(1) Contain two or more distinct constituents.

(2) Are synthesized in a way that the form, distribution

and amount of constituents are controlled in a
predetermined way.
(3) Have unique, useful and superior performance that
can be predicted from the properties, amounts and
arrangements of constituents using principles of
mechanics.
Engineering Composites - Defined

Material Two
Constituents
Synthesized/
controlled
Properties
Predictable
Engineering
Composite
Fiberglass/Epoxy Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cast Iron Yes No Yes No
Steel/Polypropylene Yes Yes Yes Yes
D.S. Eutectic Yes Yes Yes Yes
Adobe Brick Yes Yes Yes Yes
Wood Yes No No No
Bone Yes No No No


Two-constituent materials
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
4
6
8
10
SPECIFIC STIFFNESS
S
P
E
C
I
F
I
C

S
T
R
E
N
G
T
H
KEVLAR/EPOXY
BORON/EPOXY
GR/EPOXY (HS)
GR/EPOXY(HM)
GR/EPOXY(UHM)
E-GLASS/EPOXY
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
STEEL
Anisotropic - Material properties are different in all directions.
Orthotropic - Material properties are different in three mutually perpendicular
directions.
Isotropic - Material properties are the same in all directions. Almost all engineering
alloys such as aluminum
Anisotropic and steel in the annealed condition are isotropic.
Preferred Orientation - A material that has some degree of anisotropy is said to
have preferred orientation. Highly wrought alloys including aluminum and steel will
have different properties in the direction of elongation. Drawn wire and extrusions a
well known examples.
Random Orientation - A material that is said to have random orientation possesses
some degree of isotropy. Engineering alloys are made up of an assembly of
crystals, each of which may be orthotropic but on a macroscale exhibits apparent
isotropy.
Homogeneous -Properties are the same from point to point in the material. This
effect is very scale dependent. Even a material that consists of two or more phases
or constituents
TERMS COMMONLY USED IN COMPOSITE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Lamina - A single layer containing reinforcements in the plane of the layer. This is
the usual building block for design and fabrication of composite structures.
Laminate - A laminate is a stack of lamina (usually with alternating or varying
principal directions). The laminas are arranged in a particular way to achieve some
desired effect.
Micromechanics - Predicts composite behavior from the interaction of constituents
on the appropriate scale. In whisker composites the appropriate scale is a fraction
of a micrometer. For reinforced concrete the appropriate scale is several
centimeters.
Macromechanics - Predicts composite behavior by presuming homogeneous
material. The effects of constituents are detected only as averaged apparent
properties.
TERMS COMMONLY USED IN COMPOSITE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (Continued)
The reinforcement is the dimensionally controlled constituent (fixed
geometry) that can either be particles, fiber or flakes.
Reinforcements have unique properties that contribute significantly to the
properties of the composite.
REINFORCEMENTS
Textile Fibers
Polymers - rayon, polyacrilonitrile, Kevlar

, Nomex

, nylon
Carbons - graphite, carbon, Celiox

Ceramics - glass, alumina, Nextel

, silica, silicon carbide

Monofilaments (25 micron to 200 micron, continuous)
Boron on W, boron on carbon
SiC on W, SiC on C
Sapphire
W, Mo, steel, Be
Whiskers (< 1 micron, discontinuous)
Silicon carbide
alumina
boron carbide
carbon
204 Twisted
filaments
204 Untwisted
filaments
Chopped
for injection
molding or SMC
Multiple Untwisted
Strands
ROVING or TOW
Filament winding
or pultrusion
Muliple Twisted
Strands
YARN
UNTWISTED STRAND
(END)
TWISTED STRAND
(END)
Weaving
WOVEN ROVING CLOTH
Weaving
FILAMENT
(10-25 micron)
1 10 100 1000
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10
10
20
30
40
50
0
FIBER ASPECT RATIO
FIBER REINFORCED
SOLID SOLUTION
AND PRECIPI-
TATION HARDEN-
ING
DISPERSION
STRENGTHENING
CERMETS
COMPOSITE STRENGTH AFFECTED BY REINFORCEMENT SIZE
M
A
T
R
I
X

S
T
R
E
N
G
T
H
E
N
I
N
G

F
A
C
T
O
R
PARTICLE DIAMETER,MICROMETERS
PARTICLE
REINFORCED
FIBER OR
WHISKER
REINFORCED
CONTINUOUS
FIBER
PARTICULATE COMPOSITES FIBER COMPOSITES
3-0
3-0
3-0
3-1,3-2
fracture mechanics
multiple cracks
modified fracture
mechanics
multiple cracks
DISPERISION
STRENGTHENED
conventional
fracture mechanics
single crack
The matrix is the continuous phase of the composite
Functions of the matrix
Holding the fibers in place
Protecting the fibers from reaction with the environment
Transmitting load from fiber to fiber
Protecting the fibers from mechanical abrasion
MATRIX
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE BY MATRIX TYPE
Matrix
Type
Common
Designation
Matrix Properties Most Effective
Reinforcement
Stiffness Strength Ductility
Polymer
FRP
GRP
CRP
PMC
Low
(0.2 TO
0.5)
msi
Low
(0.5 TO
5)
ksi
Low
(< 2%) Continuous Fiber
Metal MMC
Moderate
(6 TO 16)
msi
High
(10 TO
150) ksi
High
(20%)
Continuous and
Discontinuous
Fiber
Ceramic CMC
High
(20 TO
80)
msi
High
(20 to 80)
ksi
Low
(< 1%)
Discontinuous
Fiber or Whisker
and Particulate
Matrix Materials for Engineering Composites
Matrix Type Positive Attribute Negative Attribute
Thermoset resins Low cost processing Brittle
Thermoplastic resins Tough
Formable
Low thermal and
solvent resistant
High cost to process
for filament
Carbon Very high temperature
applications
Very high cost to
process
Light metals
Thermal resistant
Conductive
Electrical and thermal
Reacts with most fibers
Superalloys Oxidation resistant Heavy
Refractory
High temperature
strength
Heavy
No oxidation
Resistant
Glass Corrosion resistant
Thermal expansion
Brittle
Glass/ceramics Corrosion and
temperature resistant
Brittle and expensive
Ceramic Very high temperature
Oxidation Expensive
Glass Fibers
! M e c h a n ic a l s t r e n g t h
! O x id a t i o n r e s i s t a n t
! M o i s t u r e r e s i s t a n t
! H ig h t h e r m a l c o n d u c t iv i t y c o m p a r e d t o p o l y m e r
! L o w t h e r m a l c o n d u c t iv i t y c o m p a r e d t o m e t a l s
! L o w d e n s i t y ( 2 . 5 5 )
! L o w t h e r m a l e x p a n s io n
! E l e c t r i c i n s u l a t o r
! C o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n t ( e x c e p t f o r H 3 P O 4 a n d H F )
! S o lv e n t , o i l a n d f u e l r e s i s t a n t
! Is o t r o p i c
! L o w m o d u lu s c o m p a r e d t o s t e e l
! S e l f - a b r a d i n g
! L o w f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e
! S i z i n g n e e d e d f o r a d h e s io n t o p o l y m e r s r e s u l t s in m o i s t u r e
a b s o r p t i o n
Glass Fiber Characteristics
Package Former
Draw Roll
Sizing Applicator (Starch-oil Emulsion)
Platinum Bushing
(1 mm holes)
Remelt Furnace
Glass Bead Hopper
Fiberglass Manufacturing
Glass Fiber Compositions
Designation Use Composition
E Electrical
Insulation
55%SiO
2
, 11%Al
2
O
3
, 6%B
2
O
3
,
18%CaO, 5%MgO, 5%Other
S High Strength
Composites
65%SiO
2
, 25%Al
2
O
3
,
10%MgO
(Strength Expensive)
S-2 High Strength
Composites
Same as above but less
stringent QC
A Thermal
Insulation
72%SiO
2
, 1%Al
2
O
3
, 10%CaO,
3%MgO, 14%K
2
O
C Chemical
Applications
65%SiO
2
, 4%Al
2
O
3
, 6%B
2
O
3
,
14%CaO, 3%MgO, 9%K
2
O
Glass Fiber Strength
Fiber
Virgin Forming Package
GPa ksi GPa ksi
S-glass 7.00 1000 5.00 725
E-glass 3.70 537 2.80 406
Pyrex 2.00 295 1.60 230
Fracture Strength
D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
Surface Active Substance
Water
Kerosene (Non-
polar hydrocarbon)
Surface Chemistry Effects on
Glass Fiber Strength
Diameter,

m
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

L
o
s
s
,

% 25
3 25 50 75
Fiber Diameter Effects on Strength
Fiber
Virgin Strength LiqN
2
Strength - 196
B
C
GPa ksi GPa ksi
S-glass 7.00 1000 7.00 1000
E-glass 3.70 540 4.50 780
Pyrex 2.00 295 2.60 375
Cryogenic Strength of Glass Fibers
Composition
E Bulk
GPa
E
Fiber
GPa
Diff
%
E-glass (non-alkaline alumino-
borosilicate)
86.1 73.5 14.6
S-glass (magnesia-alumino-
silicate)
94.5 87.0 8.0
C-glass (soda-lime-alumino-
silicate)
76.0 70.0 8.0
Pyrex (soda-borosilicate) 60.0 55.0 8.0
Elastic Properties of Bulk and Fiber
Form of Glass
E Glass
Pyrex
7
20 100
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

P
o
s
t
a
c
t
i
o
n
Relative Humidity, %
Elastic Post-Action
Time, min
70
350
D
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
E-Glass
Soda-lime-silicate
300
Elastic Post-Action vs Composition
Time, min.
580
400
70
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

P
o
s
t
-
a
c
t
i
o
n
,

m
1.3 GPa
Kerosene
1.0 GPa
Water
0.8 GPa
Surfactant
E-Glass
Post-Action Effects with Environment
! Lower SiO
2
content
! Increase beryllium and aluminum oxide content
! Increase heavy metal and rare earth oxides
! Non-silicate system -- lime-aluminate
! Density goes up
! Strength goes down
High Modulus Glass Fibers
Hi gh Speed
Winding
Heat
Treatment
Continuous
Strand
Forming
Package
Gl ass Choppi ng
Machine
Roving
Wi nder
Continuous
Roving
Woven
Roving
Chopped
Strand
Mat
Machine
Chopped
Strand
Mat
Weaving
Machine
Glass Fiber Products
Carbon Fibers
! Very high stiffness
! Low density
! High strength
! Thermally stable to (2000
B
C)
! Electrically conducting
! Low (negative) thermal expansion
! Chemically Inert
! High fatigue strength
! Oxidize at 1000
B
C
! Anisotropic
! Expensive
Characteristics of Carbon Fibers
c
a
0.669 nm
0.3345 nm
0.142 nm
Crystal Structure of Graphite
Property Diamond
(Cubic)
Graphite (Hexagonal)
a c
Bond Length (nm) 0.154 0.142 0.334
Conductivity (O
-1
m
-1
) <10
-15
250 0.05
Thermal Cond. (Wm
-1B
C
-1
) 0.9 x 10
3
2 x 10
3
6
Thermal Exp. (
B
C
-1
) 0.8 x 10
-6
-1.5 x 10
-6
27 x 10
-6
Young's Modulus (GPa) 1200 1060 36.5
Hardness (Moh) 10 .5-1
Density (Kg m
-3
) 3300 2265
"a" direction is parallel to the basal planes
"c" direction is perpendicular to the basal planes
Comparison of Graphite and
Diamond Properties

Tensile axis
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Anlge between basal planes and tensile axis,

0 45 90
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

G
P
a
Youngs Modulus of Graphite
L
a
c
L
Idealized Graphite Fiber Structure
F
i
b
e
r

a
x
i
s
Graphite Fiber Structure
Fiber axis
Sheath containing
enclosed voids
Fiber surface
consisting of
basal planes
Homogeneous main body with a
mean orientation of 12
Thin skin , 100 nm with large crystallite size
and mean orientation of 7
o
o
Typical Graphite Fiber Structure
(1) Controlled slow heating from RT to 150EC
! Remove absorbed water
(2) Dehydration from structure 150E - 240EC
(3) Thermal scission 240E - 400EC
! Break C-O bonds
! Form H
2
O, CO
2
, and CO
(4) Carbonization 400E - 700EC
(5) Graphitization to 3000EC - Stretching to align basal
planes parallel fiber axis
Processing of Rayon Based
Graphite Fibers
H
C C
H
H
H H
H Ethane
H
C C
H
H H
Ethylene
H
C C
H
H H
N
Polyethylene
Olefin Chemistry
H
C C
H
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
C C
H
H
H
C C
H
H
C
C
N
N
N
Vi nyl Benzene
( St yr ene)
Pol yvi nyl Benzene
( Pol yst yr ene)
Acryl oni t ri l e Pol yacryl oni t ri l e
( PAN)
Olefin Chemistry - PAN
P r e c u r s o r
A c r l i c F i b e r
S T A B I L I Z A T I O N
C A R B O N I Z A T I O N
G R A P H I T I Z A T I O N
S U R F A C E T R E A T M E N T
n i t r i c a c i d e t c h i n g
p r e o x i d a t i o n a t 2 0 0 C - 3 0 0 C
i n a i r f o r 1 - 2 h o u r s
h e a t t r e a t m e n t a t 1 2 0 0 C - 1 5 0 0 C
i n n i r t o g e n f o r 3 0 - 6 0 s e c
h e a t t r e a t m e n t a t 2 0 0 0 C - 3 0 0 0 C
i n n i t r o g e n / a r g o n f o r 1 5 - 2 0 s e c
H
i
g
h

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

c
a
r
b
o
n

f
i
b
e
r
s
H i g h m o d u l u s g r a p h i t e f i b e r s
PAN Processing of Carbon Fibers
+ O
+ H O
2
I . Oxi dat i on st ep ( 200 - 250 C)
o
Fi ber s ar e pl aced i n t ensi on
t o unf ol d t he chai n mol ecul es
Consi der a pai r of unf ol ded
PAN chai n mol ecul es l yi ng
appr oxi mat el y adj acent and
par al l el t o one anot her
Oxi di zi ng envi r onment i s
usual l y ai r
Cr oss- l i nki ng bet ween
adj acent chai ns occur s by
i ncor por at i on of t he oxygen
Excess oxygen r eact s
wi t h t he hydr ogen t o
f or m wat er
A commer ci al ver si on of t hi s cr oss- l i nked pr oduct i s
mar ket ed under t he t r ade name " CELI OX"
O O O O
PAN Step I
(Oxidation)
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH CH
CH
CH
CN CN
CN
CN
+ O
2
CH CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
O
O
O
CH CH
CH
CH
CN
CN
CN CN
+ H O
2
PAN Conversion
C C
C C C
C C
C C C
C C
C C C
C
C
C C C
C C
C C C
C C
C C C
H O HCN
2
+
PAN Step II (Carbonization)
600
400
200
20
40
60
0
0
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
Heat Treatment Temperature, C
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

M
s
i
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

K
s
i
PAN Step III (Graphitization)
Manufacturer Designation
Modulus
(Msi)
Strength
(Ksi)
Cost
($/#)
Hercules AS2 33 400
AS4 33 520 21
Amoco T300 32 450 26
T650-35 35 645 28
Celion G30-500 34 550 24
G30-600 34 630 34
Graphil AP38-750 38 750
AP38-500 33 500 16
AP38-600 33 600 24
Hercules IM6 40 745 48
IM7 42 785 53
XIM8 45 750
XMS4 48 400
Amoco T650-42 42 720 53
T40 40 820 55
T1000 42 1002 326
Celion G40-600 43 620 45
G40-700 43 720 47
42-7A 42 725 59
Graphil AP43-600 43 650
Hercules HMU 52 400
Celion G50-300 52 360 58
Graphil AP50-400 50 400 55
AP53-650 53 650 100
AP53-750 53 750 110
Hercules UHMS 62 325 325
Celion GY-70 75 270 750
GY-80 83 270 850
Properties of PAN Based
Carbon Fibers
Coal Tar
Pitch
Mesophase
Heat 40 Hr
400-500 C
Spun
(Extrude) Precursor
(Raw)
Fibers
Stabilization
(Thermosetting)
Green
Fibers
Carbonize and
Graphitize
1700 - 3000 C
Graphite
Textile
Fibers
Processing of Mesophase Pitch
Fibers
PRESSURE
MESOPHASE
DIE
FIBER
Mesophase Pitch Spinning
Precursor Yield
(%)
Density E
(GPa)
s
TU
Rayon 10 1.66 390 2.0
PAN I 40 1.83 350 1.5
PAN II 40 1.74 230 2.2
Mesophase
(HS)
80 2.10 340 2.9
Mesophase
(HM)
80 2.20 690 2.4
Comparison of Carbon Fibers
Fiber Cross-Sections
VSA16 Pitch
HM3000 PAN
T300 PAN
GY70 PAN
T50 Rayon
Other Fibers
- C - N - C - C - C - C - C - C - N - C - C - C - C - C - C -
H H H
2 2 2 2 2
H H H H H H H
2 2 2 2
H
2
H
The amide linkage:
Aliphatic Amides
(Straight-Chained-Satutated)
Nylon 6
Nylon 6/6
C - N - C - C - C - C- C - C - N - C - C - C - C - C - C - N -
H H H H H H H H H H H
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
O
H
O O
H
O O O
- C - OH + - NH = - C - N + H O
2
O
O
H
carboxolic acid amine
amide water
H
Aramide
Fibers
NH
. . .
O = C
Hydrogen Bond
C C C
C C
C C
N
C N
O
O
H H
C C
C C
C C
Aromatic Amide
Benzene-Ring-Unsaturated

Advantages:
! Very high tensile strength (400-500 ksi)
! Very low density
! Low (negative) thermal expansion coefficient
! Resistant to acids,solvents, lubricants and oils
! Thermal stability
! High tensile elongation
Limitations:
! Degrades in ultraviolet light
! Moisture absorption
! Poor transverse properties
! Poor compressive properties
! Poor shear properties
Properties of Aramide Fibers
High temperature strength
Thermal stability
Excellent in compression
Oxidation resistant
Corrosion resistant
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
High stiffness
Expensive
Difficult to machine composites containing ceramic
fibers
Relatively high density
Brittle
Ceramic Fibers
(2) Spinning of polycarbosilane
! Distillation at 280
B
C to adjust molecular weight
for spinability
! Melt spinning 200-300
B
C
(3) Curing by oxidation 200
B
C
! Cross linking of polycarbosilane with oxygen
(1) Production of polycarbosilane
Processing of SiC Fibers
GRIND
C
O
K
E
CARBON TUBE REACTOR
1600 C
SHRED
RICE HULL
STORAGE
WHISKER / CARBON SEPARATION
WHISKER /HULL RELIC
SEPARATION
DRY CARBON OXIDATION ANALYSIS
DISPERSE
SiC Whisker Processing
Diameter (microns) 0.45 - 0.65
Length (microns) 10 - 80 (< 80%)
Surface area (M
2
/G) 3.0
Density (G/cm
3
) 3.2
Bulk density (G/cm
3
) 0.2 (Approximate)
Tensile strength
! GPa
! ksi
1.4 - 4.8
200 - 700
Elastic modulus
! GPa
! Mpsi
420 - 690
60 - 100
SiC Whisker Properties
! Excellent in compression
! Ideal for metal matrix (permits some degree of fiber
reaction)
Limitations
! Expensive
! Heavy (for W substrate)
! Brittle (large minimum bend radius)
Monofilaments (Thick Fibers)
2
2
min
1
1
curvature
bendradius
2
f
fu
M c
I
M EI
d y
dx
ED

=
=
=
=
=
Minimum Bend Radius
Fiber s
f
(GPa)
D
(Micron
s)
E
(GPa)
?
min
(mm)
Carbon 2.1 11 520 1
Al
2
O
3
FP 1.4 25 345 3
SiC Filaments 3.5 9 300 0.5
B, Sic or Borsic 2.8 200 400 14
Tungsten 1.1 500 400 91
Tungsten (Fine
Drawn)
4.1 75 400 4
Bend Radii Comparisons
Let-off spool
Gas inlet
Exhaust gas
Take-up spool
Mercury electrode
Mercury electrode
Tungsten filament
Reaction: 2BCl
3
+3H
2
2B+6HCl
Boron Filament Processing
Tungsten Core
WB
W B
2 5
Bulk amorphous boron
Skin
4
WB
Boron Fiber Structure
FIBER
BORON
S
T
R
E
S
S
_
+
Residual Stresses in Boron Fibers
125 micron
25 micron
10 micron
1 micron
GLASS FIBER
CARBON FIBER
WHISKER
MONOFILAMENT
TUNGSTEN OR CARBON CORE
Fiber Diameter Comparison
Manufacturer
Designatio
n
Composition
Tensile
Strength,
MPa
Tensile
Modulus
, GPa
Density Diameter
m
Nippon
Carbon
Nicalon 50 Si, 31C, 10 O 2520-
3290
182-210 2.55 10-20
Textron SCS-6 SiC on carbon core 3900 406 3.0 143
3M Nextel 312 62 Al22O33, 14 B22 O33, 15 SiO22 1750 154 2.7 11
DuPont FP >99 a -Al22O33 >1400 385 3.9 20
Sumitomo (spinel) 85 Al22O33, 15 SiO22 1800-
2600
210-250 3.2 9-17
Ube Tyranno Si, Ti, C, O >2970 >200 2.4 8-10
Textron polymer
pre
Si, C >2800 280-315 6-10
Dow Corning MPDZ 47 Si, 30 C, 15 N, 8 O 1750-
2450
175-210 2.3 10-15
Dow Corning HPZ 59 Si, 10 C, 28 N, 3 O 2100-
2450
140-175 2.35 10
Dow Corning MPS 69 Si, 30 C, 1 O 1050-
1400
175-210 2.65 10-15
3M Nextel 440 70 Al22O33, 2 B22O33, 28 SiO22 2100 189 3.05 10-12
3M Nextel 480 70 Al22O33, 2 B22O33, 28 SiO22 2275 224 3.05 10-12
DuPont FP 166 Al22O33, 15-25 ZrO22 2100-
2450
385 4.2 20
Continuous Ceramic Fibers
Fiber Dia.
m
?
g/cc
E
GPa
E
msi
s
TU
GPa
s
TU
ksi
g
f
%
a
R
/EF
a
r
/EF
?
E-Glass 10 2.54 72 11 3.45 500 4.8 2.8 2.8 0.20
S-Glass 10 2.49 87 13 4.30 625 5.0 1.6 1.6 0.22
PAN C T-300 7 1.76 228 34 3.20 470 1.4 -
0.1
7.0 0.20
PAN C AS 7 1.77 220 32 3.10 450 1.2 -
0.5
7.0 0.20
PAN C T-40 6 1.81 276 40 5.65 820 2.0 0.20
PAN C HMS 7 1.85 345 50 2.34 340 0.6 0.20
PAN C GY-70 8.4 1.96 483 70 1.52 220 0.4 0.20
Pitch C P-55 10 2.00 380 55 1.90 275 0.5 -
0.5
0.20
Pich C P-100 10 2.15 690 100 2.20 325 0.3 -
0.9
0.20
Kevlar 49 11.
9
1.45 131 19 3.62 525 2.8 -
1.1
33 0.36
Boron 140 2.70 393 57 3.10 450 0.8 2.8 2.8 0.20
SiC 133 3.08 400 58 3.44 485 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.20
Al22O33 FP
fiber
20 3.95 379 55 1.90 285 0.4 4.6 4.6 0.20
Dia.
m
? ?
Typical Fiber Properties
The Rule-of-Mixtures
What is it?
Certain properties of materials with discrete
phases can be predicted by the properties and
volume amounts of their constituents.
M B B A A
P P V P V = +
Volume Fraction of Fiber:
Volume fraction
In a two-component system consisting of one fiber
and one matrix, the total volume of the composite is ,
hence
c f m
v v v = +
(1 )
m f
V V =
f
f
c
v
V
v
=
m
m
c
v
V
v
=
Similarly the weight fractions W
f
and W
m
of the fiber and matrix respectively can
be defined in terms of the fiber weight w
f
,
the matrix weight, w
m
and the composite
weight, w
c
.
Weight Fraction
(1 )
f
f
c
m
m
c
m f
w
W
w
w
W
w
W W
=
=
=
c f m
w w w = +
c c f f m m
v v v = +
c f f m m
V V = +
Composite Density
c f m
v v v = +
Composite Density in Terms of
Weight Fraction
f
c m
c f m
w
w w

= +
1
c
f
m
f m
W
W

=
+
Convert between volume fraction
and weight fraction
f
c
f f
V
W

=
Use the definition of weight fraction and express
the weights in terms of volumes and densities
f
f
c
f f f
f f
c c c
w
W
w
v
W V
v


=
= =
Voids in Composites
void actual theoretical
v v v =
actual theoretical
void
actual
v v
V
v

=
Divide by actual composite volume gives:
Express volumes in terms of weights and densities
theoretical actual
void
theoretical
V

=
The fibers are continuous, that is they extend for the
length of the composite
The fibers are aligned in one direction only
The load is applied parallel to the direction of the
fibers
There is perfect bonding between the fiber and the
matrix thereby preventing interfacial slip
Strength and stiffness parallel to
fibers
P
P
c
c
L,1
T,2
S,3
MATRIX
FIBER
Model of Unidirectional Composite
P
c
, strains fibers , matrix, and composite the same amount
P
c
is partitioned between the fiber and the matrix
Loads can be expressed in terms stress and cross-sectional area
Dividing by the cross section area of the composite
Areas A
m
, A
f
and A
c
are equivalent to volumes V
m
, V
f
and V
c
ROM Strength
c f m
= =
c f m
P P P = +
c c f f m m
A A A = +
f f
m m
c
c c
A
A
A A

= +
c m m f f
V V = +
Simple rule-of mixtures can also be expressed in terms of strain and
Youngs modulus
Strains in the composite and the constituents are equivalent
ROM Stiffness
c C m m m f f f
E E V E V = +
c m m f f
E E V E V = +
The Youngs moduli of fiber, E
f
, the matrix, E
m
and the composite, E
c
can be
expressed in terms of stress and strain:
Because of strain equivalency the ratio of the stresses in the constituents
are the same as the ratio of their Youngs moduli.
Similarly the ratio of the stress in one of the constituents, say the fiber, to
the stress in the composite is given as
Consequences of ROM
f f f
E =
m m m
E =
c c c
E =
f f
m m
E
E

=
f f
c c
E
E

=
Solving for the stress on the fiber
In terms of load
Consequences of ROM (Cont)
c f
f
f f m m
E
E V E V

=
+
f f f
m m m
P V E
P V E
=
f
f
m
f
m c
m f
E
P
E
E
V P
E V
=
+
and
1
10
100
1000
1 10 100
E
f
/E
m
P
f
/
P
m
V
f
=0.9
V
f
=0.7
V
f
=0.5
V
f
=0.3
V
f
=0.1
Load-Stiffness Relation
Stress-strain Curves For Composites
Brittle Fiber and Brittle Matrix With the Same Failure Strain
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s
Fiber Fraction, V
f
0 1
'
f
'
m

fu

mu

mu

fu
f
i
b
e
r
m
a
t
r
i
x
S
t
r
e
s
s
a)
b)
Matrix contribution
(1 )
mu f
V
Fiber Contribution
fu f
V
Brittle Fiber Ductile Matrix With Different
Failure Strains
S
T
R
E
S
S
STRAIN
Vmin
Vcrit
0
1.0
FIBER FRACTION

fu

mu

m
'
'
(1 )
cu fu f m f
V V = +
'
m f
E =
(1 )
mu f
V
(1 )
m f
V

fu f
V
'
(1 ) (1 )
mu f fu f m f
V V V = +
Minimum and Critical Volume
Fractions
Minimum volume fraction is defined when
hence
'
min
'
mu m
fu mu m
V

=
+
Critical volume fraction is defined when
'
(1 )
mu fu f m f
V V = +
hence
'
'
mu m
crit
fu m
V

A hybrid composite consists of two different types of fiber in an epoxy

matrix. Using the properties of the constituents given below, draw the
stress-strain diagram for the composite tested to failure in an elongation
maintained test. Assume all constituents fail in a brittle manner.
Sample Problem
Constituent Weight
%
Density,
g/cc
Youngs
Modulus, GPa
Tensile
Strength, GPa
S-glass 40 2.49 87 4.3
Kevlar 49 25 1.45 131 3.6
Epoxy 25 1.16 0.75 0.031
The first step is to determine the order of failure of the constituents:
Solution (page1)
'
4.3
0.04943
87
S glass
f
S glass
S glass
E

= = =
49
'
49
49
3.6
0.02748
131
Kevlar
f
Kevlar
Kevlar
E

= = =
'
0.031
0.04133
0.75
epoxy
f
epoxy
epoxy
E

= = =
49
49
1 1
1.575
0.4 0.25 0.35
2.49 1.45 1.16
c
S glass epoxy
Kevlar
S glass Kevlar epoxy
W W
W

= = =
+ +
+ +
Solution (page 2)
Composite density from ROM
0.4(1.575)
0.253
2.49
S glass c
S glass
S glass
W
V

= = =
Volume fractions
49
49
49
0.25(1.575)
0.272
1.45
Kevlar c
Kevlar
Kevlar
W
V

= = =
49
1 0.475
epoxy S glass Kevlar
V V V

= =
Solution (page 3)
The Youngs modulus of the composite before any constituent fails is
designated E
1
1 49 49 S glass S glass Kevlar Kevlar epoxy epoxy
E E V E V E V

= + +
1
87(0.253) 131(0.272) 0.75(0.475) 57.67 E = + + = GPa
The first constituent to fail is Kevlar49
2 S glass S glass epoxy epoxy
E E V E V

= +
2
87(0.253) 0.75(0.475) 22.37 E = + =
When the epoxy fails
3 S glass S glass
E E V

=
3
87(0.253) E =
GPa
GPa
Solution (page 4)
The stresses when the Kevlar fails
GPa
The stresses when the Epoxy fails
When the epoxy fails
GPa
'
1 1 49
57.67(0.02748) 1.585
Kevlar
E = = =
'
1 2 49
22.37(0.02748) 0.615
Kevlar
E = = =
GPa
GPa
GPa
'
2 2
22.37(0.04133) 0.9246
epoxy
E = = =
'
2 3
22.01(0.04133) 0.9097
epoxy
E = = =
'
3 3
22.01(0.04911) 1.081
S glass
E

= = =
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

G
P
a
Solution (page 5)
Brittle matrix and ductile fiber with
different failure strains
0
1.0
FIBER FRACTION STRAIN
'
m
S
T
R
E
S
S
Vtrans

mu
fu

'
m
a
t
r
i
x
f
i
b
e
r
stress on the fiber at matrix failure
' '
f f m
E =
'
(1 )
cu f f mu f
V V = +
At high fiber fraction the matrix can fail completely with the fibers
holding the fractured matrix fragments in place
cu fu f
V =
The transition from matrix-dominated to fiber-
dominated failure
'
mu
trans
fu mu f
V


=
+
Brittle Matrix Failure Transition
Brittle Matrix Failure Mechanism
For the matrix may split into a series of slabs held in place by the
fibers. Slabs will range in thickness between X and 2X.
FIBER
MATRIX
2x'
x'
The force on the matrix, is transferred from the fiber by
shear, , hence
m
d V
2 rdx
2
2
f
m
V
d V rdx
r

=
Model for calculating force on matrix
d x
r
FIBER
MATRIX
'
0 0
2
mu
X
m
f
V r
dx d
V

=

'
2
m mu
f
V r
X
V

=
4x' 2x' <4x'
M
A
T
R
I
X

S
T
R
E
S
S
M
A
T
R
I
X

S
T
R
E
S
S
2x' x'
<2x'
Slab Formation
2X is then the minimum distance to transfer sufficient force from the
fiber to the matrix to cause matrix fracture, thus creating a slab. If a
slab is 4X when it fracture it will crate two slabs exactly 2X thick.
When they break there will be 4 slabs X thick. If a slab is between
2X and 4X it will fracture into a slab between X and 2X, thus
accounting for the range of observed slab thickness.
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S
Slabing phenomenon
in matrix
Slope = V
f
E
mu max

f
Stress-strain diagram for brittle matrix-
ductile fiber composite
max
1
m m
mu
f f
V E
V E


=



max
1
2
m m
mu
f f
V E
V E


=



2X slabs 4X slabs
S
t
r
e
s
s
S
t
r
e
s
s
S
t
r
e
s
s
S
t
r
e
s
s
Strain
Strain
Strain
Strain
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
0 V
f
1
0 V
f
1
0 V
f
1
0 V
f
1
( )
min
Above : 1
cu f u f m f
V V V = +
( )
min
Below : 1
cu mu f
V V =
min
mu m
fu mu m
V



=
+
min
mu
fu mu f
V


=
+
min
mu
fu mu f
V


=
+
min
mu
fu mu f
V


=
+
f
i
b
e
r
fib
e
r
f
i
b
e
r
f
i
b
e
r
m
a
trix
m
a
t
r
i
x
m
a
t
r
i
x
m
a
t
r
ix
V
min
V
min
V
min
V
min
min
Above :
cu fu f
V V =
( )
min
Below : 1
cu mu f f f
V V V = +
min
Above :
cu fu f
V V =
( ) min
Below : 1
cu mu f f f
V V V = +
min
Above :
cu fu f
V V =
( )
min
Below : 1
cu mu f f f
V V V = +

mu

mu

mu

mu
'
m
'
f
'
f
'
f
Stress-Strain
Summary
0
1.0
FIBER FRACTION STRAIN
'
m
S
T
R
E
S
S

mu
fu

fu

f
'
f
'
m
a
t
r
ix
f
i
b
e
r
V
min
For V
f
< V
min
failure matrix failure results in failure of the composite
For V
f
> V
min
matrix is split into thin slabs of thickness X< t < 2X
FIBER
MATRIX
2X
X
Ductile fiber-brittle matrix
4X 2X <4X
M
A
T
R
I
X

S
T
R
E
S
S
M
A
T
R
I
X

S
T
R
E
S
S
2X 2X X X
<2X<2X
Slab Formation
X is the minimum distance that the shear force is sufficient to break matrix and
since the maximum stress will occur at the midplane of the slap the slab must be
2X thick to break. Smaller slabs would not allow the force to build up to the fracture
stress of the matrix at the midplane of the slab.
Slabs exactly 4X thick can break into two slabs 2X thick which can then break
into slabs X thick
Slabs 2X< t < 4X will split into two slabs X< t < 2X
Slabs < 2X cannot split any further
d x
r
FIBER
MATRIX
Force to Fracture Matrix
Force on matrix = total area for transfer x shear stress
2
2
f
m
V
d V rdx
r

=
Solving for dx in terms of d and integrating
0 0
2
2
mu
X
m
f
m mu
f
V r
dx d
V
V r
X
V

=
=

Stress-Strain Behavior
Cracking begins at
mu
and ends at
max
when the last remaining slab splits
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S
Slab splitting phenomenon
in matrix
Slope = V
f
E
f
mu max

max
1 1
2
m m m m
mu mu
f f f f
V E V E
V E V E






The
max
limts are:
Transverse Properties
Every plane normal to the transverse direction will have a different fiber
cross sectional area. This significantly complicates the stress analysis.
L,1
T,2
S,3
MATRIX
FIBER
Load
Slab Model
t
f
t
m
/2 t
m
/2
matrix
reinforcement
Longitudinal
Transverse
Transverse Rule-of-Mixtures
c m
f
c c m m
f f
f
m
c m
f
c c
t t t
t
t
t t



+
+
+
Elongations through the thickness are additive hence:
For a unit area thickness is the same as volume then:
c m m
f f
V V +
For serially connected constituents the loads on all constituents are the same
( )
( )
1
1
1
c m
f
c m
f
f
c m
f f
m
T f
f
f
m
T f
P P P
V V
E E E
V
V
E E E

+
0
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0
10
8
6
4
2
0
Fiber Volume Fraction , V
f
E
T

/


E
m
Longitudinal
(Parallel Connected)
Transverse
(Serial Connected)
ROM Plot
( )
1
1
T
m m
f f
f
E
E E
V V
E

+
Rearranging for plotting
1
T
f
m
m
f
E
V
V
E E

+
Comparison of slab model and
realistic composites
Realistic Model
Slab Model
Elasticity model
C= 0 C=1
ISOLATED MATRIX
FIBERS CONTIGUOUS
ISOLATED FIBERS
MATRIX CONTIGUOUS
0<C<1
PARTIAL CONTIGUITY
Transverse Youngs Modulus
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1
2 2
2 1
2
2 2
f m m m f m m
m m f m m
T f f m m
f m f f m f m
m f m f m
K K G G K K V
C
K G K K V
E V
K K G G K K V
C
K G K K V

]
+
+ ]
+ +
]
]
+
]
]
+ +
]
]
+
]
]
( )
2 1
f
f
f
E
K

( )
2 1
m
m
m
E
K

( )
2 1
f
f
f
E
G

+
( )
2 1
m
m
m
E
G

+
where
The shear modulus
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1
2
f f m m f m f m m
L m f
m f m m f m f m m
G G G V G G G G V
G C G CG
G G G V G G G G V
] ]
+
+ ] ]
+ + +
] ]
] ]
Poissons ratio
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1
2 2
f f m m m m m f m m m m f f m f f m f f
LT
f m m m f m m f m m f m f m
K K G V K K G V K K G V K K G V
C C
K K G G K K V K K G G K K V

+ + + + + +
+
+ + +
Halpin-Tsai Equations
t
r
a
n
s
v
e
r
s
Transverse Youngs Modulus
1
1
f
T
m f
V
E
E V

1
f
m
f
m
E
E
E
E

+
( )
2
a
b

where
and
a
b
b
LOAD LOAD
Cross Sectional Aspect Ratio
1.732
a
b

| `

. ,
Rectangular Cross Section
Reinforcement
STRESS STRESS
b
a
For the case of then , hence and
STRESS STRESS
a
b
0
2
0
a
b

0 a b
Transverse Case
0
1
1
T
m f
E
E V

f m
f
E E
E

f
T
m f m m f
E
E
E V E V E

+
and
then
Results are identical to the serially connected constituent or slab
model
Longitudinal Case
STRESS STRESS
b
a

For the case of and , then

a 0 b
1
1
f
T
m f
V
E
E V

f m
m
E E
E

T f f m m
E E V E V +
then
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume Fraction, V
f
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
ROM
Halpin-Tsai
Elastic C=0
Elastic C=0.5
Elastic C=1
Comparison of Transverse Modulus Models
Transverse Strength
Transverse strength is always less than the matrix strength
Fibers act as stress concentrators
Defects in fiber-matrix bond can result in critical flaws

Tu
mu
S

S Is the strength reduction factor

Assuming brittle fracture in the composite the transverse failure strain is
*
Tu
T
T
E

Estimates of Failure Strain
Analytical estimate:

T mu
f
m
f
V
E
E
*
/

|
.

`
,

|
.

`
,

]
]
]
]
1
4
1
1 2
Empirical estimate:
( )

T mu f
V
* /
1
1 3
Estimates of Strength
Analytical approach:

Tu mu
T
m
f
m
f
E
E
V
E
E

|
.

`
,

|
.

`
,

]
]
]
]
1
4
1
1 2 /
Empirical approach:
( )
1/ 3
1
T
Tu mu f
m
E
V
E

Limitations to volume fraction
Square Array Close Packing
Random Regular Open
Packing Geometry
square array packing
max
2
2
4
0.785
f
D
V
D
| `

. ,

D
close packed array
D
max
4
2
8
0.907
3
4
f
D
V
D

Weight of composite in air = 3.697g
Weight of composite in water = 1.636g
Weight of fiber after acid digestion = 2.595g
Density of fiber =2.5g/cc
Density of matrix=1.2g/cc
Find the theoretical and actual volume fraction and weight fraction of constituents
298 . 0
697 . 3
595 . 2 697 . 3
701 . 0
697 . 3
595 . 2
=

= = = = =
c
f
m
c
f
f
w
w
W
w
w
W
89 . 1
) 2 . 1 ( 697 . 3
107 . 1
) 8 . 2 ( 697 . 3
595 . 2
1 1
=
+
=
+
=
m c
m
f c
f
th
w
w
w
w

79 . 1 0 . 1
636 . 1 697 . 3
697 . 3
) (
=

=
water
water c c
c
act
w w
w

Acid Digestion Problem
Actual volumes
3.697
2.065
1.79
2.595
1.038
2.5
1.102
0.918
1.2
c
actual
actual
f
f
f
m
m
m
w
v cc
w
v cc
w
v cc

= = =
= = =
= = =
1.038
0.503
2.065
0.918
0.444
2.065
1 1 0.503 0.444 0.053
f
f
actual
m
m
actual
v f m
v
V
v
v
V
v
V V V
= = =
= = =
= = =
Volume fractions
Acid Digestion Problem(page2)
Theoretical volume fractions
1.89
2.595
1.89
3.697
0.531
2.5
1 0.469
theoretical
f theoretical
f
f
m f
W
V
V V

=



= = =
= =
Check on
v
V
1.89 1.79
0.053
1.89
theoretical actual
v
theoretical
V

= = =
Acid Digestion Problem(page3)
Rule of Mixtures Strength Problem
Given the following constituent properties
F
fu
=1.75 GPa
m
=0.51 GPa E
f
=230 GPa E
m
=157 GPa
a) What is the maximum fiber fraction at which matrix failure
constitutes composite failure?
b) What is the strength of the composite at this fiber fraction?
c) What fiber fraction is necessary for a composite strength of 1.0
Gpa?
d) What fiber fraction is required to achieve a composite strength of
0.54 GPa?
e) What is the composite strength at 20% fiber content?
f) What is the composite strength at 40% fiber content?
Strain
Volume Fraction
0 1
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

G
P
a
0
1
2
C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

G
P
a
Rule of Mixtures Strength
Problem(page2)
00325 . 0
157
51 . 0
748 . 0 00761 . 0
230
75 . 1
= = =

= = = = =
m
mu
m
m f f
f
fu
f
E
E
E

f
0.01 0
Rule of Mixtures Strength
Problem(page3)
a) What is the maximum fiber fraction at which matrix failure
constitutes composite failure?
337 . 0
748 . 0 51 . 0 75 . 1
51 . 0
) 1 (
=
+
=
+
=
=

+
f mu fu
mu
transition f
f fu f f f mu
V V
V V V

b) What is the strength of the composite at this fiber fraction?
GPa V V
GPa GPa V
f f f mu
transition fu cu
59 . 0 ) 337 (. 748 . 0 ) 337 . 1 ( 51 . 0 ) 1 (
or
59 . 0 ) 337 . 0 ( 75 . 1
cu
= + =

+ =
= = =


Rule of Mixtures Strength Problem
(page 4)
c) What fiber fraction is necessary for a composite strength of 1.0 GPa?
571 . 0
75 . 1
00 . 1
= = =
=
fu
cu
f
f fu cu
V
V

d) What fiber fraction is required to achieve a composite strength of 0.54 GPa?
126 . 0
51 . 0 748 . 0
51 . 0 54 . 0
) 1 (
cu
=

+ =
mu f
mu cu
f
f f f mu
V
V V



Rule of Mixtures Strength Problem
(page 5)
e) What is the composite strength at 20% fiber content?
GPa
V V
f f f mu
526 . 0 ) 2 . 0 ( 59 . 0 ) 8 . 0 ( 51 . 0
) 1 (
cu
cu
= + =
+ =

f) What is the composite strength at 40% fiber content?
GPa GPa V
f fu cu
70 . 0 ) 40 . 0 ( 75 . 1 = = =
Transverse Stiffness Design Problem
You need to design a structure for operation at 750F that
must have a longitudinal modulus,E
L
of 35 mpsi and a
transverse modulus, E
T
of 7 mpsi. The structure must also
have a high but unspecified compressive strength.
Transverse Stiffness Design Problem
(Page2)
Material Selection:
To meet temperature, stiffness and compression requirements I
would select either boron or silicon carbide monofilaments.
These fibers also are approximately isotropic.
psi E
boron
000 , 000 , 57 =
From organic material handbooks I found polyamide-imide meets the
temperature requirement. It is also a low density material.
psi E
imide polyamide
000 , 720 =

Transverse Strength Problem

Estimate the transverse fracture strength of an S-glass/epoxy composite
with 75% by weight fibers. The constituents have the following properties:
1.14 0.072 3.1 epoxy
2.48 4.30 89 S-glass
Density, g/cc
U
, GPa E, GPa
1 1
1.917 /
(1 ) 0.75 0.25
2.48 1.14
c
f f
f m
g cc
W W

= = =

+
+
Composite density
Fiber volume fraction
0.75(1.917)
0.58
2.48
f c
f
f
W
V

= = =
Transverse StrengthProblem (page
2)
(1 )
(1 )
1
2
f
T m
f
f
m
f
m
V
E E
V
E
E
E
E

+
=

= =
+
13.298
T
E GPa =
( )
1 3
1 0.051
1.4
T
TU mu f
mu
mu
TU
E
V GPa
E
S

= =
= =
Adhesion between fiber and matrix is controlled by
properties of the interface.
High Degree of Adhesion:
! Provides efficient transfer of load between fiber
and matrix.
! Controls properties of composite in direction
transverse to fibers.
! Influences shear properties.
! Reduces susceptibility to environmental
degradation.
Poor Adhesion:
! Provides higher fracture toughness for crack
normal to reinforcement.
! Minimizes tri-axial state of stress in matrix between
fibers (promotes ductility of matrix).
The Interface
Control Surface Tension - High degree of wetting
between fiber and matrix promotes good bonding.
! Wetting can be controlled by:
- Temperature
- Composition of matrix
- Composition of fiber surface
Interfacial Bonding & Wetting
LS
GS
GL
G
S

o
cos
0 complete wetting
180 unwetting
GS LS LG

! Mechanical Locking
- Whiskerizing by the CVD growth of SiC
whiskers on graphite
SiCl
4
+ CH
3
SiC + HCl
H
2
+ 2SiCl
2
(CH
2
) 2SiC +4HCl
! Oxidation
- Treating graphite fibers in concentrated
HNO
3

- Heating graphite fibers in air
Methods for Increasing Bonding
Fiber
Matrix
Good Bond Poor Bond
Micro-indentation Test
SHORT BEAM GOOD BOND POOR BOND
IOSIPESCU SHEAR GOOD BOND POOR BOND
Shear Tests for Bond strength
x nd
md
Fibers unbonded
- Stiffness in bending is the moment of inertia
of each fiber x E
f
x the number of fibers
Direct Effect of Interfacial Bonding
4
64
U f
d
D E mn

Beam Stiffness with Bonded Fibers
/ 2
2
/ 2
2 2
/ 2
2
/ 2
/ 2
2
/ 2
3 4
4 4
1
1
4 4
1
4 4 12
nd
B c
nd
nd
B f m
nd
nd
B f m
nd
B f m
D E X dA
d d
nm nm
D E E X dA
md nd md nd
D E E X dA
mn d
D E E

]
| `
| ` | `
]

. , . ,
]
+
]

]

]
. ,
]
]
| ` | `
+
]
. , . ,
]
]
| ` | `
+

]
. , . ,
]

For the graphite fiber (P100)/epoxy matrix system:

Stiffness Ratio for Bonded &
Unbonded Fibers
( )
6
6
m
3 4
B
3 4
3 4
4
2
100 10 (P100 graphite fiber)
E 0.2 10 (epoxy)
D 0.00043
4 12
4 12
64
48
4
3
f
f f
B f
f
B
U f
B
U
E x
x
mn d
E E
mn d
D E
E mn d
D
D E mn d
D
n
D

] | `
+
]
. ,
]
]
| `

]
. , ]

Unbonded fibers behave as missing fibers hence the Young's

modulus of a composite with some unbonded fibers are given
as:
neglecting the stiffness of the matrix
Effect of Unbonded fibers on E
c
( )
( )
* *
*
* *
*
*
1
Volume fraction of unbonded fibers
1
1
c f f m f f f
f
c f f m f
c c f f
f
c
f
c c
E E V E V E V
V
E E V E V
E E E V
E
E
V
E E
+

+

| `


. ,
*
*
*
*
1
1
f
c
f
c f f
f
c
c f
E
E
V
E E V
V
E
E V
| `



. ,

0.05
0.15
0.20
0.40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
*
V
f
V
f
*
E
c
E
c
Contribution of Unbonded Fibers
Interfacial Failure
Equilibrium forces on element of beam
dx
L
dx
y
M
M
B A
V
q
B A
c
f f
c c
f
f
c
Vdx M M
My
I
E
E
E
My
E I

Equilibrium Forces on Fiber
dx
y

P
A
P
B
2
fB fB
P P rdx
Divide by cross section area of fiber
2 2
2
fB fB
P P
rdx
r r

Gives stress on fiber

2
f
dx
r

Stress on fiber in terms of bending moment
2
f
c
E My
dx
E I r

using
M
dx
V

Equilibrium Forces on Fiber(cont)

2
f
c
E My
M
E I r V

Solving for
2
f
c
VE yr
E I

Dividing both sides by
f

2
f
c
f
f
c
VE yr
E I
E My
E I

or
2
f
V r
M

Ratio of Interfacial to Fiber stress
L
P
V=P/2
M=PL/4
f
f
f f
c c
f
c
c
r
L
r
L
E
E
E
r
L E

Failure Under Compressive Loads

! Microbuckling
! Transverse splitting - Poisson tensile strain
! Shear failure
Microbuckling
Extensional Mode Shear Mode
( )
1/ 2
2
3 1
f m f
LU f
f
V E E
V
V

]
]
1
m
LU
f
G
V

Transverse Splitting
SPLITTING
( )( )
1/ 3
1
T L LT
LU LT
T
L
L TU
LU
LT
f f m m
u
LU
f f m m
E
E
E V E V
V
V V

+
Shear Failure
KINK BAND
Local rotation
0.100
1.000
10.000
100.000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fiber Volume Fraction
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

m
p
s
i
Extensional Buckling
Shear Buckling
Transverse Splitting
Compressive Strength of Composites
TRANSVERSE TENSILE FAILURE
! Matrix failure
! Interfacial failure (debonding)
! Fiber splitting
TRANSVERSE COMPRESSIVE FAILURE
! Matrix shear
! Debonding (interface shear)
! Fiber crushing
IN-PLANE SHEAR FAILURE
! Matrix shear
! Interface shear (debonding)
! Combination of above
Other Failure Modes
Short Fiber Composites
Model system: (Kelly-Tyson)
Fiber is perfectly elastic
Matrix is rigid/perfectly plastic
fiber
matrix
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S

i
Elongation in Model System
All forces on fiber are transmitted from the matrix through fiber surface
LOAD
LOAD
Stress on Fiber
2
r
dx
CENTER-LINE
l
f
+ d
f f

Sum forces in element dx

Forces consist of
End forces
f
A
c
Shear forces
i
A
s
2 2 2
/ 2
0
2
2
2 fmax
fo
f i f f
i f
l
i
f
r rdx r d r
dx d r
d dx
r

+ = +
=
=

Stress on Fiber (Cont.)

=
=
max
0
largest stress developed in fiber
stress due to loading on free cross-section
f
f
Evaluating the integral
max
i
f fo
l
r

= +
Stress due to loading on free cross-section can be neglected
max
2
i
f
l
d

=
Stress on Fiber Profile
Integrating from fiber center to other end
/ 2
2 fo
fmax
l
i
f
l
d dx
r

=

Gives stress profile in fiber
i
LENGTH ALONG FIBER
S
H
E
A
R

S
T
R
E
S
S

l/ 2
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S

max
f
L
Ineffective Length
Discontinuous but long fibers
Composite is loaded to
c
Where
c cu
<
max
f
f f c
c
E
E
= =
LENGTH ALONG FIBER, X
2
t l
l
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
max
f

l
t
is called the ineffective length
f
c
t
c i
E
r
E

= l
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
l
LENGTH ALONG FIBER
f

max
f

l
t
If the composite contains fiber lengths , less than then the fibers cannot be
loaded to their maximum potential hence
l
t
l
max f f
<
f
f c
c
E
E
<
Fibers Less Than Ineffective Length
Critical Length
If the composite is loaded to the ultimate or breaking strength, , the
ineffective length becomes the critical length, and the discontinuous
fibers in the composite can be loaded to failure hence,
and the critical length is given as
cu

c
l
f
fu cu
c
E
E
=
2
fu
c
i
d

= l
LENGTH ALONG FIBER
t
c

c
= =
cu
=
f

<
E
E
f
c
E
E
f
c
E
E
f
c
f

c
f

fu

l
l
l
Stress Transfer for Elastic Matrix
and Elastic Fiber
Assume that both the fiber and the matrix are elastic
LOAD
LOAD
no yielding at the interface between fiber and matrix
strain in the matrix and in the composites is considered equal
strain in the fiber is clearly less than that of the composite
m c

z

Matrix Displacement Around Fiber

w
DISTANCE FROM CENTER, z
D
I
S
P
L
A
C
E
M
E
N
T
,

u
u
f
u
R
The matrix displacement w in the fiber direction is constant for any
distance z from the fiber over all possible angles, , hence
Shear stress, , is also independent of , hence
The matrix displacement at the surface of the fiber is equal to the fiber
displacement
( )
w f z
( )
f z
d x
R
z
2r

Multi-fiber Model
Summing the shear forces at the fiber surface and at a distance z form
the center of the fiber gives
which reduces to
Expressing the shear stress in terms of shear strain and shear
modulus of the matrix
2 2
e
z dx r dx
e
r
z

e
m
r du
dz zG

Solve for the Displacement

evaluates to
The ratio R/r depends upon the arrangement of the fibers which can be
expressed as the packing factor, P
f
.
For square array of fibers
For hexagonal array of fibers
R
f
u R
e
u r
m
r dz
du
G z

ln
e
R f
m
r R
u u
G r

1
ln ln
2
f
R
r V

| `

. ,
1 2
ln ln
2 3
f
R
r V

| `


. ,
For a general arrangement
1
ln ln
2
f
f
P
R
r V
| `

. ,
Using packing fraction and solving for
Taking the center of the fiber as the origin the stress transferred to the fiber can be
written as
Combining above equations
( )
(1 ) ln
m R f
e
f
m
f
E u u
P
r
V

| `
+


. ,
Calculating Stress Transfer
2
f
e
d
dx r

2
2 ( )
(1 ) ln
f m R f
f
m
f
d E u u
dx
P
r
V

| `
+


. ,
Calculating Stress Transfer (Cont)
Differentiating
( )
2
2
1
2 2
f
f f
d
n
E
dx r

( )
2
2
1 ln
m
f
f m
f
E
n
P
E
V

| `
+


. ,
1
cosh
1
cosh
2
f f
nx
r
E
n
r


| `



. ,

' '
| `



. ,

l
1
1
sinh
2
cosh
2
f
e
nx
nE
r
n
r

| `

. ,

| `

. ,
l
where
Fiber stress: Shear stress:
Shear Stress and Fiber Stress
Distribution Along Fiber
DISTANCE ALONG FIBER
S
H
E
A
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
l
l
2
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
DISTANCE ALONG FIBER DISTANCE ALONG FIBER DISTANCE ALONG FIBER
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
STRAIN STRAIN STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S
S
T
R
E
S
S
S
T
R
E
S
S
RIGID PERFECTLY
PLASTIC MATRIX
ELASTIC FIBER
ELASTIC MATRIX
ELASTIC FIBER
ELASTIC-PLASTIC
MATRIX
ELASTIC FIBER
FIBER
MATRIX
SHEAR STRESS
FIBER STRESS
Comparison of Fiber and Shear Stress
Profiles for Different Matrix Behavior
Average Stress in Short Fibers
The rule-of-mixture for discontinuous (short) fiber reinforced composite is
c f f m m
V V +
f

Is the average stress on the fiber that depends on fiber length

For fiber length l<l
t
2
2
i
f
f
i
f
l
d
l
d

l
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
f

Fiber Length Equal Ineffective Length

t
l l
max
2 2
f c f
f
c
E
E


F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
c
E
E
f
c
l t
Fiber Length > Ineffective Length
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
l
l
2
t
max
f

( )
0
0
max max
max
2
1
2
l
f
f l
t
f f t
f
t
f f
dx
dx
l
l l
l
l
l

| `
+

. ,

| `


. ,

t
l l >
Fiber Length >> Ineffective Length
50
t
l l
max
max
max max
1
2
1
100
0.99
t
f f
t
f f
f f f
l
l
l
l



| `


. ,
| `


. ,

Composite Strength with Average
Fiber Stress
c
l l <
( )
1
i
cu f mu f
l
V V
d

+
c
l l
( )
1
1
2
cu fu f m f
V V

+
c
l l >
( )
1 1
2
c
cu fu f m f
l
V V
l

| `

+

. ,
c
l l >>
( )
1
cu fu f m f
V V

+
cu f f m m
V V +
Average Fiber Stress for Elastic
Fiber and Elastic Matrix
1
tanh
1
f f
n
r
E
n
r

]
| `

]
. ,
]
]
]
]
l
l
Comparison of Elastic Perfectly
Plastic and Elastic-Elastic Cases
F
I
B
E
R

S
T
R
E
S
S
DISTANCE ALONG FIBER
max
f

( )
max
1 1
t
f f
l
q
l

]

]
]
q
Is the ratio of the cross hatched area to the area given by
max
2
f t
l
The cross-hatched area is then
max f t
q l
1
2
q
ROM Strength Diagram
1.0 0
C
O
M
P
O
S
I
T
E

S
T
R
E
N
G
H
+ 1- ( )
V
f
V
V
f
V
1- ( )
V
f
V
1- ( )
V
f
V
V
f
V
V
f
V
V
min
V
crit

f
'
m
'
m
'
m

mu

mu
min
mu m
f mu m
V

+
Youngs Modulus of Short Fiber Composites
For transverse modulus
LOAD
LOAD
b
a
For a circular cross section fiber a b =
1
1
2
1
2
T T f
T
m T f
T
f
m
T
f
m
V
E
E V
E
E
E
E

+
=

=
+
LOAD
LOAD
d
l
Youngs Modulus of Short Fiber
Composites
Longitudinal Modulus
1
1
2
1
2
L L f
L
m L f
L
f
m
L
f
m
V
E
E V
d
E
E
E
E d

+
=

=
+
l
l
Empirical Values for
10
2 40
f
a
V
b
= +
For E
L
10
2 40
f
l
V
d
= +
For E
T
1.732
10
40
f
a
V
b

= +


For G
LT
Correction for volume fraction becomes important for V
f
>0.7
Random Orientation
5 3
8 8
2 1
8 8
1
2
random T L
random T L
random
random
random
E E E
G E E
E
G

= +
= +
=
0
10
20
30
S
T
R
E
S
S
,

k
s
i
STRAIN, %
COMPOSITE WITH MATRIX A
COMPOSITE WITH MATRIX B
MATRIX A
MATRIX B
Stress-Strain Behavior of Short Fiber
Composites
Typical Strength Behavior of Short
Fiber Composites
80
60
40
20
0
0.2 0.6 0.4 0.8 1.0 0
ACTUAL MATRIX A
ACTUAL MATRIX B
R
O
M

M
A
T
R
IX

A
R
O
M

M
A
T
R
I
X

B
S
T
R
E
N
G
T
H
,

k
s
i
FIBER VOLUME FRACTION
Fracture Behavior of Short Fiber
Composites
CRACK OPENING DISPLACEMENT
L
O
A
D
0.29 V
f
EPOXY
Depends on:
V
f
Fiber Properties
Interfacial Properties
Strain Rate
Time
Temperature
Relatively insensitive to:
Matrix
Specimen Thickness
Notch Length
Fracture in Discontinuous Composites
Property
% Glass Fiber
0 10 20 30 40
B D B D B D B D B D
Flexural
Strength,(MPa)
58 21 _ 44 89 67 110 85 132 -
Flexural
Modulus,(GPa)
3.0 0.9 - 2.4 5.4 4.0 6.5 5.5 7.5 -
Impact, (J/cm2) - 19 - 13 - 10 - 9 - -
Izod Impact,
(J/cm)
0.1 - -- - 3.3 - 4.5 - 6.4 -
B - Brittle Matrix (Polystyrene)
D - Ductile Matrix (High Density Polyethylene)
Impact Behavior of Discontinuous
Glass Fiber Composites
! Lower fatigue resistance than continuous fiber
composites
! Initiation by debonding at fiber-matrix interface
! Fiber ends are also initiation sites
! Contributes to thermal damage of matrix
! Results in susceptibility to moisture damage
! Ductile matrix can limit fatigue crack propagation
Fatigue of Short Fiber Composites
An orthotropic lamina is a sheet with unique and predictable properties
and consists of an assemblage of fibers lying in the plane of the sheet
and held in place by a matrix.
Continuous Discontinuous
L and T are the principal material directions sometimes referred to as 1
and 2. The angle formed by the counter clockwise rotation from an
arbitrary direction x to L is +?. The clockwise rotation produces -?.
Orthotropic Lamina
Y
L,1
X
T,2
X
L,1
Y
T,2

Deformation in Orthotropic Lamina

Orthotropic lamina loaded in principal directions or isotropic
lamina loaded in any direction
T
L
P
P
a) Load in principal direction, L
b) Shear load in LT direction
Deformation in Orthotropic Lamina
Orthotropic lamina loaded in an arbitrary direction
T
L
P
P
a) Extensional load in arbitray direction
b) Shear load in arbitrary direction
Hookes's Law For Anisotropic
Material
full tensor notation
ij ijkl kl
E
Subscripts i,j,k,l = 1,2,3 ,hence there are a total of 3
4
or 81
Strain symmetry produces the result E
ijkl
= E
ijlk
Stress symmetry produces the result E
ijkl
= E
jikl
Thermodynamic arguments produce the result E
ijkl
=
E
klij
Leaving only 21 unique elastic constants
Expanded Elastic Constants in
Full Tensor
1111 1122 1133 1123 1131 1112
1122 2222 2233 2223 2231 2212
1133 2233 3333 3323 3331 3312
1123 2223 3323 2323 2331 2312
1131 2231 3331 2331 3131 3112
1112 2212 3312 2312 3112 1212
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
E E E E E E
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
Contracted Notation
Replace paired subscripts with a single subscript according to the
following: 1 for 11, 2 for 22, 3 for 33, 4 for 23, 5 for 31, and 6 for 12.
i ij j
C
subscripts can have the values 1,2,3,4,5, and 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
12 22 23 24 25 26
13 23 33 34 35 36
14 24 34 44 45 46
15 25 35 45 55 56
16 26 36 46 56 66
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
Transformation Of Elastic
Constants
To transform an elastic constant from the X axis to the X' axis use the
following:
where a
im
, a
jn
, a
kr
, a
ls
are direction cosines.
'
mnrs im jn kr ls ijkl
E a a a a E
x
3
x
2
x
1
Direction Cosines for Transformation
Through Plane of Symmetry
X
1
a
11
= 1 a
12
= 0 a
13
= 0
X
2
a
21
= 0 a
22
= 1 a
23
= 0
X
3
a
31
= 0 a
32
= 0 a
33
= -1
X'
1
X'
2
X'
3
'
1111 1111
'
1122 1122
'
1131 1131
E E
E E
E E

The result can only be true if . Examination of the
stiffness matrix indicates that odd multiples of a
33
will give negative and hence
zero values for E
ijkl
. Applying this observation to all the coefficients then the
following E
ijkl
are zero:
E
1113
, E
1213
, E
2223
, E
1223
, E
1123
, E
1333
, E
2213
, E
2333
'
1131 1131
E E
1131
0 E
Elimination of Stiffness Coefficient
with One Plane of Symmetry
Effect of Second Plane of Symmetry
Apply to a second plane, X
2
X
3
X
1
a
11
= - 1 a
12
= 0 a
13
= 0
X
2
a
21
= 0 a
22
= 1 a
23
= 0
X
3
a
31
= 0 a
32
= 0 a
33
= 1
X'
1
X'
2
X'
3
Elimination of Stiffness Coefficient
with Second Plane of Symmetry
Odd multiples of a
11
give negative (hence zero) E
ijkl
T T T T
E
1112
E
2231
E
2212
E
3331
E
3312
E
2331
E
2312
The T 'ed coefficients are eliminated by the second plane of symmetry,
unchecked coefficients fit the criteria but were already eliminated by the
first plane of symmetry. Applying the third plane of symmetry does not
eliminate any other coefficients.
Hooke's Law for the Orthotropic
Material
11 12 13 1 1
12 22 23 2 2
13 23 33 3 3
44 23 23
55 31 31
66 12 12
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
C C C
C C C
C C C
C
C
C






]
]
]
]

] ' ' ' '

]
]
]
]
]
Reduced Stiffness Matrix
For a two dimensional lamina (sheet) the stresses through the
thickness are so small that they can be neglected (plane stress),
hence
3 23 31
0
Hookes Law for plane stress
1 11 12 1
2 12 22 2
12 66 12
0
0
0 0
Q Q
Q Q
Q



]

]

' ' ' '

]

]
]
2
13
11 11
33
C
Q C
C

,
13 23
12 12
33
C C
Q C
C

,
2
23
22 22
33
C
Q C
C

66 66
Q C
.
For lamina that are transversely isotropic,
13 12
C C
33 22
C C
and
Hookes law in terms of compliance is
Compliance Matrix
1 11 12 1
2 12 22 2
12 66 12
0
0
0 0
S S
S S
S



]

]

' ' ' '

]

]
]
Sij's and Qij's are mutually inverse
[ ] [ ][ ]
I S Q
Inverting
22
11
2
11 22 12
11
22
2
11 22 12
12
12
2
11 22 12
66
66
1
S
Q
S S S
S
Q
S S S
S
Q
S S S
Q
S

Inverting [S]
22
11
2
11 22 12
11
22
2
11 22 12
12
12
2
11 22 12
66
66
1
Q
S
Q Q Q
Q
S
Q Q Q
Q
S
Q Q Q
S
Q

Inverting [Q]
Experimental Determination of
Compliance
1 11 12 1
2 12 22 2
12 66 12
1 11 1 12 2
2 12 1 22 2
12 66 12
0
0
0 0
S S
S S
S
S S
S S
S






]

]

' ' ' '

]

]
]
+
+

expanded
Uniaxial Tensile Tests
2 12
1 11 1
0 0
S

1
11
1 1
1
S
E

1
12
12
1
2
1 12 2
E
S
S

1 12
2 22 2
0 0
S

2
22
2 2
1
S
E

2
21
12
2
1
2 12 1
E
S
S

2
1
21
12
E
E

Shear Test
12
66
12
12
12 66 12
2 1
1
0 0
G
S
S

Compliance And Stiffness In
Terms Of Engineering Constants
11
1
22
2
12 21
12
1 2
11
12
1
1
1
S
E
S
E
S
E E
S
G

1
11
12 21
2
22
12 21
21 1 12 2
12
12 21 12 21
66 12
1
1
1 1
E
Q
E
Q
E E
Q
Q G

12 1
21 2
E
E

Stress-strain Relation For Lamina
in Any Direction
L
X
X
L

[ ]
1
2
12
x
y
xy
T

' ' ' '

[ ]
1
2
12
1 1
2 2
x
y
xy
T

' ' ' '

[ ]
( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
cos sin 2cos sin
sin cos 2cos sin
cos sin cos sin cos sin
T



]
]

]
]

]
]
Second Order Transformation
Matrix
[ ]
( )
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
cos sin 2cos sin
sin cos 2cos sin
cos sin cos sin cos sin
T

]
]

]
]
Inverted transformation matrix
The inverted matrix can by found using 2 = -2 in th [T ] matrix
Transforming From Principal to
Arbitrary Direction
Transforming stress from principal to arbitrary direction
[ ]
1
1
2
12
x
y
xy
T

' ' ' '

Transforming strain from principal to arbitrary direction
[ ]
1
1
2
12
1 1
2 2
x
y
xy
T

' ' ' '

Hookes Law For Stresses And Strains
Applied In Arbitrary Direction
(1) Convert engineering strain in the arbitrary direction to tensorial strain in
the arbitrary direction.
(2) Transform tensorial strain in the arbitrary direction to tensorial strain in the
principal material direction.
(3) Convert tensorial strain in the principal material direction back to the
engineering strain in the principal material direction.
(4) Find engineering strain in the principal material direction to stress in the
principal material direction using Hookes Law for orthotropic material.
(5) Transform stress in the principal material direction to stress in the original
arbitrary direction.
Convert Engineering Strain in the
Arbitrary Direction to Tensorial
Strain
[ ]
1
1
2
x x
y y
xy
xy
R

' ' ' '

[ ]
1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1
0 0
2
R

]
]
]
]
]
]
Step 1
TransformTensorial Strain in the
Arbitrary Direction to Tensorial Strain
in the Principal Material Direction.
[ ]
1
2
12
1 1
2 2
x
y
xy
T

' ' ' '

Step 2
Convert Tensorial Strain in the
Principal Material Direction Back to the
Engineering Strain
[ ]
1 1
2 2
12
12
1
2
R

' ' ' '

[ ]
1 1
2 2
12
12
1
2
R

' ' ' '

Step 3
Find the Stresses in the Principal
Material Directions
Step 4
[ ]
1 1
2 2
12 12
Q

' ' ' '

Transform Back to the Arbitrary
Direction
[ ]
1
1
2
12
x
y
xy
T

' ' ' '

Step 5
All Operations in One Equation
[ ] [ ][ ][ ][ ]
1 1
x x
y y
xy xy
T Q R T R

' ' ' '

Transformed stiffness matrix
[ ] [ ][ ][ ][ ]
1 1
Q T Q R T R

]
]
Reduces to
[ ] [ ][ ]
1 T
Q T Q T

]
]
The Transformed Stiffness Matrix
11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q
]
]
]
] ]
]
]
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
4 2 2 4
11 11 12 66 22
4 2 2 4
22 11 12 66 22
2 2 4 4
12 11 22 66 12
3 3
16 11 12 66 12 22 66
3
26 11 12 66 12
cos 2 2 sin cos sin
sin 2 2 sin cos cos
4 sin cos sin cos
2 sin cos 2 sin cos
2 sin cos
Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q





+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ ( )
( )
( )
3
22 66
2 2 4 4
66 11 22 12 66 66
2 sin cos
2 2 sin cos sin cos
Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q


+
+ + +
Transformed Compliance Matrix
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
1 1
x x
y y
xy xy
R T R S T

' ' ' '

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
1 1
S R T R S T

]
]
[ ] [ ][ ]
T
S T S T ]
]
Individual Coefficients In
Transformed Compliance Matrix
11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
S S S
S S S S
S S S
]
]
]
] ]
]
]
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
4 4 2 2
11 11 22 12 66
4 4 2 2
22 11 22 12 66
2 2 4 4
12 11 22 66 12
3 3
16 11 12 66 22 12 66
3
26 11 12 66 22
cos sin 2 sin cos
sin cos 2 sin cos
sin cos cos sin
2 2 sin cos 2 2 sin cos
2 2 sin cos 2
S S S S S
S S S S S
S S S S S
S S S S S S S
S S S S S





+ + +
+ + +
+ + +


( )
( )
( )
3
12 66
2 2 4 4
66 11 22 12 66 66
2 sin cos
2 2 2 4 sin cos cos sin
S S
S S S S S S



+ + +
Invarient Forms Of Stiffness
Coefficients
11 22 12 66
1
11 22
2
11 22 12 66
3
11 22 12 66
4
11 22 12 66
5
3 3 2 4
8
2
2 4
8
6 4
8
2 4
8
Q Q Q Q
U
Q Q
U
Q Q Q Q
U
Q Q Q Q
U
Q Q Q Q
U
+ + +

+ +

+ +

11 1 2 3
22 1 2 3
12 4 3
16 2 3
26 2 3
66 5 3
cos2 cos4
cos2 cos4
cos4
1
sin 2 sin4
2
1
sin2 sin 4
2
cos4
Q U U U
Q U U U
Q U U
Q U U
Q U U
Q U U

+ +
+


+

=
Q
11
U U cos 2 U cos 4
1
2 3
+ +

Graphical Representation of Invarient
Components
Transformation Of Engineering
Constants
E
E
G
12
1

12
21

2
( )
2 2
1 2 12
2 2
1 2 12
2 2
1 2 12
cos sin cos sin
sin cos cos sin
2 cos sin 2 cos sin cos sin
x
y
xy



+
+ +
+
Stresses And Strains In The
Principal Material Directions
1 12 2
1
1 1
2 21 1
2
2 2
12
12
12
E E
E E
G

2
1
2
2
12
cos
sin
cos sin
x
x
x

Strains In Arbitrary Direction
4 4
2
12
1 2 12 1
cos sin 1 1 2
sin 2
4
x x
E E G E


]
| `
+ +
]
. ,
]
2
12 12
1 1 1 2 12
1 1 2 1 1
sin 2
4
y x
E E E E G


]
| `
+ +
]
. ,
]
2
12 12
1 2 12 1 1 2 12
1 1 1 2 1 1
sin 2 cos
2
xy x
E E G E E E G


]
| `
+ + +
]
. ,
]
Youngs Modulus In Arbitrary
Direction
4 4
2
12
1 2 12 1
1
cos sin 1 1 2
sin 2
4
x
x
x
E
E E G E

]
| `
+ +
]
. ,
]
evaluated at
90 +
4 4
2
12
2 1 12 1
1
cos sin 1 1 2
sin 2
4
y
y
y
E
E E G E

]
| `
+ +
]
. ,
]
( )
2 4 4
12
1 2 1 12 12
1
2 2 4 1 1
2 sin 2 sin cos
xy
G
E E E G G

| `
+ + + +

. ,
( )
4 4 2
12
1 1 2 12
1 1 1
sin cos sin 2
y
xy x
x
E
E E E G

]
| `
+
]

. ,
]
Shear Modulus and Poissons
Ratio in Arbitrary Direction
Considering only shear stress produces
Combining the equations for strain in both directions
Cross Coefficients
x

xy

xy

x
m
1
x x
xy
m
E

The stress can also produce shear strain , and shear stress can
produce extensional strain , these can be related though a the cross coefficient
1
x xy
x
m
E

also
1
y y
xy
m
E

1
y xy
y
m
E

The cross coefficient m
x
and m
y
2
1 1 1 1
12 12
2 12 2 12
sin 2 cos 1 2
2
x
E E E E
m
E G E G

]
| `
+ +
]

. ,
]
2
1 1 1 1
12 12
2 12 2 12
sin 2 sin 1 2
2
y
E E E E
m
E G E G

]
| `
+ +
]
. ,
]
Transformed Engineering
Compliance Matrix
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
xy
x
x x
x x
xy y
y y
x y
xy xy
y
x
xy
m
E E E
m
E E E
m
m
E E G

]
]
]

]

]

' ' ' '
]

]

]

]
]
]
Off-axis Youngs Modulus and
Shear Modulus for Carbon/epoxy
Lamina
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

E
l
a
s
t
i
c

C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
s
,

M
p
s
i
Ex
Ey
GLT
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Poisson's Ratio
mx
my
Off-axis Poissons Ratio and
Cross Coefficients for
Carbon/epoxy Lamina
Restrictions On Elastic Constants

2
0
E

>
2
0
G

>
2(1 )
E
G

+
1 >
Thermodynamic considerations require that Youngs modulus and shear
modulus are positive values. The work of deformation, and are
positive then
and
For isotropic materials the relation between the Youngs modulus and shear
modulus is
For G and E to be positive .

x y z
P
K
+ +
3(1 2 )
E
K

1
2
<
1
1
2
< <
The volumetric strain, resulting from hydrostatic
pressure P is
where K the bulk modulus is
For K and E to be positive
For all the elastic moduli to be positive then
Volume Strain Effects
Applying thermodynamic restraints to
For the plane stress condition Q
11
, Q
22
, Q
66
>0 , then for example
and therefore. This is true if . From this it follows that
and
Relation Between The Elastic
Constants For Orthotropic Materials
11 22 33 44 55 66
, , , , , , 0 C C C C C C >
1
11
12 21
1
E
Q

12 21
1 0 > 12 21
1 <
1
12
2
E
E
>
2
21
1
E
E
>
Strength Of Orthotropic Lamina
For isotropic metals failure usually occurs by yielding and can
be simply predicted by the maximum shear stress theory.
2
I II
yield

or
I II yield

II

y
Strength Notation For Orthotropic
Lamina
Y Y'
X
X'
S
Fiber Direction
Comparison Of Positive And Negative
Shear For Stress In The Principal Material
Directions
Positive Shear Negative Shear
Comparison Of Off-axis Positive And
Negative Shear For Stress
Positive Shear Negative Shear
Biaxial Strength Theories
Maximum stress theory
1
2
12
X X
Y Y
S S

< <

< <

< <
Failure occurs when any of the stress values exceeds
the strength values
No interaction between applied stresses is considered
Composite Lamina Loaded In Arbitrary
Direction X
1
2
x
Load Direction

2
1
2
2
12
cos
sin
cos sin
x
x
x

Maximum Stress for Fibers in Arbitrary
Direction
2 2
2 2
cos cos
sin sin
cos sin cos sin
x
x
x
X X
Y Y
S S

< <

< <

< <
0 45 90

x
X
cos
2
X'
cos
2

S
cos
sin
Y'
Y
2
sin
2
sin

Maximum Stress Theory Of Lamina

Failure Plotted For Off-axis Loading
Maximum Strain Theory
1
1 1
2
2 2
12
12 12
X X
E E
Y Y
E E
S S
G G

< <

< <

< <
1 12 2
1
1 1
2 21 1
2
2 2
12
12
12
E E
E E
G

'

'

'

'

'

'

12
2
1
12
2 2
21
1
12
1
12
2
1
1
0 0
0
1
0
1

G
E E
E E
Hookes Law
Transforming To Arbitrary Off-axis
Directions
( )
( )
( )
2 2
1
12
1
2 2
2
21
2
12
12
cos sin
sin cos
cos sin
x
x
x
E
E
G

2 2 2 2
12 12
2 2 2 2
12 12
cos sin cos sin
sin cos sin cos
cos sin cos sin
x
x
x
X X
Y Y
S S

< <

< <

< <
Strength Theories With Stress
Interactions
The strength tensor
( ) ( ) ( )
1
ij i j ijk i j k
i i
F F F

+ + + K
where , , 1, 6 i j k K
1 and
following coefficients are zero
4 5 6, 14 15 16, 24 25 26, 34 35 36, 44 45 46
, , , , , , , , , , F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F
1
i i ij i j
F F +
The general polynomial
1 2 12 21 22 66
, , , , , F F F F F F
Non-zero coefficients
Tsai-Hill Failure Criterion
Using the Von Mises (distortion energy) criterion
1
ij i j
F
2 2 2
11 1 22 2 12 1 2 66 6
2 1 F F F F + + +
Expanding
consider the case
1
X
2
0
6
0
and
2
11
1 F X
2
Y
then
1
0
6
0
and
2
22
1 F Y
6
S
1 2
0 and
2
66
1 F S
apply a balanced biaxial stress, and
2
12
2 1 F X
Strength Coefficients
11
2
22
2
66
2
12
2
1
1
1
1
2
F
X
F
Y
F
S
F
X

Coefficients
Tsai-Hill Criterion
2 2 2
6 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
1
X Y X S

+ +
4 4
2 2
2 2
2 2
1
cos sin 1 1
cos sin
x
X Y
S X

| `
+ +


. ,
the failure stress, for off-axis loading
x

0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fiber Orientation,

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

x

(
p
s
i
)
Failed
Safe Stress
Predicted Failure Stress
Tsai-Wu Failure Criterion
2 2 2
6 6 1 1 2 2 12 1 2 11 1 22 2 66 6
2 1 F F F F F F F + + + + + +
2
1 11
1 F X F X +
Stress in fiber direction is equal to the longitudinal tensile strength X
Compressive stress is equal to the compressive longitudinal strength, X
2
1 11
1 F X F X

+
Coefficients are found
1
1 1
F
X X

11
1
F
XX

2
1 1
F
Y Y

22
1
F
YY

66
2
1
F
S

Additional Coefficients
2
12
2
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
2
F B B
B X X Y Y XX YY
]
| ` | `

+ +

]
. , . ,
]
Strength Interaction Coefficients
Applying balanced biaxial stresses
F
12
can be found empirically
*
12 12 11 22
F F F F
F
12
is between -0.5 and 0
Using
*
12
F = -0.5 the usual form of the Tsai-Wu criterion is
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 6
2
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
2 XX YY XXYY S
X X Y Y

| ` | `
+ + + +


. , . ,
Failure Envelopes Stress Space
Failure envelope for isotropic brittle material

UTS

UTS

UTS

UTS
Failure Envelopes for Isotropic Ductile
Materials
Von Mises-Hencky
Tresca

Failure Envelope For Orthotopic Material

By The Maximum Stress Theory

2
Y
Y'
X
X'
Failure Envelope For Orthotopic Material
By The Maximum Strain Theory

2
Y
Y'
X
X'
Tsai-Hill and Tsai-Wu Failure Envelope
rearranged in quadratic form
( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 11 1 1 2 12 2 2 2 22 6 66
2 1 0 F F F F F F + + + + +

2
Failure Ellipse In Strain Space
Using Hooke's law
i ij j
Q
1
i i ij i j
F F +
In generalized failure criterion
1
ij ik jl k l i ij j
F Q Q FQ +
gives
ij ik jl kl
F Q Q H
Using the following notations and i ij i
FQ H
1
ij i j i i
H H +
Expanded Form
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 11 1 12 1 2 22 2 66 6
2 1 H H H H H H + + + + +
( )
2 2
11 11 11 12 11 12 22 12
2 2
22 22 22 12 22 12 11 12
2
12 11 11 12 12 11 22 12 22 12 22
2
66 66 66
1 1 11 2 12
2 1 12 2 22
2
2
H F Q F Q Q F Q
H F Q F Q Q F Q
H F Q Q F Q Q Q F Q Q
H F Q
H FQ F Q
H FQ F Q
+ +
+ +
+ + +

+
+
where
Quadratic Form Plotted
( ) ( )
2 2
1 11 1 1 2 12 2 2 2 22 6 66
2 1 0 H H H H H H + + + + +
1

2
FAILURE CRITERIA AS DESIGN TOOL
, ,
x y s
x y xy
X Y S
R R R


Strength Ratios or Safety Factors:
Strength tensor in stress space in terms of R
( )
( )
2
1
i i ij i j
F R F R +
In strain space
( )
( )
2
1
i i ij i j
H R H R +
2
4
2
b b ac
R
a
+
+

Solved Roots
2
4
2
b b ac
R
a

1
ij i j
i i
a F
b F
C

In stress space
In strain space
1
ij i j
i i
a H
b H
C

1 F
ij i j

1
2
X
1
2
Y
2 2 2 2
1 4 1 1 1
2 U X Y S

| `

. ,
1
2
S
1 F F
i i ij i j
+
1 1
X X

1 1
Y Y

1
XX
1
YY
1
11 22 2
F F
S

1
2
S
1 F
ij i j

1
2
X
1
2
Y
2
K
XX

1
2
S
1 F F
i i ij i j
+
1 1
X X

1 1
Y Y

1
XX
1
YY
1
2XX

1
2
S
1 F F
i i ij i j
+
1 1
X X

1 1
Y Y

1
XX
1
YY
( )
1
2
2
XX S X X X X Y Y
XX
S XX
+

]
]
1
2
S
1 F F
i i ij i j
+
1 1
X X

1 1
Y Y

1
XX
1
YY
1
2XY

1
2
S
1 F
ij i j

1
2
X
1
2
Y
1
2
2 X

1
2
S
1 F F
i i ij i j
+
1 1
X X

1 1
Y Y

1
XX
1
YY
*
12 11 22
F F F
1
2
S
Tsai-Wu
Tsai-Hill
Marin
Malmeister
Hoffman
Fischer
Cowin
Ashkenazi
F
66
F
12
F
22
F
11
F
2
F
1
Tensor Theory
Stress Interaction Strength Criteria