
Unit protection
Current entering winding and current leaving winding used for
sensing relay
Protected zone is determined by location of CT and PT
secondaries.
Types current balance type and voltage balance type
Used for protection of Protection of Generator
Protection of Transformer
Protection of Large Motors
Bus zone Protection
Pair of identical CTs fitted on either side of section to be protected
Secondaries of CTs connected in series such that induced currents
19
flow in same direction
Wire connecting two CT secondary is called Pilot Wire.
Operating coil of relay is connected across CT secondary at
equipotential point.
Resistance of pilot wire from each CT is same
Relay compares current and entering and leaving winding.
If ground fault occurs in winding, CT secondary will not be equal.
Differential current through operating coil of relay will operate.
Disadvantages:
Since resistances of both the sides will not be equal, relay will
operate under no fault condition for that adjustable resistors
connected in series with pilot wire.
Pilot cable capacitance will make error operation
Accurate matching of CTs not possible core saturation
Produce error operation
Under Transient condition, CTs secondary current will not be
equal
Due to residual magnetism in CTs relay will perform in error.
MERZ PRICE PROTECTION
To overcome the disadvantages restraining coil is added in pilot wire
Operating coil is connected at mid point of restraining coil.
Total No. of Ampere Turns will be sum of AT in halves
I1(N/2) + I2(N/2) which gives average current of (I1+ I2)/2
In N turns.
For external faults restraining torque increases which prevents mal
operation of relay.
The ratio of differential current (I1-I2) to the average restraining
current (I1+ I2)/2 is a fixed percentage is called Percentage
Differential Relay.
As restraining coil is also called as Biased Coil, the relay using this
also termed as Biased Differential Relay.
UNDER FREQUENCY RELAYS
Used in generator protection and for Load frequency control.
Over speeding of alternator occurs due to loss of load and under
speeding
due to increase in load. Both the cases frequency varies than
normal value.
Under Frequency Relay is used to trip the feeder on load at set value
of frequency in above condition to save the Generator
Under Frequency Relay aids load shedding to save the Grid.
Connected to secondary of VT
20
Two pairs of coils connected in parallel to supply voltage through
Impedance vary with frequency
Under normal condition, the impedance is so tuned that no torque
is applied on cup rotor
Under fault condition torque is applied on cup rotor due to change
in impedance either in CW or CCW direction depending on
frequency is higher or lower than the desired frequency.
Frequency setting is varied resistor and pick up can be varied by
remaining spring.
STATIC RELAYS
STATIC OVER CURRENT RELAYS
Advantages:
1. Reduced VA Consumption CT core size reduced
2. Compact size of relay is one fourth of electro magnetic
relays.
3. Not affected by vibrations
4. Accurate Time-Current Characteristics
Type:
1. Over Current Relay without Time Lag
2. Over Current Relay with Time Lag
3. Directional Over Current Relay with Time Lag
Functional Blocks:
1. input Circuit CTs, Current setting Switch, RC Filter
2. Rectifier
3. Level Detector
4. Amplifier
5. Tripping Relay
Time delay circuit is added between rectifier and level detector
Without directional feature is single quantity relays (o/c, u/v, e/f)
With directional feature are double quantity relays direction
sensed by phase angle between current and voltage (distance.
Differential)

Single Actuating Quantity Relay

Double actuating Quantity Relay
21
From
CT
Trip
Input Rectifier
Level
Detector
Amplifier output
Sum.
Filter
Sum.
Filter
Input
1
Rectifier
1
Rectifier
2
Comparator Output
Trip
Input
2
K t I
n

]
]
]

RC
c
e E V
t
1
]
]
]

t
e c
V E
E
RC T log
C
T
at t
1

]
]
]

e
e
E V
t
Principle:
Main CT not suitable because of higher Amps
Intermediate CT used to reduce to 1A
Functional locks:
Aux. CT
Current Detector
Harmonic Filter
Spike Suppressor for o/v in semiconductors
Smoothing circuit eliminates the ripple in the output waveform
Output of rectifier is proportional to r.m.s. value of input
waveform
Instantaneous o/c relays have no intentional time delay
Output may be of moving coil permanent magnet d.c.relay or
thyristor in series with trip coil
Time Characteristics
I Current sensed by relay
K Constant
t Time of operation
n index of relay
If n=0 it is definite characteristics
If n=1 it is inverse characteristics
If n=8, it is extremely inverse
For instt. Relay time is 10ms 20ms ( half to full cycle)
Timing Circuit
E d.c.applied to capacitor
Vc Voltage across capacitor
RC Time Constant
22
Input
Rectifier /
Smoother
Level Detector - 1
Level Detector - 2
Time Circuit
Amplifier
Output
Level Detector
Aux.
D.C.Supply
Block Diagram of static over current relay
Time delay can be adjusted by varying R,C with series and
parallel combination
At t=0, output of level detector is zero and no input to timer.
When output of rectifier reaches threshold value, level detector
gives E. and it is applied to timer. Capacitor gets charged. Vc
charges exponentially
Suppose Vt is the threshold value of level detector, the time
required to reach this voltage depends on time for charging the
Capacitor.

STATIC DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
23
Input (I)
Aux, C.T.
Selector
Input (V)
Aux. V.T.
Phase Shift
Phase Comparator
I / V cos
Level Detector - 1
Level Detector - 2
Time Circuit
Amplifier
Output
Aux.
D.C.Supply
Direction of power flow by means phase angle between voltage and
current
When angle exceeds predetermined value, relay operates with condition
that current is above pick up value.
Double actuating quantity relay that is voltage and current
Voltage drop due to fault does not cause effect
Because of comparators made sensitive to voltage reliable performance
upto 1% voltage

STATIC DIRECTIONAL RELAY
Relay operates when I cos ( - ) Iset is Characteristics angle
24
Phase Shifting
Device(cap.)
V.T.
From
C.T.
Converter
Smoothing
Circuit
Inverse Time
Lag Device
Level Detector
Amplifier
Output with
Indication
Setting
Device
Stabilising
circuit
Aux.
Voltage
Aux.
Voltage
Block Diagram of a static directional relay
When three phase system used I cos ( - + ) Iset where is angle
between the phase voltage to which the current is related and that voltage
supplied to the relay.
STATIC DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Differential protection responds to vector difference between two or more
similar quantities
Under fault condition out of balance current flows through operating coil.
Bias or Restraint is provided for preventing maloperation during external
faults
Merits:
Relay set with small dimensions
Stable for heavy faults
More sensitive for internal faults
Tripping time is less regardless of aux. voltage
Accurate and stable for unsymmetrical faults
25
W
d
I
d
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
2
Relay
W
h
Static Differential Relay
Rectifier
Inrush proof
Low VA Burden
Easy selection of aux. voltage
Applications:
Protection of Two / Three Wdg. Transformer, Generators,
Generator-Transformer
Protection for
Two / Three phase Faults
E/F in Trf.
E/F in Generators
Inter-turn Fault
Wd = C.T. for
operating
current Id
Wh = C.T. for
restraining
current
(I1+I2)/2
When there is an internal fault in protected zone, Id increases
When it exceeds pick up value (0.5 IN), relay operates.
Pick up value depends on ratio of differential current and through current
(I1+I2)/2
The tripping device receives forward current which is difference of IA and
IH
STATIC DISTANCE RELAY
Principle of measurement of impedance (distance)
Merits:
No effect of vibration, shocks, dust
Faster operation (20ms, 40ms, 60ms)
Less burden
Large range of adjustments and characteristics
Better stability under power swings
26
Suitable for kind of transmission lines
Cover all type of faults
Lower impedance setting is possible
Carrier aided distance protection schemes is that only tripping or
blocking command is transmitted over transmission line.
Greater selectivity, shorter interruption time
Compact size and less in weight
Operation Principles:
Comparators are used to compare either voltage or current from
Inputs
Replica of impedance is used in current comparators for eliminating
harmonics and transient d.c. components.
In distance relays operating current and restraining current may be
supplied by either C.T. or by P.T. through a series impedance or by
both sources in a particular combination to obtain relay
characteristics.
STATIC IMPEDANCE RELAY
Minimum Impedance Relay
estraining current supplied by voltage transformer
Operating current supplied by current transformer
Relay operates when V/I <ZN
Directional Impedance Relay
IR = K1 I K2V
IO = K1I + K2 V Relay operates when IO > IR
EFFECT OF POWER SWING
27
1
2
4
3
7
6
5
8
EXAMPLES

28


1
CIRCUIT BREAKER
2
RELAY
3
RELAY CONTACT
4
TRIP COIL
5
AUXILIARY CONTACT
6
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
7
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
8
CIRCUIT TO BE PROTECTED
29
30
CONNECTION DESCRIPTION REMARKS
31