AppreciativeInquiry:TheoryandCritique

PreparedfortheRoutledgeCompaniontoOrganizationalChange ByGervaseR.BushePh.D.SimonFraserUniversity May,2010

AppreciativeInquiry(AI)wasoneofthefirstpostLewinianOrganizationDevelopmentmethodsand probablycatalyzedthesubsequentproliferationofDialogicODmethods(Bushe&Marshak,2009)that operateoutsidetheLewinianparadigm.Firmlygroundedinsocialconstructionisttheory(Gergen1978; 2009),AIemergedoutoftheDepartmentofOrganizationalBehavior(OB)atCaseWesternReserve UniversityinClevelandOhioandmanyacademicwritersonAIreceivedtheirdoctoratesthere(e.g., Barrett,Bright,Bushe,Carter,Cooperrider,Johnson,Ludema,Powley,Sekerka,Stavros,Thatchenkery). Eschewingdiagnosisasanecessaryorevenusefulstepinorganizationalchange,andincorporating postmodernperspectivesonnarrativeanddiscourse,(Barrett,Thomas&Hocevar,1995)theoriginal, seminalarticleonAI(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987)wasarevolutionarystatementandaprecursorto laterdevelopmentsinpositiveorganizationalstudies(Cameron,Dutton&Quinn,2003)andthe strengthsbasedmovement(Buckingham&Clifton,2001;Cameron&Lavine,2006)inAmerican management. ThisreviewbeginswithabriefdescriptionoftheAImethodfollowedbytheunderlyingtheoriesof changethatsupportAIpracticeandtheratherscantyevidencethatexistssupportingthem.Thisreview willalsoconsidermoderatorsofAIpractice,importantcritiquesofAI,andconcludewithsomeofthe morepressingresearchquestionsthatrequireaddressingforadeeperunderstandingofhowandwhen AItransformsorganizations.

TheMethodofAppreciativeInquiry
DavidCooperrider,thecreatorofappreciativeinquiry,resistedwritingabookonhowtodoAIuntilthe turnofthemillenniumbecausehewantedpeopletofocusonthephilosophybehindthisapproachand notseeitasatechnique.Asaresult,manydifferentwaysofdoingAIhaveproliferatedanditis inaccuratetosayAIisdoneinanyoneway.Forthefirst15yearsorsoAIpractitionersbasedtheir methodsontheinitialsetof4principles(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987)whichstatedthatinquiryinto thesocialpotentialofasocialsystemshouldbeginwithappreciation,shouldbecollaborative,shouldbe provocative,andshouldbeapplicable.Theoriginalmethodcalledforacollectivediscoveryprocess using1)groundedobservationtoidentifythebestofwhatis,2)visionandlogictoidentifyidealsof whatmightbe,3)collaborativedialogueandchoicetoachieveconsentaboutwhatshouldbe,and4) collectiveexperimentationtodiscoverwhatcanbe.Itwasntuntil1997thatthe4DmodelofAI,now almostuniversallydescribedastheAImethod,wascreated.DianaWhitney,Cooperriderscollaborator onsomeofthefirstAIprojectsinthe1990s,hadamajorimpactontheevolutionofthepracticeofAI andthemostauthoritativesourcesonAIpracticeareCooperrider,Whitney&Stavros(2008),Ludema,

2 BusheAITheoryandCritique Whitney,Mohr&Griffen(2003),andWhitney&TrostenBloom(2003).Thegeneraloutlineofthe4D methodisasfollows. 1)Discovery.Duringthisstageparticipantsreflectonanddiscussthebestofwhatisconcerningthe objectofinquiry.Sometimesitisaninquiryintothelifegivingpropertiesoftheorganization (Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987).Sometimesitisthepositivecore(Cooperrider&Whitney,2001), whereanattemptismadetocataloguethesignaturestrengthsoftheorganization(Ludemaetal,2001). Othertimesitisaspecificcapacityorprocess.Forexample,iftheinquiryisaboutimprovingcustomer service,participantsmightinquireintotheirbestexperiencesasacustomer,orthebestexperiencesof theircustomers,orstudythebestcustomerserviceorganizationstheycanfind.Theextenttowhichthe fruitsofthisinquiryarethenanalyzedorsummarizedvarieswidelybyapplication.Mostoften(andthis appearstobeakeyinnovationoftheAImethod)participantsareinterviewedabouttheirownbestof experience.Anotherimportantinnovationhasbeentohaveorganizationalstakeholdersactasboth interviewersandinterviewees,thatis,tofullyengageallmembersintheactofinquiryitself(Carter& Johnson,1989). 2)Dream.Duringthisstageparticipantsareaskedtoimaginetheirgroup,organizationorcommunityat itsbestandanattemptismadetoidentifythecommonaspirationsofsystemmembersandto symbolizethisinsomeway.Theamountofpreparationandthedegreetowhichclarityaboutthat commondreamaresoughtvarywidelybyapplication.Thedreamphaseoftenresultsinsomething moresymbolic,likeagraphicalrepresentation,thanamissionstatement. 3)Design.Withacommondreaminplace,participantsareaskedtodevelopconcreteproposalsforthe neworganizationalstate.InitiallyCooperridercalledtheseprovocativepropositionsaphraselinked togenerativetheory(discussedbelow)thatstillappearsinsomemodels.Morecommonly,social architectureprocessesareemployedwhereamodelofdesignelementsisusedtoidentifycategoriesfor participantstoorganizearoundandcreatechangeproposals,oftencalledpossibilitystatementsor designstatements.(Mohr,McLean&Silbert,2003;Watkins&Mohr,2001).Often,participantsself selectintosmallgroupstodevelopspecificproposalswithinaspecificcategoryThedesigncompany, IDEO(Brown,2009),hasbeenbothasourceofideasandaparticipantintheevolutionofthedesign phaseofAI,anduseofrapidprototypingprocessesisincreasinglycommon. 4)Delivery/Destiny.Intheinitial4DmodelthefourthstagewascalledDeliverybutthiswas subsequentlychangedbyCooperridertoDestinyashefoundthatDeliveryevokedimagesoftraditional changemanagementimplementation.Exactlywhatoughttohappeninthisphasehasprovokedthe mostconfusionandtheleastconsensusamongstAIadvocateswhorecognizethatusingtheoutcomes ofDesigntocreatenewtargets,gapstofill,andobjectivestoachieveiscountertotheveryphilosophy ofappreciativeinquiry.Atthesametime,oneofthemostcommoncomplaintsaboutAIfromusersis thatwhileenergyforchangeishighaftertheDesignphase,implementationcanbeveryspotty. BuildingonBarretts(1998)workonimprovisationalprocessesinorganizations,Bushe(2007,2010, Bushe&Kassam,2005)hasdescribedanimprovisationalasopposedtoimplementationapproachto Destinyconsistentwithavaguelydevelopingconsensusonthetopic.Inthisapproach,widespread

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3 BusheAITheoryandCritique agreementforthedesignstatementsaresought,aneventisorchestratedwhereparticipantsmakeself chosen,personalcommitmentstotakeactionconsistentwithanydesignelement,andleadershipmakes clearthattherewillbenoactionplansorcommitteesinsteadeveryoneisauthorizedtotakethose actionstheybelievewillhelpbringthedesigntofruition.Leadershipsrolethenbecomestrackingand fanning(Bushe,2009),findingandamplifyingthoseinnovationstheywanttonurtureandcreating eventsandprocessestoenergizeselforganizingmomentum. Anumberofpractitionercritiquespointedoutthatthe4Dmodelomittedanimportantfirststepinthe AIprocessofidentifyingthefocusoftheinquiryitself.TheClergyLeadershipInstituteintheU.S. suggestedDefineasthefirststepandsomeAImodelsrefertoa5Dmodel.Cooperriders dissertationcalledthistheaffirmativetopicandmanymodelshaveretainedthatlabel.How,exactly, thattopicisdefinedhasnotbeenwellarticulatedbutisgenerallyregardedasessentialtotheoverall successoftheeffort.Engagingtherightpeople,especiallypowerfulsponsors,inidentifyingafocusthat isbothofhighinteresttothoseleadingtheorganizationandwillbecompellingtostakeholdersis commonlyheldtobecriticaltooverallsuccess(Barrett&Fry,2005). Whitney&TrostenBloom(2003)identified8formsofengagementusedbyAIpractitioners.These rangedfrominterventionswhereasoleconsultantorasmallrepresentativegroupofpeopledotheAI onbehalfofalargergroupofpeopletothosewheremostorallofthewholesystemisengagedinthe entire4Dprocess.Themajorityofcasestudiesoftransformationalchangehavebeenofthelatter variety(Barrett&Fry,2005;Barros&Cooperrider,2000;Bushe&Kassam,2005;Fryet.al.,2002; Ludemaet.al.,2003;Ludema&Hinrichs,2003;Powley,Fry,Barrett&Bright,2004)leadingtoan increasingemphasisintheAIliteratureonwidespreadengagementascentraltosuccessfulAIchange efforts(Bushe,2010;Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006;MeeYan&Powley,2006).TheAppreciativeInquiry Summit(Ludemaet.al,2003;Whitney&Cooperrider,2000)whichhasprobablybecomethemostoften advocatedformofengagement,meldselementsofFutureSearch(Emery&Purser,1996;Weisbord, 1993)withAppreciativeInquiry.

TheoreticalBasesofAppreciativeInquiry
Intheirseminalarticle(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987)arguedthreemainpointsinsupportofAI.First, theycritiquedtheproblemsolvingapproachthat,atthattime,dominatedactionresearch,arguingthat problemsolving,asatoolforsocialinnovation,didnotdoaverygoodjobandmight,infactbe counterproductive.Secondly,theyarguedthatorganizationswerebestviewedassociallyconstructed realities,andthatformsoforganizationwereconstrainedonlybyhumanimaginationandtheshared beliefsoforganizationalmembers.Associallyconstructedrealities,formsofinquirywerepotentin constructingthesystemstheyinquiredinto,andthatproblemsolvingapproacheswerejustaslikelyto createmoreoftheveryproblemstheywereintendedtosolve.Third,theyarguedthatthemost importantforceforchangewerenewideas.Theydecriedthelackofnewideasgeneratedby conventionalactionresearch,andproposedappreciativeinquiryasamethodthatwasmorelikelyto createnewideas,images,andtheoriesthatwouldleadtosocialinnovations.

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4 BusheAITheoryandCritique AsthemethodofAIhasevolved,sohavethetheoreticaljustificationsandexplanationsforAIasa changeprocess.ThemostinfluentialstatementhasbeenCooperrider&Whitneys(2001)fiveprinciples ofAI.Whilesomehaveproposedadditionalprinciples(Barrett&Fry2005;Whitney&TrostenBloom 2003)thesefivehavebeenthemostwidelyaccepted,showingupinreviewsofAI(Bushe&Kassam, 2005)andnonorganizationalapplicationsofAI(e.g.,Stavros&Torres,2005;Kelm,2005).Asscholars studythesuccessesandfailuresofAI,avarietyofunderlyingchangemechanismhavesurfacedandare identifiable.IntheremainderofthissectiontenofthetheoreticalleversforchangeunderlyingAI practicearereviewed. InquiryasIntervention AppreciativeInquirydidnotbeginlifeasanorganizationalchangetechniqueitbeganasaresearch methodformakinggroundedtheorybuildingmoregenerative(Cooperrider,1986;Cooperrider& Sekerka,2006).AkeyunderlyingtheoryofchangeinAIcomesfromaconstructivereimaginingof postmoderntheory.Acknowledgingthatallsocialresearchisinherentlybiasedbythepositioningofthe researcher,Cooperriderarguedthiswasnotareasontothrowupourhandsandgiveupthepursuitof knowledge.Onthecontrary,itfreesustotaketheideathatorganizationsaremadeandimaginedtoits logicalconclusion:thatorganizationalinquiryissimultaneouslytheproductionofselfandworld.What researcherschoosetostudyandhowtheystudyitcreatesasmuchasitdiscoverstheworld,and thereforeawidefieldofcreative,positive,possibilitybeckonstous(Cooperrider,Barrett&Srivastva, 1995). ThisisthefirstandmostimportantcontributionthatAImadetoapostLewiniantheoryof organizationalchange.InthemodernistmindsetoftheLewinianactionresearchmodel,andmost changemanagementmodels,thepurposeofquestionsistouncoverdatatodiscoverwhatisthere.In thepostmodernsocialconstructionismofAIquestionsareseenasactuallycreatingwhatisthere. Questionsaboutconflictcreatemoreconflict.Questionsaboutthelifegivingpropertiesofthe organizationcreatemorevitality.AItheoristshavestressedtheimportanceofthequestionsthatguide theinquiryprocess(Barrett&Fry,2005;Ludema,Cooperrider&Barrett,2000;Whitney&Cooperrider, 2001).Bushe(2010)arguesthatalackofattentiontothegenerativepotentialofquestionsusedinAI processesmayexplainwhysomeinterventionssucceedandsomefail. Generativity KennethGergens(1978;1982)conceptofgenerativetheoryiscentraltounderstandingAIstheoryof practice.Gergenproposedthatweshouldaimtocreateasocialsciencefocusedonits"generative capacitydefinedthisasthe"capacitytochallengetheguidingassumptionsoftheculture,toraise fundamentalquestionsregardingcontemporarysociallife,tofosterreconsiderationofthatwhichis 'takenforgranted'andtherebyfurnishnewalternativesforsocialactions"(1978,p.1346).Appreciative InquirywasdevelopedasamethodologythatwouldmeetGergenscriteria. Thefirstappreciativeinquirychangeprojectfocusedontheideaofgenerativemetaphorasanengine forchange(Barrett&Cooperrider,1990).Bushes(1998)studiesofAIinteamsfoundthatAIcan surfacegenerativemetaphorscapableofresolvingthekindofparadoxicaldilemmas(Smith&Berg, 1987)thatgetgroupsstuck.Bushes(2010,Bushe&Kassam,2005)researchhasfoundthatthe

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5 BusheAITheoryandCritique generativityofAIisakeyvariableassociatedwithtransformationalchangeoutcomes.AIcanbe generativeinanumberofways.Itisthequestfornewideas,images,theoriesandmodelsthatliberate ourcollectiveaspirations,alterthesocialconstructionofrealityand,intheprocess,makeavailable decisionsandactionsthatwerenotavailableordidnotoccurtousbefore.Whensuccessful,AI generatesspontaneous,unsupervised,individual,groupandorganizationalactiontowardabetter future(Bushe,2007,p.30). TheimportanceofgenerativityisencasedinCooperrider&Whitneys(2001)constructionistprinciple, whichhasbeenboileddowntoasayingpopularinAIcirclesthatwordscreateworlds.Thisalso highlightstheimportantconnectionsbetweengenerativityanddiscourse. DiscourseandNarrative. AppreciativeInquiryisheavilyinfluencedbytheoriesofdiscourseandnarrativeespeciallyasappliedto organizationalchange(Barrettetal,1995;Boje,1991;Marshak&Grant,2008;Oswick,Grant, Michaelson&Wailes,2005).Intheirpoeticprinciple,CooperriderandWhitney(2001)proposethat organizationsaremorelikeabookthanalivingorganism,thatorganizationallifeisexpressedinthe storiespeopletelleachothereveryday,andthestoryoftheorganizationisconstantlybeingco authored.Theinitialstorytellingthatparticipantsengagein,whentheydescribetheirbestofstories, isakeyinnovationoftheAImethodandwidelyregardedasessentialforsettingthetoneofanAI intervention(Ludema,2002;Khalsa,2002).Barrett&Fry(2005)stresstheimpactthattellingand hearingstorieshasonparticipantsasacatalystforchange.Theyproposethatstoriesheardandtold duringtheDiscoveryphasehaveapositiveimpactonrelationships,revealdeeplyheldvaluesand providecoherenceandmeaning.Bushe(2001)describeshowappreciativeinquirycanelicitnewstories thatchangethetakenforgrantedassumptionsinagroupandasaresult,changethebehavioursof groupmembersquiteprofoundly.Ludema(2002)arguesthatthecollection,telling,andretellingof peoplesbestofstoriesresultsinawaveofcountervailingmicronarrativesthatcombine,overtime,to changetheprevailingmacronarrativeoftheorganization. Discursivetheoriesstressthatitisthroughrelationshipsthatwordscometohavemeaningandthrough discoursethatrelationshipsarecreated,maintainedandchanged.AItheoristsstresstheimportanceof wordchoicefromthemomentofcontactbetweenAIpractitionerandclientsystem(Cooperrider& Whitney,2001).Callingfortheunconditionalpositivequestion(Ludema,Cooperrider&Barrett,2000) theyarguethatthelanguageofinquiryshapestherelationshipsthatgetformedandtheentireprocess ofinquiry(Barrett&Fry,2005).AIadvocatesnotethatorganizationsconsistofmultiplestoriesand perspectivesandseektoensurethatnoparticularhistoryorstoryisconsideredmoresignificantthan another(Whitney,1996).Theynotethatineverycultureororganizationtherearemarginalizedvoices andthatthesevoicesareoftentheoneswhereimportantinnovationsreside(Whitney,1996;Whitney& TrostenBloom,2003).TheydescribeAIasaprocesswheresuchmarginalizedvoicesaremorelikelyto beheardandreceived. AnticipatoryReality Inoneofhisfirsttheoreticalstatements,Cooperrider(1990)proposedaheliocentrichypothesisto supporttheAIpracticeofinquiringintothemostpositiveimagesmembersholdoftheirorganizations.

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6 BusheAITheoryandCritique Thishypothesisproposedthatineverysocialsystemmembersholdanimplicitorexplicitimageofthe systematitsverybest,whatCooperridercalledtheaffirmativeimage,and,justasplantsgrowtoward thelight,socialsystemsnaturallyevolvetowardtheprevailingaffirmativeimage.Therefore,conscious evolutionofthesystemsaffirmativeimageisaviablepathfororganizationdevelopment. Inhislaterwriting,CooperriderdroppedtheheliotropichypothesisandofferredamoreHeideggarian formulationwithhisanticipatoryprinciple(McAdam&Mirza,2009).Muchlikeamovieprojectoron ascreen,humansystemsareforeverprojectingaheadofthemselvesahorizonofexpectation(intheir talkinthehallways,inthemetaphorsandlanguagetheyuse)thatbringsthefuturepowerfullyintothe presentasamobilizingagent.Toinquireinwaysthatservestorefashionanticipatoryrealityespecially theartfulcreationofpositiveimageryonacollectivebasismaybethemostprolificthinganyinquiry cando.(Cooperrider&Whitney,2001,p.21) Theideaofanticipatoryrealityasachangelevercanbefoundinavarietyofchangeprocessesthat endorseapossibilitycentricversusaproblemcentricapproachtoorganizationalchange(Boyd& Bright,2007).BoydandBrightarguethatproblemcentricchangeprocessesassumethatsomethingis brokenandneedsfixing,thusmakingorganizationalmembersmorewaryofconsultantsandchange agents.This,theyargue,makesitmorelikelythatorganizationalmemberswillbemoredefensiveand resistanttothechangeprocessesandmorefocusedonselfintereststhanthecommongood.The conservativepressoffearandnegativeemotionsmakeitlesslikelythatcurrentnormswillbe transformed.Focusinginquiryonpositivepossibilities,theyargue,buildsrelationshipsandtrustand identifiespossibilitiesforshiftingnormativeexpectations. Recently,BrightandCameron(2009)haverevisitedtheheliotropichypothesis,arguingthatresearchon positiveorganizationalclimates,positiveenergynetworksandhighqualityrelationshipssubstantiate thepropositionthatheliotropismexistsinsocialorganizations.Theyalsopointoutthatsincebadis strongerthangood(Baumeister,Bratslavsky,Finenauer&Vohs,2001)anemphasisonthepositive mustbesufficientlypervasiveandstrongenoughtoovercomethenaturaltendencyofpeopleand organizationstobemoreeffectedbynegativeevents,situationsandinteractionsthanpositiveones. PositiveAffect Whiletheanticipatoryprinciplefocusesontheutilityofpositiveimagesforsupportingchange, Coopperrider&Whitneys(2001)positiveprinciplehighlightstheutilityofpositiveaffectforbuilding rapportamongpeopletosupportandsustainchangeprocesses.CooperriderandSekerka(2006)assert thatinquiryintowhatpeopleappreciatestrengthenstheirrelationshipsandincreasespositiveemotions. Theyarguethatelevationofpositiveemotionsisafirstandvitalstepinthechangeprocess.Theypoint tostudiesshowingpositivefeelingsleadpeopletobemoreflexible,creative,integrative,opento informationandefficientintheirthinking(Isen,2000).Peopleexperiencingpositiveaffectaremore resilientandabletocopewithoccasionaladversity,haveanincreasedpreferenceforvariety,and acceptabroaderarrayofbehavioraloptions(Fredrickson,2001;2006).CloselyalignedisLudemas articulationofthenatureandimportanceofhopefororganizationalchange(Ludema,Wilmott& Srivastva,1997)andthewayinwhichAIcanprovidehope(Ludema,2000)

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7 BusheAITheoryandCritique Bushe(2007,2010)contendsthatitmaybetheabilityofAItoquicklycreategoodfeelingsamongst peopleandtowardachangeprocessthathasmadeitsopopularamongmanagersandconsultants,but hecautionsthatpositiveaffectbyitselfmaybetoofleetingforittosustainorganizationchange.He proposesthatthetransformationalpotentialofAIismorelikelywhenpositiveimageryandaffectare usedintheserviceofgenerativity.Bright,Powley,Fry&Barrett(2010)echothisview,andprovidea perspectiveonhowtoinquireintonegativeemotionalstatesinappreciative,generativeways.Thereare, however,caseswherethepositiveaffectelicitedbyappreciativeinquiryappearstohavebeencentralto thechangeprocess(e.g.,Khalsa,2002),leadingtoprofoundreductionsofintergroupconflictandthe emergenceofsharedidentities.Wewilllookatthisinmoredetailbelowinthesectiononmoderatorsof AI. BuildingonStrength Citingresearchinsportspsychology,educationandthePygmalioneffect,Cooperrider(1990)argued thatwetendtogetmoreofwhateverwepayattentionto.Busheinparticular(Bushe&Pitman,1991; 2009,Bushe,2001,2010)hasemphasizedthisaspectofthepositivenotsomuchpositive anticipationsorpositiveaffectbutfocusingtheattentionofleadersandfollowersonthepositivetraits andprocessestheywantmoreof,thatalreadyexist,asakeyengineofchange.Inhislatertheoretical formulations,CooperriderprovidesamodelforunderstandingthetransformationalpotentialofAIasa threephaseprocesswhereelevatinginquiry(aninquiryintowhatwevaluethatincreasesrelatedness andpositiveemotions)leadstoafusionofstrengths(awarenessofgroupresourcesandincreased motivationtocooperate)whichleadstoactivationofenergy(heightenedcreativityandthecourageto takeinnovativeactions)(Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006). Commonalitiesbetweenthisnotionoffocusingonthepositivetoguidechangeandthoseofferedin otherchangemodelslikeAssetBasedCommunityDevelopment(Kretzmann&McKnight,1993),Positive Deviance(Spreitzer&Sonenshein,2004;Sternin&Choo,2000)andSolutionFocusedTherapy(de Sharzer,1985;Molnar&deShazer,1987)arenoteworthy.However,muchofthestrengthsbased movementinorganizationsfocusesontheelucidationandengagementofindividualcompetencies (Buckingham&Clifton,2001),ignoringrelationalrealitiesandforthemostpartdoinglittletotransform thenatureoforganizationitself.AppreciativeInquirynotonlyfocusesonthebestofwhatis,but engagesallstakeholdersinaprocessesofreimaginingwhatcouldbeandtakingownershipforwhatwill be.Thisfusionofstrengthsandactivationofenergyisgenerallyconsideredessentialtothe generativemomentumofthechangeprocess StakeholderEngagement AnumberofAIadvocatesdescribetheengagementoflargenumbersofstakeholdersasacritical changelever(Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006;Powely,Fry,Barret&Bright,2004;Whitney&Trosten Bloom2003).TheideaofwidespreadparticipationinchangeisinnowayuniquetoAI,havingbeena cornerstoneofchangepracticesinceRoethlisberger&Dicksons(1939)andCoch&Frenchs(1948) seminalresearchonparticipationinchange.Whatisdifferentisthedegreetowhichwidespread participationasinquirersisencouraged(Gergen&Thatchenkary,1996;Thatchenkary,1994). Conventionalorganizationdevelopmentgenerallyinvolvesasmallgroupofinquirerswhotalktoalarge

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8 BusheAITheoryandCritique numberofstakeholderstogettheirideasandviews.Thatsmallgroupthenanalyzesandfeedsback whatithasgathered.Newideasthathavebeenvalidatedbysocialscienceenterthesystemthrough consultantsandotherexperts.AI,incontrast,seekstouncoverandstimulatenewideasfrom stakeholdersinthesystem;ideasthatwill,atleastbenewintheirstatuswithinthesystem.Ideally,all stakeholdersparticipateingatheringandmakingsenseoftheideasandviewsofotherstakeholdersand participateastheorists,dreamersanddesigners.AIpractitionershaveincorporatedanumberofother largegroupengagementprocesses,notablyFutureSearch(Emery&Purser,1996;Weisbord,1993), WorldCaf(Brown&Issacs,2005)duringthediscoveryphase,andOpenSpace(Owen,1983;2008) duringthedesignphase. WhilegettingverylargegroupsengagedineventsthatleadtochangeisnotuniquetoAI(Bunker& Alban,2006),AIadvocatesmakethepointthatafocusonthepositiveinAIsupportsmorewidespread, voluntary,multistakeholderengagementinchangeactivities(Boyd&Bright,2007;Powleyet.al.,2004). Peoplewhomightnototherwisebewillingtoparticipateinachangeprocessaremorelikelytojoinin whentheinquiryisappreciative.Additionally,thecredibilityandreachofAIhaveencouraged organizationalleaderstoexperimentwithextremescaleofthewholechangeprocesses.Forexample, WorldVisionisafederationofapproximately200fairlyindependentorganizationsspreadacrossthe globe.ItrecentlyusedAIforastrategicplanningeventthatincluded6,000membersusinga combinationoffacetofaceandinternetbasedparticipation. WorkingwithSelfOrganizingProcesses AmorerecenttrendinAItheorizingistoincorporateperspectivesontheselforganizingpropertiesof socialsystems(Jantsch,1979;Owen,2008;Wheatley,1994)intoAIpractice,particularlyintheDesign andDestinyphases(Barrett&Fry,2005;Cooperider&Sekerka,2006;Bushe,2010).Fromthis perspective,onemightarguethattheDiscoveryandDreamphasescreatetheconditionsforself organizingprocessestocoalesceinpositivedirections.Attemptstocreatenewculturesbyhaving leadersprescribeandthentrytoimplementanewculturehaveapropensitytogeneratenegative, unintendedoutcomes(Kotter&Heskett,1992;Ogbonna&Wilkinson,2003).Bushe(2007)arguesthat leaderscantcreatenewculturessomuchastheycanunleashculturalchange.Howtheculturethen changesisverydifficulttoprescribeordirect,buthavingalargenumberofmembersengagedinan inquiryintothebestofwhateverstakeholderswantmoreofgreatlyincreasesthechancesthatthenew culturewillbebetterthantheoldone.Havingamoreorlesssharedvisionofwheremembersinthe systemwanttogo(Dream),theuseofselforganizingdesignprocessesappeartoincreasethespeed, engagementandbuyintotheplansandproposalsthatemerge.Withthatlevelofengagementand commitment,useofselforganizingimplementationprocesses,whatBushe&Kassam(2005)labelan improvisationalasopposedtoimplementationformoftheactionphaseinanODprocess,appearsto resultinmorechange,morequickly. LifeGivingPropertiesofSocialSystems PerhapsthemostunderexploredtheoryofchangebehindAIistheonethatstarteditalltheideathat everysocialsystemcontainsasetofproperties,processesand/orcharacteristicsthatgiveitlife,and thatattentiontotheseandintentionalactionstowardstrengtheningthemincreaseanorganizations

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9 BusheAITheoryandCritique vitalityandcapacity(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987;Cooperrider&Avital,2004).Thoughitremains centraltoCooperriderspersonalviewofwhatappreciativeinquiryshouldfocuson(personal correspondence),ithardlyshowsupinhisorotherpeopleswriting,insteadhavingbeenreplacedwith theideaofapositivechangecore(Cooperrider&Whitney,2001;Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006). Perhapsthisisbecausewhatgiveslifetoanythingisspirit,andfromthispointofview,appreciative inquirymightbeconsideredaspiritualpractice(Barge&Oliver,2003;Drogin,1997;Reason,2000)oran inquiryintotheorganizationssoul(Johnson,2010).Asthelanguageofspiritualityisnotwellreceived ineithertheworldsofbusinessoracademia,itmayexplainwhythisperspectiveonAIhasgainedlittle attention.EvenapaperonAIentitledThespiritualheartofhumanscienceinquiryskirtstheissue (Cooperrider&Barrett,2002).Yet,asanexplanationfortheremarkableinterestinandspreadofAIas achangeprocess,andthemanyspinoffsthathavecomefromit,thespiritualaspectofAImaybeworth moreexaminationbyscholarsandpractitioners.Powley(2004)forexample,bringsthesacredin throughthebackdoorinhisexaminationofAIsummitsasritesofpassage.Thoughhislanguageand focusaresecular,thepowerofritualfortransformativechangehaseverbeenconnectedwithspiritual concerns(e.g,Driver,1991;Eliade,1958). Certainly,afocusonAIasaninquiryintowhatgiveslife,ratherthananinquiryintothepositivewould overcomeconcernsexpressedwhenmoresimplisticvisionsofAIasastudyofthebestofwhatis,toget moreofit,areraised.CouldAIhavebeenusedtohelpHitlergaspeoplebetteristhekindofquestion thefocusesonsuchconcerns.AnapplicationofAIthatwaslikebenchmarkingthemostefficientgas chambersmightindeedhavehelpedHitler.Butproperlyunderstood,appreciativeinquirywouldforce gaschamberoperatorstoexplorewhatgavelifetotheirdailyexistence,tobeinauthenticrelationship witheachother,toconsidertheirhighesthumanaspirations.Couldadeathcultsurvivesuchaninquiry?

ModeratorsofAIPractice
AsexperiencewithAIincreasesandgreaternumbersofscholarsandpractitionersstudysuccessesand failures,thereisanemergingliteratureonconditionswhichmoderateAIpracticeandAIoutcomes.Two, inparticular,areworthnoting. BushesstudiesofAIinsmallgroups,combinedwithhisresearchongroupdevelopmentandteam effectiveness(Bushe&Coetzer,2007)ledhimtoproposethatAIworksdifferentlyinpreidentityand postidentitysocialsystems(Bushe,2002).Apreidentitysystemisdefinedasoneinwhichthemajority ofmembersdonotidentifywiththesystemandapostidentitysystemasoneinwhichamajorityof membersdoidentifywiththesystem.Theformerwouldincludeappreciativeinquiriesthatbring togethermembersofdifferentgroups,whichareusedtolaunchneworganizationsornetworks,aswell asthoseusedinexistingsystemswherethereisverylittlesenseofpsychologicalmembership.Bushe arguedthatinpreidentitysystems,membersdontreallycarethatmuchaboutthesystemsneedsand instead,seethegroupororganizationasonemorethingintheirenvironmentthatmustbedealtwithin thepursuitofpersonalinterests.Inpostidentitysystems,bycontrast,memberstaketheneedsand interestsofthesystemintoaccountandinsomecases,mightevenbewillingtosacrificepersonal interestsforthebettermentofthegroup.

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10 BusheAITheoryandCritique Bushe(2002)arguesthatthenatureoftheinquiryandresultingvisionmustbedifferentinthesetwo typesofgroups.Mirroringhisfindingsongroupstateguides(Bushe&Coetzer,2007;Coetzer&Bushe, 2003),hearguesthatpreidentitygroupsarebestservedbyaninquiryintotheideal(group, organization,society)butthatpostidentitygroupsarebestservedbyaninquiryintotheought(what weoughttodogiventhisgroupororganizationsresponsibilities,goalsandenvironment).Inquiryinto theideal,whensuccessful,helpsagroupachieveapostidentitystateandresearchbyHead(2000) foundevidencetosupportthisassertion.Bushearguesapostidentitygroupwillbeimpatientwith inquiryintotheideal,andexperienceitasnavelgazing.Instead,memberswanttoincreasethegroup ororganizationsefficacyandwillbeengagedbyinquiriesthataremorefocusedaroundincreasingthe systemscompetenceandcapacity.AsdescribedinBushe(2010)thismodelexplainsfindingsintwo publishedcasesofappreciativeinquiry;oneintheUSNavy(Powley,Fry,Barrett&Bright,2004)andone withanexecutiveteam(Newman&Fitzgerald,2001). AnothermoderatinginfluenceonAImaybetheextenttowhichappreciation,discussionofidealsanda focusonstrengthsexistspriortoanappreciativeinquiry.Fitzgerald,Oliver&Hoaxey,(2010)suggest thatinorganizationswherediscussionofsuchthingsareabsent,AIcanbeviewedasaninquiryintothe organizationsshadow.Definingtheshadowascensoredfeelingandcognition,theysuggestthe transformativeeffectofAImaysometimesbearesultofenergyandcreativitythatisunleashedwhen shadowmaterialisreintegratedintothesystem.Bright(2009;Bright&Cameron,2009)offersa differentwaytothinkaboutsimilarissuesinhismodelofnormativemomentum.Hearguesthat systemstendtowardanormal,functionalstateofoperations,withoccasionalswingstowardeither moredysfunctionalformsofoperationormoreextraordinaryformsofoperation.Allelsebeingequal, hearguesthatorganizationswillexperiencenormativemomentumtowardanordinarystateof being,astateofequilibriuminwhichmaintainingoperatingprocedures,efficiencyandeffectivenessare thepreeminentconcernandarenormallyaccomplishedthroughreinforcingconformityandstandards. Thecurrentpositionoftheorganizationalongthecontinuumfromnegativedeviancetopositive deviancewillaffectbothhowpeopleexperienceachangeprocessandhowthechangeprocessworks. Brightargues(2009)thatthediscoveryphaseofAIinanorganizationthatisinadysfunctional, negativelydeviantperiodwillhaveamoredramatic,positiveimpactthanitwillinonethatisalreadyat theextraordinary,positivelydeviantendofthecontinuum.Healsosuggests(Bright&Cameron,2009) thatthenormativepresstowardtheordinarymeansthatinadysfunctionalstate,anychangeprocess workswiththenaturalflowasitmovesthesystembackintofunctionality,butthatmovingasystem towardanextraordinarystatemustworkagainstthatsameequilibratingforce. BoththeseperspectivesbringintoquestionBushes(2007,2010)assertionthatasimplefocusonthe positiveisnotenoughfortransformationalchangeandoffersanexplanationforwhyandwhenafocus onthepositivemay,byitself,betransformational(withpreidentitysystems,andwithnegatively deviantsystems).Italsosuggeststhatthetransformationalpowerofappreciativeinquirymaydiminish asdiscussionofstrengthsandaspirationsbecomescommonplaceinasystem.Thisfitswithreportsof peopleexpressingdiscomfortwithcontinuingtouseappreciativeinquiryinorganizationsthathavehad yearsofsuccessusingit(Fitzgerald,et.al.,2010). FINALDRAFTMAY20,2010NOTFORDISTRIBUTIONORQUOTATION

11 BusheAITheoryandCritique

CritiquesofAI
CritiquesofAIhavegottenmoresophisticatedinrecentyears,overcomingearliercritiqueswhichcame frompeoplenotveryconversantwiththeunderlyingtheory.Morerecentcritiqueshavecomefrom scholarpractitionerswhouseAIandareawareofitslimitations.Acommonconcerniswiththe possibilitythatafocusonpositivestoriesandexperiencesduringthediscoveryphasewillinvalidatethe negativeorganizationalexperiencesofparticipantsandrepresspotentiallyimportantandmeaningful conversationsthatneedtotakeplace(Egan&Lancaster,2005;Miller,Fitzgerald,Murrell,Preston& Ambekar,2005;Pratt,2002;Reason,2000).ChristineOliver(Barge&Oliver,2003;Fitzgerald,Oliver& Hoaxey,2010;Oliver,2005;2005b)hasprovidedaseriesofcogentargumentsforthinkingof appreciativeinquiryasmorethanjuststudyingthebestofandbringinggreaterreflexivitytoAI practice.Olivers(2005)critiqueofAIshabitofdecontextualizedpolarization,withpositiveand negativetreatedashavingintrinsicmeaning,insteadofacknowledgingthatwhatispositiveforsome maybenegativeforothers,goestotheheartofthematter.Socialconstructionistsarguethatsuch meaningscantbepreassignedbyathirdparty;theyonlyemergeinrelationshipandeventhensuch meaningsaremultiple,partialanddynamic.Itshardtoarguethatsuchpolarizationdoesntshowup withregularityindescriptionsofAI,butisthatreallywhatisgoingoninsuccessfulAIpractice?Isiteven possibletoinquireintoimagesofapositivefuturewithoutevokingthenegativepastorpresent.Justas AItheoristsarguethatbehindeverynegativeimageliesthepositive(Brightetal,2010),social constructionistswouldarguethatbehindeverypositiveimageliesanegativeone(Fineman,2006). Fitzgeraldet.al.(2010)providenumerousexamplestoshowthatAIcansurfacerepressedorcensored thoughtsandfeelings. Johnsons(2010)exploresthemanywayscastinganappreciativeeyecangeneratenegative experiencesandhow,inturn,exploringthoseexperiencesappreciativelycanresultinpositive, generative,outcomes.Sheacknowledgesthedilemmaattheheartoftheappreciativeinquiryproject: AIcouldonlybedifferentiatedbyusingthelanguageofdeficitdiscoursetodefinetheproblemthatAI wouldsolve(Johnson,2010,inpress).BypolarizingAIandproblemsolving,aneither/ordynamicwas setthatcontinuestomanifestindescriptionsofAI.AIisdescribedasamethodofchangethatdoesnt focusonproblems,butresearchsuggeststransformationalchangewillnotoccurfromAIunlessit addressesproblemsofrealconcerntoorganizationalmembers(Bushe,2010).Ratherthanstayingstuck inadualistic,either/ordiscourseofpositiveornegative,Johnsonarguesthatthegenerativepotentialof AIismostlikelytocomefromembracingthepolaritiesofhumanexistenceandthatitisthetensionsof thoseveryforcesthatmostgivelifeandvitalitytoorganizations. WhileCooperriderwouldnotdisagreewithJohnsonsnuancedandsensitiveexplorationoflightand shadow,heissuspiciousofthenaggingdesiretobringdeficitbasedtheoriesofchangebackintoplay.I thinkwearestillonthisquestforafullblownnondeficittheoryofchange.Imnotsayingthatthe otherisntawayofchangebutIamsayingthatwearestillinourinfancyinunderstandingnondeficit, strengthbasedorlifecentricapproachestochange.WilliamJamescalledforitbackin1902,in VarietiesofReligionsExperience,whenhesaidweknowalotaboutthekindofchangethathappens whenpeoplefeelthreatened,feelfearandviolenceiscomingatthem,butwedontknowmuchabout

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12 BusheAITheoryandCritique thekindofchangethathappenswhen,inhiswords,everythingishotandalivewithinusand everythingreconfiguresitselfaroundthat.Whethersomeonewouldcalltheinitiatingexperience positiveornegative,thetransformationalmomentisaprofusionmomentwhensomethingso deeplygoodandlovingistouchedinusthateverythingischangedthatsthekindofchangeImtalking aboutIdontthinkwereallyunderstandthepossibilitiesinthatkindofchangeyetandwearent goingtounderstandthemuntilwetakethistotheextremes(personalcorrespondence,March30, 2010).

TheFutureofAppreciativeInquiry
After20yearsitisabundantlyclearthatappreciativeinquiry,whenskilfullydonewithproper sponsorshipandresources,isapotentplanned,transformationalchangeprocess(Bushe&Kassam, 2005;Fryet.al.,2002).Therearenowmanypublishedaccountsofextraordinaryresultsfromitsuseina varietyofcountries.OneexampleisBrazilbasedNutrimentalFoodswhichengagedall750employees intwoAppreciativeInquirysummitsandwithinoneyearabsenteeismdecreased300%,salesincreased 27%,productivityincreasedover23%,andprofitsincreased200%(Barros&Cooperrider,2000;Powley, Cooperrider&Fry,2002).AverydifferentexampleisRoadway,aunionizedtruckingfirmintheUnited StatesthathashadmanydozensofAIsummitsatitsvariouslocationssincetheturnofmillennium whichhavetransformedunionmanagementrelationsanddramaticallyimprovedperformance(Ludema et.al.,2003).Aninternalauditcompletedin2004foundsitesthathadgonethroughAIsummitshad achievedcostsavingsalmostseventimeshigherthansiteswhichhadnot(Barrett&Fry,2005). Whilethepotentialfortransformationhasbeenestablished,theremaybeincreasingdisenchantment withAIamongstmanagersandconsultantsarisingfromapredictablefadphenomenonthatseemsto plagueallorganizationalchangemethods.Thebuzzcreatedbynew,successfulchangeprocessescreate increasingrequestsfromorganizationsthatconsultantswanttomeet.Evermorepoorlytrained consultantsprovideevermorepoorlydesignedapplicationsleadingtoasituationwheremanagersthink wetriedthat(fillinthechangeprocess)butitdidntworkhere.Afterawhilewhatseemedlikea silverbulletbecomesyesterdaysstoryandeveryonemoveson. AnecdotalevidenceisthatamajorityofODconsultantsandmanyotherkindsofconsultantsandchange agentsnowuseaspectsofAIintheirpractice.ThisreviewhasonlyconsideredAIfromthe organizationalpointofviewbuttherehavebeenapplicationsatthelevelofindividuals(Kelm,2005), relationships(Stavros&Torres,2005)groups(Bushe,1998;2002;Bushe&Coetzer,1995)communities (Browne&Jain,2002;Finehold,Holland&Lingham,2002)and,inthecaseofNepal,evennations (Cooperrider,Whitney&Stavros,2008,p.vii).Aswell,AIhasbeenadaptedforuseinstrategicplanning (Stavros&Saint,2009),programevaluation(Preskill&Catsambas,2006)andevenqualityaudits(Morris, 2008).Oneofthedownsidesofthisisthatalotofdifferentthingsendupgettingcalledappreciative inquiry,whichfurtherdilutesgeneralunderstandingofthereallyimportantinnovationsinthistheoryof practiceandleadstothekindofdumbeddowndescriptionsfoundinpublicationslikeTiem& Rozenswieg(2006).

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13 BusheAITheoryandCritique WhatwemostneedarestudiesthatexploresuccessesandfailuresofAItoexplainthemoderatorsand contingenciesthatinfluenceAIoutcomes(Head,2005).Wearelongpasttheneedforarticles breathlesslydescribingthisnewchangeprocessorprovidingshortanecdotesofAIsuccess,but unfortunatelythatcontinuestobemainlywhatispublished.Instead,weneedlongitudinalcasestudies thataredetailedandnuanced,likethatbyBryan(2009),Messerschmidt(2008)andMilleret.al.(2005). Wealsoneedcomparativestudiesthattrackcontingencies,mediatorsandmoderatorswhenAIisused repetitivelyinthesameorsimilarorganizations(e.g.,Bushe,2007b;Richer,Ritchie&Marchionni,2009). DuetotheproliferationofmethodscalledAI,andthevarietyoftheoreticalleversbehindAIpractice, theseneedtobecarefullydetailedinpublishedreports.Wealsoneedtobuildabodyofcommon modelsandtermssothatstudiescanbecompared.Besidesthe4Dmodelandthe5principlesfew ifanyoftheotherusefulmodelsandlensreviewedinthischapterarebeingusedconsistentlyin studyingandreportingonAI. WhenisAIthemostappropriatechangeprocess?Whatcontingenciesareimportanttoconsiderwhen planninganAI?WhatorganizationalfactorsmostinfluencethesuccessorfailureofAI?Atpresentwe havelittleevidencebasedanswerstothosequestions.Wealsodonthaveanygoodtheoreticalwayof thinkingaboutscaleofthewholechangeprocesses.Itseemsacommonsensepropositionthatif everyoneinthesystemcanagreeonwhatneedsdoing,executionwillbemucheasier,butisthatallthat ishappeningwhenverylargenumbersofpeoplecometogetherinanAIsummit?Arethereother,as yetundescribednetworkeffectsfromlargescalesthatsupportorganizationalchange?CanAIprocesses bescaledupinfinitely?Howmanymembersinasystemneedtobeengagedforscaleofthewhole effectstokickin? Therearemanymorequestionsthatcouldbeasked,assofewhavebeenempiricallystudiedand answeredbutIwillconcludewithonefinalonethecompetenciesrequiredoftheAI facilitator/consultant.Verylittlehasbeenwrittenaboutthis.Cananycleverpersonwithapositive attitudelearntofacilitateAIsummitswell?Doesitrequireahealthyandspirituallygrounded individual(Murrell,2005,p.111)?IslackoffacilitatorcharacteristicsorskillsrelatedtoAIfailure? Maybewejustdontknow.

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