What is a Galvanometer

A Galvanometer is an instrument that is used for the detection of electric currents and voltages. Its working is based on the electromagnetic principle which states that a coil suspended in a magnetic field experiences a torque when an electric current passes through it. This is due to the interaction of the magnetic field in which the coil is suspended with the magnetic field generated around the coil because of the current passing through it. The direction of this torque can easily be found by using Flemings right hand rule. A simple Galvanometer consists of a pair of permanent magnets providing a magnetic field in the horizontal plane. In this magnetic field, a coil wounded over an iron core is suspended on the vertical axis. The two ends of the coil are connected to the outer contacts of the Galvanometer. The Galvanometer is then connected in series in the circuit branch in which the current is to be detected. If an electric current is present, then it will flow through the electric coil of the galvanometer. This coil will then experience a torque and rotate around its vertical axis. This rotation will cause the pointer to deflect from its original position as it is connected to the coil system. An opposing torque, known as the damping torque will also be generated in the coil system by the spring and due to the generation of the eddy currents in the iron core. The pointer will reach a steady state when the two opposing torques reach an equilibrium. One of the important parameters of a galvanometer is its sensitivity which should be high in order to detect small currents. This is why an iron core is used in a galvanometer as it provides a path of low reluctance to the magnetic field thereby increasing the amount of torque that the coil experiences for the same amount of current than in case of an air core. Another alternative arrangement that can be used to increase this sensitivity is to use an air core but decrease the radius of the coil, thereby decreasing its moment of inertia. The practical application of Galvanometer is in potentiometer bridges that are used for the measurement of resistance values. Here the galvanometer is used for the detection of the null current condition. A Galvanometer can also be used for the measurement of the amount of current passing through it by calibrating the deflection of the pointer. Article Source: http://www.trivology.com/articles/188/what-is-a-galvanometer.html 3 Phase Electrical Power Transformer
A 3 phase transformer, there is a three-legged iron core as shown below. Each leg has a respective primary and secondary winding. Most power is distributed in the form of three-phase AC. Therefore, before proceeding any further you should understand what is meant by 3 phase power. Basically, the power company generators produce electricity by rotating (3) coils or windings through a magnetic field within the generator . These coils or windings are spaced 120 degrees apart. As they rotate through the magnetic field they generate power which is then sent out on three (3) lines as in three-phase power. 3 phase transformers must have (3) coils or windings connected in the proper sequence in order to match the incoming power and therefore transform the power company voltage to the level of voltage we need and maintain the proper phasing or polarity.

3 Phase Power Is More Efficient Than Single Phase

Three phase electricity powers large industrial loads more efficiently than single-phase electricity. When single-phase electricity is needed, It is available between any two phases of a three-phase system, or in some systems , between one of the phases and ground. By the use of three conductors a 3 phase system can provide 173% more power than the two conductors of a single-phase system. Three-phase power allows heavy duty industrial equipment to operate more smoothly and efficiently. 3 phase power can be transmitted over long distances with smaller conductor size. Also read about 3 phase isolation transformers here. For an excellent source for these all transformer types check out TEMCo 3 phase transformers. Or check with Isolation Transformer Sales for 3 phase isolation transformers. These two companies manufacture some of the most recognized high quality 3 phase transformers available today. In a three-phase transformer, there is a three-legged iron core as shown below. Each leg has a respective primary and secondary winding.

The three primary windings (P1, P2, P3) will be connected at the factory to provide the proper sequence (or correct polarity) required and will be in a configuration known as Delta. The three secondary windings (S1, S2, S3) will also be connected at the factory to provide

the proper sequence (or correct polarity) required. However, the secondary windings, depending on our voltage requirements, will be in either ?Delta? or a ?Wye? configuration.

3 Phase Transformer Delta and Wye Connections

In a 3 phase transformer, there is a three-legged iron core as shown below. Each leg has a respective primary and secondary winding.

3 Phase Transformer Winding Combination

As can be seen, the three-phase transformer actually has 6 windings (or coils) 3 primary and 3 secondary. These 6 windings will be pre-connected at the factory in one of two configurations:

Configuration 1. Three primary Windings in Delta and Three Secondary Windings in Wye Note: These are the designations which are marked on the leads or terminal boards provided for customer connections and they will be located in the transformer wiring compartment. In both single and 3 phase transformers, the high voltage terminals are designated with an h and the low voltage with an X

Configuration 2. Three Primary Windings in Delta and Three Secondary Windings in Delta Note: These are the designations which are marked on the leads or terminal boards provided for the customer connections and they will be located in the transforming wiring compartment.

In both single and three-phase transformers, the high voltage terminals are designated with an H and the low voltage with an X.

3 Phase Transformer Voltage in Delta and Wye Connections

Different brands of 3 phase transformers handle the windings in different manners. All Federal Pacific 3 phase transformers have their primary windings pre-connected in a Delta configuration. Therefore, when connected to a three-phase source, each primary winding will have the same voltage across it.

For Example: 480V 3 Phase Source If the secondary windings are also connected Delta then they have equal voltages across each winding. Of course, this voltage will be either higher or lower than the primary depending upon the turns ratio.

480V Primary Source with 240V Secondary Output @ 2/1 Turns Ratio (Delta-Delta) Note: it is important to note that three-phase transformers with Delta-connected primaries when connected to a 30, 4-wire supply system do not utilize the 4th wire or neutral.

Wye: If the secondary is not connected in Delta it will be pre-connected at the factory as a Wye secondary. All Wye connections provide two voltages due to the common point or neutral connection. A typical rating would be 208/120V. The 208Y indicates the voltage between phases of the secondary windings.

For Example:

The 120 volt portion indicates the voltage from each phase to the common point or neutral For Example:

This Phase-to-Neutral voltage in a Wye is always equal to the Phase-to-Phase voltage divided by For Example:

Therefore a 3 phase transformer with its secondary connected in a Wye configuration for 208Y/120 volts will have the available: Common Three-Phased Transformer Voltage Combinations

Special Three Phase Delta Connected Transformers

There are certain situations where only a very small portion of a building loads require 120V single-phase . A special power transformer is available and you should be familiar with it.

The 240 Volt 30 Delta Connected Secondary With 120 Volt 10 Lighting Tap As you can see there is no point in a Delta at which an equal potential to all three lines and the grounded neutral can be made. This is a disadvantage of a Delta compared to a Wye

secondary connection This Delta secondary connection has only one winding (S3) with a neutral conductor. The mid-point of winding S3 is tapped which gives the XI and X3 to neutral a voltage reading of 120 volts. In a 3-phase system, winding S3 is the workhorse; it has to carry all the 120V lighting and appliance loads plus one-third of all the 3 phase loads. (The 120V loads must not exceed 5% of the nameplate KVA, and the total of the nameplate KVA must be derated by 30%). Winding S1 and S2 cannot carry any 120 volt loads as there is no neutral connection to these windings. Windings S1 and S2 can only carry one-third of the threephase loads each, and the 240 volt single-phase loads. *Caution: A240 volt Delta connected transformer with a 120 volt neutral tap creates a condition called high leg As indicated in the above diagram, the voltage between Phase B (X2) and the neutral tap will be 208 volts; therefore, no 120 volt single-phase loads can be connected between X2 and the neutral tap.

Single Phase Transformers Connected to Form Three Phase Bank

Normally , when 3 phase is required, a single enclosure with three primary and three secondary windings wound on a common core is all that is required. However three singlephase transformers with the same rating can be connected to form a three-phase bank. Since each single-phase transformer has a primary and a secondary winding, then 3 singlephase transformers will have the required 3 primary and 3 secondary windings and can be connected in the field either Delta-Delta or Delta-Wye to achieve the required 3 phased transformer bank, as shown below.

3 Phase Transformer: Delta-Delta

Utilizing 3 single-phase transformers is normally not done because it is more expensive than utilizing 1 three-phase transformer. However, there is an advantage which is called the open Delta or V-Connection and it functions as follows: A defective single-phase transformer in a Delta-Delta 3 phase bank can be disconnected and removed for repair. Partial service can be restored using the remaining single-phase transformer open-Delta until a replacement transformer is obtained. With two transformers three-phase is still obtained, but at reduced power. 57.7 of original power. This makes it a very practical transformer application for temporary emergency conditions Open Delta 57.7%

3 Phase Loads and Single Phase Loads

If the load is 3 phase, then both the supply and the transformer must be in three-phase. If the load is single-phase the supply can either be single or 3 phase but the transformer need only be single-phase with the primary being connected to two lines on the three phase circuit. With single-phase loads, an attempt to use a transformer with three-phase input and only one phase connected at the output to convert the loading on the line to 3 phase is not practical.

3 Phase Transformer Sizing with 3 Phase Loads

1) Determine electrical load A. Voltage required by load. B. Amperes or KVA required by load. C. Frequency in Hz (cycles per second). D. Verify load is designed to operate on three phase. All the above information is standard data normally obtained from equipment nameplates or instruction manuals. 2) Determine supply voltage A. Voltage of supply (source). B. Frequency in Hz (cycles per second). The frequency of the line supply and electrical load must be the same. A 3 phase transformer is selected which is designed to operate at this frequency having a primary (input) equal to the supply voltage and a secondary (output) equal to the voltage required by the load. 3) If the load nameplate expresses a rating in KVA, a transformer can be directly selected from the charts in the catalog. Choose from the group of transformers with primary and secondary voltages matching that which you have just determined. A. Select a 3 phase transformer with a standard KVA capacity equal to or greater than that needed to operate the load. B. Primary taps are available on most models to compensate for line voltage variations. (Refer to question #2 in the Transformer Question and Answer Section of Acme's marketplace. C. When load ratings are given only in amperes, the following formulas below may be used to determine proper KVA size for the required transformer. (1) To determine three phase KVA when volts and amps are known: Three Phase KVA =Volts x Amps x 1.73 /1000 (2) To determine Amperes when KVA and volts are known: Amps = 3 Phase KVA x 1000 /Volts x 1.73 Three Phase Example Question: Select a transformer to fulfill the following conditions. Load is a three phase induction motor, 25 horsepower @ 240 volts, 60 Hz and a heater load of 4 kilowatts @ 240 volts single phase. The supply voltage is 480Y/277, three phase, 4 wire.

Answer: Compute the KVA required. 28.2 KVA =240 volts x 68 amps x 1.73 /1000 Heater - 4 KVA A three phase transformer must be selected so that any one phase is not overloaded. Each phase should have the additional 4 KVA rating required by the heater even though the heater will operate on one phase only. So, the transformer should have a minimum KVA rating of 28.2 - 4 + 4 + 4 or 40.2 KVA. A 480 delta primary - 240 delta secondary transformer may be used on a 4 wire, 480Y/277 volt supply. The fourth wire (neutral) is not Connected to the transformer. To not overload the transformer, a 45 KVA transformer should be selected. NOTE: Any two wires of the 240 volts, 3 phase developed by the secondary of the transformer may be used to supply the heater. Any 2 wires of a 3 phase system is single phase.

Three Phase Transformers Overview

Three phase transformers are used throughout industry to change values of three phase voltage and current. Since three phase power is the most common way in which power is produced, transmitted, an used, an understanding of how three phase transformer connections are made is essential. In this section it will discuss different types of three phase transformers connections, and present examples of how values of voltage and current for these connections are computed.

3 Phase Transformer Construction:

A three phase transformer is constructed by winding three single phase transformers on a single core. These transformers are put into an enclosure which is then filled with dielectric oil. The dielectric oil performs several functions. Since it is a dielectric, a nonconductor of electricity, it provides electrical insulation between the windings and the case. It is also used to help provide cooling and to prevent the formation of moisture, which can deteriorate the winding insulation.

3-Phase Transformer Connections:

There are only 4 possible transformer combinations: Delta to Delta - use: industrial applications Delta to Wye - use : most common; commercial and industrial Wye to Delta - use : high voltage transmissions Wye to Wye - use : rare, don't use causes harmonics and balancing problems. 3 phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wye-delta transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary winding connected in a delta (see figure 1-1). A delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding connected in a wye (see figure 1-2). Delta Connections: A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. It is used for neighborhood and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation. Only one voltage is available

between any two wires in a delta system. The delta system can be illustrated by a simple triangle. A wire from each point of the triangle would represent a three-phase, three-wire delta system. The voltage would be the same between any two wires (see figure 1-3). Wye Connections: In a wye system the voltage between any two wires will always give the same amount of voltage on a three phase system. However, the voltage between any one of the phase conductors (X1, X2, X3) and the neutral (X0) will be less than the power conductors. For example, if the voltage between the power conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is 208v, then the voltage from any phase conductor to ground will be 120v. This is due to the square root of three phase power. In a wye system, the voltage between any two power conductors will always be 1.732 (which is the square root of 3) times the voltage between the neutral and any one of the power phase conductors. The phase-to-ground voltage can be found by dividing the phase-to-phase voltage by 1.732 (see figure 1-4). Connecting Single-Phase Transformers into a 3 phase Bank: If three phase transformation is need and a three phase transformer of the proper size and turns ratio is not available, three single phase transformers can be connected to form a three phase bank. When three single phase transformers are used to make a three phase transformer bank, their primary and secondary windings are connected in a wye or delta connection. The three transformer windings in figure 1-5 are labeled H1 and the other end is labeled H2. One end of each secondary lead is labeled X1 and the other end is labeled X2. Figure 1-6 shows three single phase transformers labeled A, B, and C. The primary leads of each transformer are labeled H1 and H2 and the secondary leads are labeled X1 and X2. The schematic diagram of figure 1-5 will be used to connect the three single phase transformers into a three phase wyedelta connection as shown in figure 1-7. The primary winding will be tied into a wye connection first. The schematic in figure 1-5 shows, that the H2 leads of the three primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding is open for connection to the incoming power line. Notice in figure 1-7 that the H2 leads of the primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding has been connected to the incoming primary power line. Figure 1-5 shows that the X1 lead of the transformer A is connected to the X2 lead of transformer c. Notice that this same connection has been made in figure 1-7. The X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X1, lead of transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X2 lead of transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer C is connected to X2 lead of transformer B. The load is connected to the points of the delta connection. Open Delta Connection: The open delta transformer connection can be made with only two transformers instead of three (figure 1-8). This connection is often used when the amount of three phase power needed is not excessive, such as a small business. It should be noted that the output power of an open delta connection is only 87% of the rated power of the two transformers. For example, assume two transformers, each having a capacity of 25 kVA, are connected in an open delta connection. The total output power of this connection is 43.5 kVA (50 kVA x 0.87 = 43.5 kVA).

Another figure given for this calculation is 58%. This percentage assumes a closed delta bank containing 3 transformers. If three 25 kVA transformers were connected to form a closed delta connection, the total output would be 75 kVA (3 x 25 = 75 kVA). If one of these transformers were removed and the transformer bank operated as an open delta connection, the output power would be reduced to 58% of its original capacity of 75 kVA. The output capacity of the open delta bank is 43.5 kVA (75 kVA x .58% = 43.5 kVA). The voltage and current values of an open delta connection are computed in the same manner as a standard delta-delta connection when three transformers are employed. The voltage and current rules for a delta connection must be used when determining line and phase values of voltage current. Closing a Delta: When closing a delta system, connections should be checked for proper polarity before making the final connection and applying power. If the phase winding of one transformer is reversed, an extremely high current will flow when power is applied. Proper phasing can be checked with a voltmeter at delta opening. If power is applied to the transformer bank before the delta connection is closed, the voltmeter should indicate 0 volts. If one phase winding has been reversed, however, the voltmeter will indicate double the amount of voltage. It should be noted that a voltmeter is a high impedance device. It is not unusual for a voltmeter to indicate some amount of voltage before the delta is closed, especially if the primary has been connected as a wye and the secondary as a delta. When this is the case, the voltmeter will generally indicate close to the normal output voltage if the connection is correct and double the output voltage if the connection is incorrect. Overcurrent Protection for the Primary: Electrical Code Article 450-3(b) states that each transformer 600 volts, nominal or less, shall be protected by an individual overcurrent device on the primary side, rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated primary current of the transformer. Where the primary current of a transformer is 9 amps or more and 125% of this current does not correspond to a standard rating of a fuse or nonadjustable circuit breaker, the next higher standard rating shall be permitted. Where the primary current is less than 9 amps, an overcurrent device rated or set at not more than 167% of the primary current shall be permitted. Where the primary current is less than 2 amps, an overcurrent device rated or set at not more than 300% shall be permitted.

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Three-phase electric power

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This article is about general three-phase concepts. For the basic mathematics and principles of three-phase electricity, see three-phase. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

Three-phase transformer with four wire output for 208Y/120 Volt service: one wire for neutral, others for A, B and C phases.

Three-phase electric power transmission.

Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric power generation, transmission, and distribution.[1] It is a type of polyphase system and is the most common method used by grids worldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other heavy loads. A three-phase system is generally more economical than others because it uses less conductor material to transmit electric power than equivalent single-phase or two-phase systems at the same voltage.[2] The three-phase system was introduced and patented by Nikola Tesla in the years from 1887 to 1888. In a three-phase system, three circuit conductors carry three alternating currents (of the same frequency) which reach their instantaneous peak values at different times. Taking one conductor as the reference, the other two currents are delayed in time by one-third and two-thirds of one cycle of the electric current. This delay between phases has the effect of giving constant power transfer over each cycle of the current and also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an electric motor. Three-phase systems may have a neutral wire. A neutral wire allows the three-phase system to use a higher voltage while still supporting lower-voltage single-phase appliances. In high-voltage distribution situations, it is common not to have a neutral wire as the loads can simply be connected between phases (phase-phase connection). Three-phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power systems:
The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to eliminate or reduce the size of the neutral conductor; all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size, for a balanced load. Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator and motor vibrations. Three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a specified direction, which simplifies the design of electric motors.

Three is the lowest phase order to exhibit all of these properties. Most household loads are single-phase. In North America and a few other places, three-phase power generally does not enter homes. Even in areas where it does, it is typically split out at the main distribution board and the individual loads are fed from a single phase. Sometimes it is used to power electric stoves and electric clothes dryers. The three phases are typically indicated by colors which vary by country. See the table for more information.

Contents
[hide] 1 Generation and distribution 2 Three-wire versus fourwire 3 Single-phase loads

4 Three-phase loads 5 Phase converters 6 Alternatives to threephase 7 Color codes 8 See also 9 References

[edit] Generation and distribution

Animation of three-phase current flow

Left: Elementary six-wire three-phase alternator, with each phase using a separate pair of transmission wires.[3] Right: Elementary three-wire three-phase

alternator, showing how the phases can share only three wires.[4]

At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a set of three alternating electric currents, one from each coil (or, winding) of the generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave forms offset to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third cycle (120 or 23 radians). The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz, varying by country.
Further information: Mains power systems

Large power generators provide an electric current at a potential which can be a few hundred volts or up to about 30 kV. At the power station, transformers step this voltage up to one suitable for transmission. After numerous further conversions in the transmission and distribution network, the power is finally transformed to the standard utilization voltage for lighting and equipment. Single-phase loads are connected from one phase to neutral or between two phases. Three-phase loads such as larger motors must be connected to all three phases of the supply.

[edit] Three-wire versus four-wire

Three-phase circuits occur in two varieties. In one case, there are only three energized ("hot") wires; in the other case, there are three hot wires plus a neutral wire. Four-wire circuits offer flexibility, since a load may be connected "line-to-line" or "line-to-neutral"; three-wire circuits offer economy, since the neutral conductor is eliminated. Commonly, distribution voltage circuits are four-wire, while higher voltage transmission circuits are three-wire. Transmission lines often feature a ground wire, but this is solely for fault and lightning protection and is not connected to deliver electrical power.

[edit] Single-phase loads

Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system in two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the live conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase conductor to the neutral conductor. Single-phase loads should be distributed evenly between the phases of the three-phase system for efficient use of the supply transformer and supply conductors. If the line-to-neutral voltage is a standard load voltage, for example 230 volt on a 400 volt three-phase system, single-phase loads can connect to a phase and the neutral. Loads can be distributed over three phases to balance the load. Where the line-to-neutral voltage is not the standard voltage for example 347 volts produced by a 600 V system, single-phase loads are connected through a step-down transformer. In a symmetrical three-phase system, the system neutral has the same magnitude of voltage to each of the three-phase conductors. The voltage between line conductors (Vl) is 3 times the phase conductor to neutral voltage (Vp). That is: Vl = 3Vp. In some multiple-unit residential buildings of North America, three-phase power is supplied to the building but individual units have only single-phase power formed from two of the three supply phases. Lighting and convenience receptacles are connected from either phase conductor to neutral, giving the usual 120 V required by typical North American appliances. In the splitphase system, high-power loads are connected between the opposite "hot" poles, giving a voltage

of 240 V. In some cases, they may be connected between phases of a three-phase system, giving a voltage of 208 V. This practice is common enough that 208 V single-phase equipment is readily available in North America. Attempts to use the more common 120/240 V equipment intended for split-phase distribution may result in poor performance since 240 V heating and lighting equipment will only produce 75% of its rating when operated at 208 V. Motors rated at 240 V will draw higher current at 208 V; some motors are dual-labelled for both voltages. Where three-phase at low voltage is otherwise in use, it may still be split out into single-phase service cables through joints in the supply network or it may be delivered to a master distribution board (breaker panel) at the customer's premises. Connecting an electrical circuit from one phase to the neutral generally supplies the country's standard single phase voltage (120 V AC or 230 V AC) to the circuit. The currents returning from the customers' premises to the supply transformer all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases, the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the transformer capacity inefficiently. If the supply neutral of a three-phase system with line-to-neutral connected loads is broken, the voltage balance on the loads will no longer be maintained. The neutral point will tend to drift toward the most heavily loaded phase, causing undervoltage conditions on that phase and overvoltage on a lightly loaded phase; the lightly loaded phases may approach the line-to-line voltage, which exceeds the line-to-neutral voltage by a factor of 3, causing overheating and failure of many types of loads. For example, if several houses are connected through a 240 V transformer, which is connected to one phase of the three-phase system, each house might be affected by the imbalance on the three phase system. If the neutral connection is broken somewhere in the system, all equipment in a house might be damaged due to over-voltage. A similar phenomenon can exist if the house neutral (connected to the center tap of the 240 V pole transformer) is disconnected. This type of failure event can be difficult to troubleshoot if the drifting neutral effect is not understood. With inductive and/or capacitive loads, all phases can suffer damage as the reactive current moves across abnormal paths in the unbalanced system, especially if resonance conditions occur. For this reason, neutral connections are a critical part of a power distribution network and must be made as reliable as any of the phase connections. Where a mixture of single-phase 120-volt lighting and three-phase, 240-volt motors are to be supplied, a system called high-leg delta is used.

[edit] Three-phase loads

A transformer for a high-leg delta system; 240 V 3-phase motors would be connected to L1, L2 and L3. Single-phase lighting would be connected L1 or L2 to neutral (N). No loads would be connected from L3 (the high or wild leg) to neutral, since the voltage would be 208 V.

The most important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, conveyor drives, electric vehicles and many other kinds of motor-driven equipment. A three-phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the same voltage class and rating and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP (7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same conditions. Resistance heating loads such as electric boilers or space heating may be connected to threephase systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected. These types of loads do not require the revolving magnetic field characteristic of three-phase motors but take advantage of the higher voltage and power level usually associated with three-phase distribution. Legacy fluorescent lighting systems also benefit from reduced flicker if adjacent fixtures are powered from different phases. Large rectifier systems may have three-phase inputs; the resulting DC is easier to filter (smooth) than the output of a single-phase rectifier. Such rectifiers may be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium production or for operation of DC motors. An interesting example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used in steelmaking and in refining of ores. In much of Europe, stoves are designed for a three-phase feed. Usually the individual heating units are connected between phase and neutral to allow for connection to a single-phase supply. In many areas of Europe, single-phase power is the only source available.

[edit] Phase converters

Occasionally the advantages of three-phase motors make it worthwhile to convert single-phase power to three-phase. Small customers, such as residential or farm properties, may not have access to a three-phase supply or may not want to pay for the extra cost of a three-phase service but may still wish to use three-phase equipment. Such converters may also allow the frequency to be varied allowing speed control. Some railway locomotives are moving to multi-phase motors driven by such systems even though the incoming supply to a locomotive is nearly always either DC or single-phase AC. Because single-phase power goes to zero at each moment that the voltage crosses zero but threephase delivers power continuously, any such converter must have a way to store energy for the necessary fraction of a second. One method for using three-phase equipment on a single-phase supply is with a rotary phase converter, essentially a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of three-phase equipment such as machine tools on a single-phase supply. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the mechanical inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft. A second method that was popular in the 1940s and 1950s was the transformer method. At that time, capacitors were more expensive than transformers, so an autotransformer was used to apply more power through fewer capacitors. This method performs well and does have supporters, even today. The usage of the name transformer method separated it from another common method, the static converter, as both methods have no moving parts, which separates them from the rotary converters. Another method often attempted is with a device referred to as a static phase converter. This method of running three-phase equipment is commonly attempted with motor loads though it only supplies power and can cause the motor loads to run hot and in some cases overheat. This method does not work when sensitive circuitry is involved such as CNC devices or in induction and rectifier-type loads. Some devices are made which create an imitation three-phase from three-wire single-phase supplies. This is done by creating a third "subphase" between the two live conductors, resulting in a phase separation of 180 90 = 90. Many three-phase devices can run on this configuration but at lower efficiency. Variable-frequency drives (also known as solid-state inverters) are used to provide precise speed and torque control of three-phase motors. Some models can be powered by a single-phase supply. VFDs work by converting the supply voltage to DC and then converting the DC to a suitable three-phase source for the motor. Digital phase converters are designed for fixed-frequency operation from a single-phase source. Similar to a variable-frequency drive, they use a microprocessor to control solid-state power switching components to maintain balanced three-phase voltages.

[edit] Alternatives to three-phase

Split-phase electric power is used when three-phase power is not available and allows double the normal utilization voltage to be supplied for high-power loads.

Two-phase electric power, like three-phase, gives constant power transfer to a linear load. For loads that connect each phase to neutral, assuming the load is the same power draw, the two-wire system has a neutral current which is greater than neutral current in a three-phase system. Also motors are not entirely linear, which means that despite the theory, motors running on three-phase tend to run smoother than those on two-phase. The generators in the Adams Power Plant at Niagara Falls which were installed in 1895 were the largest generators in the world at the time and were two-phase machines. True two-phase power distribution is essentially obsolete. Specialpurpose systems may use a two-phase system for control. Two-phase power may be obtained from a three-phase system using an arrangement of transformers called a Scott-T transformer. Monocyclic power was a name for an asymmetrical modified two-phase power system used by General Electric around 1897, championed by Charles Proteus Steinmetz and Elihu Thomson. This system was devised to avoid patent infringement. In this system, a generator was wound with a fullvoltage single-phase winding intended for lighting loads and with a small fraction (usually of the line voltage) winding which produced a voltage in quadrature with the main windings. The intention was to use this "power wire" additional winding to provide starting torque for induction motors, with the main winding providing power for lighting loads. After the expiration of the Westinghouse patents on symmetrical two-phase and three-phase power distribution systems, the monocyclic system fell out of use; it was difficult to analyze and did not last long enough for satisfactory energy metering to be developed. High-phase-order systems for power transmission have been built and tested. Such transmission lines use six (two-pole, three-phase) or twelve (two-pole, six-phase) lines and employ design practices characteristic of extra-highvoltage transmission lines. High-phase-order transmission lines may allow transfer of more power through a given transmission line right-of-way without the expense of a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter at each end of the line.

[edit] Color codes

Conductors of a three-phase system are usually identified by a color code, to allow for balanced loading and to assure the correct phase rotation for induction motors. Colors used may adhere to International Standard IEC 60446, older standards or to no standard at all and may vary even within a single installation. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, different color codes are used for grounded (earthed) and ungrounded systems.
L1 L2 L3 Neutr al Ground/ protective earth

Australia and New Zealand White (or as per AS/NZS 3000:2007 Red (or black)1 Figure 3.2 (or as per IEC brown)1 (prev. 60446 as approved by yellow) AS:3000) Canada (mandatory)[5] Canada (isolated threephase installations)[6] Red Black

Dark Black blue (or (or blue)1 grey)1 Blue White

Green/yellow striped (green on very old installations) Green or bare copper Green

Orange Brown

Yellow White

European Union and all countries who use European CENELEC standards April 2004 (IEC Brown Black 60446), Hong Kong from July 2007, Singapore from March 2009 Black Older European (IEC Black or or 3 60446, varies by country ) brown brown UK until April 2006, Hong Kong until April 2009, South Africa, Malaysia, Red Singapore until February 2011 Republic of India and Pakistan Red

Grey

Blue

Green/yellow striped2

Black or Blue brown

Green/yellow striped3 Green/yellow striped (green on installations before c. 1970) Green Green/yellow striped Yellow/green striped, older may be only yellow or bare copper

Yellow

Blue

Black

Yellow

Blue

Black Light blue

People's Republic of China (per GB 50303-2002 Yellow Green Section 15.2.2)

Red

Norway

Black

White/Grey Brown Blue

United States (common practice)4

Black

Red

Blue

White, Green, or grey green/yellow striped,7 or a

bare copper wire Orange Grey, United States (alternative Brown (delta), Yellow or practice)5 violet (wye) white Green

^1 In Australia and New Zealand, active conductors can be any color except green/yellow, green, yellow, black or light blue. Yellow is no longer permitted in the 2007 revision of wiring code ASNZS 3000. European color codes are used for all IEC or flex cables such as extension leads, appliance leads etc. and are equally permitted for use in building wiring per AS/NZS 3000:2007. ^2 The international standard green-yellow marking of protective-earth conductors was introduced to reduce the risk of confusion by color blind installers. About 7% to 10% of men cannot clearly distinguish between red and green, which is a particular concern in older schemes where red marks a live conductor and green marks protective earth or safety ground. ^3 In Europe, there still exist installations with older colors for protective earth but, since the early 1970s, all new installations use green/yellow according to IEC 60446. ^4 See Paul Cook: Harmonised colours and alphanumeric marking. IEE Wiring Matters, Spring 2006. ^5 Since 1975, the U.S. National Electric Code has not specified coloring of phase conductors. It is common practice in many regions to identify 120/208Y conductors as black, red, and blue. Local regulations may amend the N.E.C. The U.S. National Electric Code has color requirements for grounded conductors, ground and grounded-delta 3-phase systems which result in one ungrounded leg having a higher voltage potential to ground than the other two ungrounded legs. Orange is only appropriate when the system has a grounded delta service, regardless of voltage. ^6 The U.S. National Electric Code does not specify coloring of phase conductors, other than orange for grounded delta. It is common practice in many regions to identify 277/480Y conductors as brown, orange and yellow (delta) or brown, violet and yellow (wye), with orange always being the center phase. Local practice may amend the N.E.C. The US N.E.C. rule 517.160 (5) states these colors are to be used for isolated power systems in health care facilities. Color of conductors does not identify voltage of a circuit, because there is no formal standard. ^7 In the U.S., a green/yellow striped wire may indicate an isolated ground. [citation needed] In most countries today, green/yellow striped wire may only be used for protective earth (safety ground) and may never be unconnected or used for any other purpose.