Lecture 1-Neuronal Cell Biology 1. Identify the special anatomic features of neurons. a.

Dendrites receive info from other neurons b. Dendrite spines c. Soma (cell body) important for house keeping d. Axon e. Axon hillock within a soma-out pocking of soma going to axon f. Initial segment is where initial AP is generated g. Myelin sheath is important to conduct neural transmission h. Node of Ranvier is where unmyelin important for AP transmission i. Presynaptic terminal chemical transmission j. Synaptic cleft is where chemical transferring to one neuron to another 2. List three bases for neuronal classification and describe categories for each classification basis. a. Axonal projection i. Goes to distant CNS area 1. Affects different CNS areas 2. Projection neuron or principal neuron 3. Ex: dorsal root ganglion cell( important transport sensory info) Cortical inhibitory neuron (motor control) ii. Stays in local CNS area 1. Affects only nearby neurons 2. Intrinsic neuron or interneuron (short axon or no axon) 3. Ex: retinal bipolar cell (vision), cortical inhibitory neuron (specific area brain acts in specific way) b. Dendritic pattern i. Pyramid-shaped space of dendrites (can integrate info brought in before own info put in) 1. Large area for receiving synaptic input; determines the pattern of incoming axons that can interact with the cell-pyramid shaped 2. Hippocampal pyramidal neuron (almost always spinious) ii. Radial-shaped spread of dendrites 1. Large area for receiving synaptic input; determines the pattern of incoming axons that can interact with the cell-star-shaped 2. Cortical stellate cell (either aspinious or spinous) c. Number of processes i. One process exits the cell body 1. Small area for receiving synaptic input: highly specialized function 2. Unipolar neuron axon going into CNS also one receive info 3. Ex: dorsal root ganglion cell ii. Two processes exit the cell body 1. Small are for receiving synaptic input; highly specialized function 2. Bipolar neuron 3. Ex: retinal bipolar cell iii. Many processes exit the cell body (most typical) 1. Large are for receiving synaptic input; determines the pattern of incoming axons that can interact with the cell 2. Multipolar neuron a lot of info from a lot different sources 3. Describe the four major types of synapses.

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a. Axospinous synapse from spine of dendrite b. Axodendritic synapse directly on shaft c. Axosomatic transfer directly to cell body d. Axoaxonic to presynapse Identify the different cells, which provide myelination in the peripheral and central nervous systems and the differences in the myelination process in the peripheral and central nervous system. a. PNS i. b. CNS i. Describe the purpose of myelination in the nervous system. a. List the three intracellular structures, which form the cytoskeleton in the neurons and their functions in nerve cell. a. Microtubules involved in transport of organelles i. Extend full length ii. Diameter 25-28 nm iii. & tubulin, tubulin is GTPase (reaction connect tubulin unit together) iv. Stabilized by microtubule associated proteins (MAPs) 1. MAP2 found in cell body 2. Smaller MAP found axon b. Neurofilaments (fairly stable) important in neuronal cell structure (most abundant) i. Cytokeratin ii. 10nm diameter iii. Polymerized most of the time iv. Originally formed as monomers c. Microfilaments involved in motility of growth cones and formation of pre and post-synaptic morphologic specialization i. 3-5 nm diameter ii. & actin (globulin) are polarized only go together one way supply in conversion of GTP to GDP iii. Dynamic changes in polymerization and depolymerization as cell process require iv. Often found in cell periphery under plasmalemma Identify the proteins, which form three cytoskeletal elements and describe how these proteins form the special features of the cytoskeletal elements. Describe how proteins synthesized in the neuronal cell bodies are transported to the nerve terminals and identify cell structure elements, which are involved in this transport process. a. Proteins are synthesized in the cell body, but must be transported to the axons and terminals i. Some synthesis can happen in dendrites but not axon b. mRNA in nucleus transport out nuclear pore, then polymerize transport RNA protien translate in lumen. In ER if signal peptide process in golgi & put out in granules c. ribosomal RNA is found in the cell body and dendrites, but not in the axon i. dendrites are limiting amounts of protein synthesis in dendritic trees d. axoplasmic transport=the primary site of secretion, the axon terminal, is considerably distant from the cell body and dendrites where secretory proteins are synthesized i. anterograde movement 1. from cell body to nerve terminal

ii. retrograde movement 1. from nerve terminal to cell body 9. Describe fast axoplasmic transport with regard to the following: a. Rate of transport is 410 mm/day in warm blooded animals along the axon b. Cell elements that are transported by each type of transport i. Salutatory movement along microtubules ii. Not effected by protein synthesis inhibitors (after incorporation) 1. After start transport don t require to continue protein synthesis iii. Not dependent on the cell body iv. Mitochondria and vesicles transported c. The motor molecules involved is kinesin which is a ATPase i. This is involved in converting ATP to ADP ii. It is a herotetramer with 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains d. Energy requirements and pharmacological agents which disrupt transport i. ATP dependent ii. Disrupted by colchicines and vinblastine 1. Disrupts microtubules 10. Differentiate between slow and fast axoplasmic transport. a. Fast retrograde transport i. Rate is 200-300 mm/day is slower than fast axoplasmic transport ii. Saltatory movement along microtubules iii. Motor molecule is dynein compared to kinesin for fast axoplasmic transport iv. It is ATP dependent v. Degraded vesicular membrane and absorbed exogenous material in which different types of material picked up by nerve terminals 1. Growth factors neuronal migration 2. Toxins tetanus 3. Viruses polio, babies, herpes b. Slow axoplasmic transport i. Occur in antergarade direction only ii. Rate is 0.2-5 mm/day very slow compared to fast axoplasmic transport iii. Cytoskeletal proteins and cytoplasmic proteins such as intermediary metabolism enzymes are transported compared to fast axoplasmic transporting mitochondria and vesicles 11. Describe the process of neuronal extension and migration. Identify major protein players in the process.

Lecture 2-Action Potential and Synaptic Transmission 1. Define the following terms a. Depolarization- reduction in charge separation leading to a less negative membreane potential (more positive -40mV) b. Hyperpolarization- increase in charge separation leading to a more negative membrane potential (-90mV) i. Leading closer to equilibrium potential for K c. Threshold- the critical level of depolarization to cause the opening of voltage-gated ion channels i. AP only occur when reached (important in generation of AP) d. Repolarization- K+ pump opening & inactivation Na channels (K channels delayed opening) 2. Describe the characteristics of an action potential and identify channels and ions, which drive each phase of the action potential. Indicate the direction of ion movement and the changes in gating mechanisms for the ion channels a. Electrical current is carried by ions b. Resting membrane potential -70mV c. Direction of current is direction of net movement of positive charges d. Na increases extracellular, K increase intracellular e. Charge inside is negative compared to outside 3. Identify where on the neurons action potentials are intiated and indicate the process involved in intiating an action potential. a. Intial segment is trigger zone b. Intial segment contain a high density of voltage-gated Na and K channels c. Positive feedback to open more Na channels once intiated d. All-or-none process i. Same amplitude, same shape no matter location e. Na channel gating mechanism i. Resting (closed)= high Na & Cl in the extracellular side and high K in cytoplasmic side and the activating gate is closed 1. Na does not go in ii. Activated (open)= as depolarization occurs the membrane potential is less negative and activiation gate open 1. Slight depolarization activation gate opne Na go in during rising state iii. Inactivation (closed)=at peak of AP activation gate close (slow occurance) 1. Cause hyperpolarization intiatial cause during repolarization phase 4. Define absolute and relative refractory periods and describe channels, which contribute to the refractory periods. a. AP cant be intiated or more difficult ot intiate b. Absolute refractory period- an AP cannot be intiated (impossible) at all i. Due to closure of inactivation gates of voltage-gated Na chanels during the repolaraization phase ii. Where reach peak Na close because close of activation gate c. Relative refractory period- intiation of new AP requires greater degree of depolarization i. Higher threshold ( more positive membrane potential before can open Na channels) ii. Inactivation gate of a portion of the voltage-gated Na channels is opne and voltagegated K cannels remain open 1. K channels opne slowly and remain opne longer 2.

5. Describe cellular events, which lead to neurotransmitter release after an action potential reaches the nerve terminal. Include in your description: a) changes in membrane potential, b) ion channels, c) ion movement, d) cell organelles and e) special features of the nerve terminal membrane. 6. Identify proteins involved in vesicular neurotransmitter release and discuss their respective roles. 7. Describe and differentiate between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Describe cellular mechnasims by which these receptors alter target cells. 8. Descrive how signaling cascades allow amplification of neurotransmitter responses to affect ion channels indirectly. 9. List three ways neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft. 10. Lsit two types of postsynaptic potentials and identify in general their final effect on the membrane potential and postsynaptic neurons. 11. Describe the processes of temporal and spatial summation. Discuss the importance of summation in determining the activity of a postsynaptic cell. 12. Discuss how cellular location may influence the effectiveness of a synaptic input

Lecture 3- Neurotransmitters and their Receptors 1. List the six classes of neurotransmitters and identify members of each class. a. Small molecule transmitter (not amino acid derived) i. Acetylcholine b. Monoamines (major) i. Catecholamines 1. Dopamine 2. Norepinephrine 3. Epinephrine ii. Indolamine 1. Serotonin iii. Imidazole 1. Histamine iv. Amino acids 1. Excitatory a. Glutamate b. Aspartate 2. Inhibitory a. Glycine b. -aminobutyric acid (GABA) v. Polypeptide transmitter (neuropeptides) 1. Opiod peptides 2. Gastrointestinal peptides 3. Hypothalamic and pituitary peptides vi. Gaseous molecues 1. Nitric oxide 2. Carbon monoxide vii. Purine derivatives (sometimes) 1. ATP 2. Identify components of acetylcholine transmission including: a. cellular location of acetylcholine synthesis b. precursor molecules c. major synthetic enzyme d. rate limiting element in acetylcholine synthesis e. storage of acetylcholine f. method of removal from the synaptic cleft g. degradation enzyme h. Features of the two major classes of receptors. 3. List three caecholamine neurotransmitters. a. Dopamine b. Norepinephrine c. epinephrine 4. Identify components of catecholamine transmission including: a. precursor molecule b. enzymes in synthetic pathway c. rate-limiting enzyme in synthesis d. neurotransmitter storage e. mechanism of release

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f. method of removal from synaptic cleft g. degradation enzyme. Identify components of serotonin transmission including: a. precursor molecule b. enzymes in synthetic pathway c. rate limiting enzyme in synthesis d. neurotransmitter storage e. mechanism of release f. method of removal from synaptic cleft g. degradation enzyme List two excitatory amino acid transmitters. Identify components of glutamate transmission including: a. source and identify of precursor molecule b. synthetic enzyme c. storage of neurotransmitter d. method of removal from synaptic cleft e. interactions between glial and neuronal cells for glutamate synthesis f. types of glutamate receptors. List two inhibitory amino acid transmitters. a. Glycine b. -amino butyric acid (GABA) Identify components of GABA transmission including: a. source and identity of precursor molecule b. synthetic enzyme c. storage of neurotransmitter d. method of removal from synaptic cleft e. interactions between glial and neuronal cells for GABA synthesis f. two types of GABA receptors g. effect of GABA transmission on postsynaptic membrane potential. Discuss feature of neuropeptides involved in neurotransmission including: a. Cellular location for synthesis i. Made in cell body and transported into terminal b. Stored in synaptic vesicles c. Released by exoctosis d. Often co-localized with neurotransmitter in same vesicle and co-released e. Synthesized as large prepropeptides in the endoplasmic reticulum f. Packaged into vesicles by golgi g. Transported by axoplasmic transport (final processing into neoptic peptide) h. Propeptides are cleaved by proteases and modified during transit into the active peptide i. No mechanism for recycling at terminals j. Removal by diffusion from synaptic cleft (slow process) k. Interact with specific receptors on postsynaptic ell l. Enzymatic degragation of Ach is very fast but neuropeptide stay around longer

Lecture 4- Sensory Physiology I- Principles of Sensory Physiology and Somatic System 1. Define the following terms a. Nature of environmental stimuli i. Stimulus- factors in the environment that produce an effective response in a sensory receptor ii. Affect- is the subjective perception that accompanies a sensory modality (physiological feeling) previously learned from stimulus iii. Transducer- translates environmental stimuli into action potentials i.e sensory receptor iv. Univariance- property of sensory receptors by which sensory receptors produce the appropriate sensation regardless of how they are activated (labeled line for neurons activated) v. Adequate stimulus- the usual and appropriate stimulus for the receptor b. Conveyed information when stimulated i. Intensity- a measure of the energy content or chemical concentration ii. Sensory modality- the general class of stimulus (5 senses plus more complex i.e feeling of wet slippery iii. Location- represented by the set of sensory receptors that are active iv. Timing (duration)- defined by when the response in the receptor starts and stops c. Receptor potentiald. Impulse initiation region e. Local excitatory currents 2. Describe the concept of graded response for different stimulus intensities and indicate requirements for initiation of an action potential. 3. Describe the process of slow and rapid adaption and the importance of adaptation. a. Adaptation is important in preventing sensory overload b. Rapid adapting systems ofen sense rate of change 4. Differentiate between tonic and phasic responses. a. Tonic responses have little or no adaptation b. Phasic responses show significant adaptation 5. Describe encoding and decoding. Discusss the importance of compression and indicate relative changes in environmental stimulus intensity verses generator potential intensity. a. Compression- an extremely wide range of environmental stimulus intensities is compressed in range for transfer to CNS 6. Define perception and discuss how sensory information is interpreted. a. Perception is the complex process which allows integration of sensory information with previously learned information and other sensory inputs and provides judgment regarding quality, intensity and relevance of what is being sensed b. Interpretation of encoded and transmitted information info a useful perception takes place in the CNS c. Action potentials are of constant height and duration, but the frequency lead to a interpretation of the stimulus intensity (all or none generate at same height, but receptor potential can be graded) d. Information along a single neuronal pathway can leach to interpretation of localization e. Stimulus intensity receptor potential f. Local excitatory potential action potential rate 7. Identify the location and response of the following mechanoreceptors: a. Merkel s disks

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b. Meissner s corpusles c. Pacini s corpuscles (largest)- located in the subcutaneous tissue of both glabrous and hairly skin. Pacinian corpuscles detect gross pressure changes and vibrations and are rapidly adapting (phasic) receptors. Any deformation in the corpuscle causes action potentials to be generated, by opening pressure-sensitive sodium ion channels in the axon membrane. This allows sodium ions to influx in, creating a receptor potential. d. Free nerve endings e. Ruffini endings f. Hair follicles List two types of thermal receptors and discuss how thermal receptors sense warm and cold. Discuss phasic and tonic response components. a. Thermal receptors are naked nerve ending supplied by thin myelinated A fibers (cold receptors) or nonmyelinated C receptors (warm receptors) fibers b. Phasic response component is rapidly adapting and responds only to changes in temperature c. Tonic response component depends on local tempeature Describe two types of pain and identify characteristics of pain receptors and pain fibers. a. Types of pain i. Somatic pain 1. Superficial pain- stimulation of the body surface 2. Deep pain- from within muscles, joints, bones, and connective tissues ii. Visceral pain- arises from internal groans b. Pain receptors i. Nociceptors can recognize specifc stimuli 1. Mechanical, thermal, chemical, polymodal ii. Free nerve endings of thin myelinated A or unmyelinated C fibers iii. Slow little adaptation were feeling pain continue to feel pain c. Two components to pain i. Intial pain mediated by myelinated A fibers (speeds transmation) ii. Delayed pain mediated by unmyelinated C fibers (longer to reach CNS) Describe the pathway from a sensory receptor to the central nervous system. Define where the cell body is located and where each of the two branches project. a. Cell bodies for somatic sensory receptors lie within the dorsal root ganglion b. One branch projects to the periphery where sensory receptors sense stimulus energy c. Second branch projects to CNS Indicate how dermatomes contribute to the localization of a sensory signal. a. Dermatome is an area of skin innervated by a single dorsal root b. The 31 pairs of dorsal roots are labeled by the corresponding vertebral foramen through which the root enters the spinal cord c. Have CS tells localization of sensory response d. Have cells that intergrate certain parts of body e. Localization of sensorying response Differentiate between the pathway for touch and proprioception verses the pathway for pain and temperature. Identify where decussations occur in each pathway. Discuss the concept of a topographic map in the somatosensory cortex. a. Localization is perceived i. Stimulate area of brain and ask patient what feels stimulated 1. Body able to have this represnation

a. As you go up sensory becomes more lateral from the spinal cord b. High density has greater representation of somatosensory cortex c.

Lecture 5-Sensory Physiology I I- Visual System and Chemical Senses 1. Describe the anatomy of the eye. Identify the following structures: a. Cornea b. choroid c. iris d. Pupil e. Lens f. suspensory ligaments g. ciliary body h. anterior chamber i. aqueous humor j. posterior chamber k. vitreous humor l. retina m. optic nerve n. fovea o. optic disc or blind spot 2. describe how an image is projected on the retina. 3. Discuss accommodation of the lens with respect to near and distant vision. Indicate the shape of the lens and the role of the ciliary muscle. 4. Identify the specific cell types in the retina and discuss the interactions between these cells. 5. Describe anatomic features of rods and cones and identify the pigments in each. Indentify the roles of each rods and cones in photopic and scotopic vision. 6. Identify role of cis-retinal. 7. Describe the dark current and the signal transduction pathway in rods in response to a light stimulus. Indicate the molecules involved and the changes in ion current and membrane potentials. 8. Define on-center and off-center receptive fields for a ganglion cell. 9. Identify projection of visual fields onto temporal and nasal hemiretinas and indicate path though optic nerve, optic chiasm and optic tract to visual cortex. 10. Describe central structure involved in pathway from the optic nerve to the visual cortex and midbrain. 11. Describe the neuronal pathway for the papillary reflex. 12. Describe the location and anatomical features of a taste bud. Identify the cells, which compose a taste bud. 13. List five submodalities of taste and discuss receptor signaling mechanisms that mediate these modalities. 14. Describe the CNS pathway for taste.

Lecture 6- Sensory Systems IV- Hearing and Vestibular System

1. Define the following terms: a. sound wave b. compression c. rarefaction d. wavelength e. sound frequency f. hertz g. intensity h. sound pressure i. decibel 2. Describe the anatomy of the ear. 3. Describe the features and functions of the middle ear structures including: a. eustachian tube b. ossicles (maleus, incus, stapes) c. suspensory ligaments d. tympanic membrane e. stapedius muscle f. tensor tympani muscle g. acoustic reflex 4. Describe the features and functions of the inner ear including: a. cochlea (scala vestibuli, scala tympani, scala media) b. basilar membrane c. hair cells d. organ of Corti e. tectorial membrane 5. Describe the how a sound wave affects basilar membrane. 6. Describe the role of sterocilia, kinocilium, actin filaments, cation selective transduction, transmitter release and sensory neurons in mechanical transduction of sound waves into a neuronal signal. 7. Describe tonotopic organization and how low and high frequency sounds effect the basilar membrane. 8. Describe the pathway from the afferent nerves to the auditory cortex. 9. Describe the mechanisms for sound localization in the vertical and horizontal planes and define the brainstem nuclei involved in sound processing by coincidence detection. 10. Describe anatomical features of the vestibular system including semicircular canals and otolithic organs (utricle and saccule). 11. Describe the sensory structure of the semicircular canal including: a. Ampulla b. Cupula c. Hair cells d. Sterocilia e. Kinocilium f. afferent nerve fibers 12. Describe the transduction of movement in the semicircular canals to a neural signal. 13. Describe the vestibuloocular reflex. Define the movement of fluid in the semicircular canals. Define rotatory nystagmus and postrotatory nystagmus.

Lecture 7-Motor Systems I- Neuromuscular Junction and Muscle Sensory Receptors 1. Describe the physiological and anatomical features of a neuromuscular junction including: a. Axon b. terminal of somatic motor neuron c. synaptic vesicles d. Schwann cell e. synaptic cleft f. postjunctional folds g. acetylcholine receptors 2. Define a motor unit and describe the results of motor unit summation. 3. Classify three types of motor units. 4. Discuss recruitment of motor units and define the size principle. 5. Describe the anatomical features, anchors, innervation, types of fibers and function of the muscle tendon organ and muscle spindle. 6. Identify type of muscle fibers innervated by gamma motor neurons. 7. Define the components of a fusimotor system. 8. Identify type of muscle fibers innervated by alpha motor neurons and location of cell bodies. Define the components of a motor unit and describe two populations of motor neurons and their function. 9. Describe the coordination between sensory and motor neurons in periphery and spinal cord. 10. Define the following terms: flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. 11. Define the following terms with respect to control of movement: agonist, synergist, prime mover, antagonist, reciprocal innervations.

Lecture 8-Motor Systems I I- Spinal Reflexes and Brainstem Control of Motor Funct ion 1. Identify the anatomic arrangement of the spinal cord including: a. dorsal horn b. ventral horn c. location of -motor neurons d. intermediate zone e. location of interneurons f. dorsal root g. sensory pathway into spinal cord h. ventral root i. motor pathway to muscle. 2. Describe the organization of motor neuron pools in the spinal cord and relate this to anatomical organization. 3. Describe the neuronal circuitry to generate reflexes. Be able to give specifics for a. Myotatic (stretch) reflex b. inverse myotatic reflex c. flexor reflex. 4. Identify physiological roles of the stretch reflex and inverse myotatic reflex. 5. Describe the central pattern generator. Identify the location of the central pattern generator for locomotion. 6. Describe the half-center model for alternating rhythm generation in flexor and extensor neurons and outline features which improve walking. 7. Describe the roles of brainstem nuclei in motor control. 8. List brainstem nuclear groups, which give rise to descending motor tracts that influence motor neurons, identify tracts formed by their projections and describe a major function of each group. 9. Describe sensory and motor system interactions with respect to brainstem control of motor function.

Lecture 9- Motor Systems II I- Higher Brain Structures in Motor Cont rol 1. List three defining criteria for a motor area in the brain. 2. Describe the pathway for the corticospinal tract from the brain to contact with a lower motor neuron in the spinal cord. 3. Define somatotopic organization in the motor cortex. 4. Describe the roles of the basal ganglia in motor control. 5. Identify brain nuclei that form the basal ganglia. 6. Describe neuronal input to and output from the basal ganglia. 7. Describe the role of the cerebellum in motor control. 8. List the three functional divisions of the cerebellum. 9. Describe the major inputs and outputs for each division of the cerebellum. 10. Describe the intrinsic circuitry of the cerebellar cortex and identify three distinct layers and cells within each layer 11. Identify the major function of each division of the cerebellum. Lecture 10- Integrat ive Functions of the Nervous system Be able to: 1. List physiologic functions regulated by the hypothalamus. 2. Identify the relationship between light-dark or time cues and a rhythm. 3. Define circadian rhythm. 4. Describe the role and localization of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the retinohypothalamic tract in rhythm generation. 5. Describe the anatomical relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. 6. Describe the peripheral sensory input and major regulatory neuronal control of prolactin secretion. 7. List divisions of the cortex involved in specialized functions as vision, hearing, somatic sensory, motor. 8. Discuss the importance of association cortex areas 9. Identify major function of limbic system. 10. List structures of the limbic system. 11. Describe functional relationships between cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus, brainstem and within the limbic system. 12. Describe the major dopaminergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic neuronal systems in the brain. 13. Describe roles of the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and association cortices in memory.