NARS Lectures Week 3&4

TC 381 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND RADAR SYSTEMS
Lectures_Week_3&4 Academic Session: Fall 2011 Teacher: R Adm Prof Dr Sarfraz Hussain TI & SI
TC 381 Navigational Aids and Radar Systems - R Adm Prof Dr Sarfraz Hussain
CONTENTS OF LECTURES FOR WEEK 3&4

Radar Equations: Introduction
Detection of signals in noise

Receiver noise and signal to noise ratio Probability density function,
Probability of detection and false alarm

Integration of the Radar pulses Radar cross section of targets
Transmitter power
Pulse repetition frequency.
TC 381 Navigational Aids and Radar Systems - R Adm Prof Dr Sarfraz Hussain 2
THE RADAR EQUATION

Rmax Pt GAe ( 4)2 S min
1/ 4
This is the simplest form of radar equation where: Pt = Peak transmitted power, W G = Antenna gain Ae = Antenna effective aperture, m2 = Radar cross section of the target, m2 Smin = Minimum detectable signal, W
The Radar Range Equation contd.

The actual range might be only half of the predicted range for following reasons:
The statistical nature of the minimum detectable signal (usually determined by receiver noise). Fluctuations and uncertainties in the targets radar cross section. The losses experienced throughout a radar system.
Propagation effects caused by the earths surface and atmosphere.
Noise and RCS fluctuations are random.
Therefore probabilistic method is used to predict range.
The Radar Range Equation contd.

Hence in radars, target range will be a function of probability of detection Pd and probability of false alarm Pfa also.
Pd and Pfa would depend on the S/N ratio in the radar receiver and the Threshold Level set for detection.
In the simple radar range equation, Smin depends on the received Signal and Noise level in the receiver. Hence first we will find a mathematical term to describe Smin in terms of S/N ratio. Later on we will find the relationship of S/N ratio with Pd and Pfa
NOISE
(Detection)
False Alarm
Threshold Level
Caused by motion of electrons in undesired and direction Exists in the form of current, voltage, power and EM wave Contaminates the signal and makes the detection of signal difficult It can be of different types (Galactic, Solar, Atmospheric, Manmade, Thermal or Johnson )
Types of Noise Encountered by Radars
Thermal Noise
Thermal Noise (less commonly known as Johnson Noise) is most important as it can be reduced by the Telecom System or Radar System designers and the users In Radars it is caused by motion of electrons in unwanted directions in radar receiver, transmission lines and waveguides due to the ambient heat (i.e. temperature of the environment) Thermal Noise is also called White Noise, Gaussian Noise or Zero Mean Gaussian Noise
Radar Receiver Noise

Thermal Noise is the main contributor of Noise generated inside the receiver
It is quantified by a unit less ratio Noise Factor or equivalently Noise Figure in dB (Noise Figure = 10 log10 Noise Factor)
Receiver
Sin Nin
Fn Ga
Sout Nout
Fn = (Sin / Nin )/( Sout /Nout )
Noise Figure (Fn) indicates how much the input Sin / Nin is degraded by the Thermal Noise being produced inside the receiver. Radar receivers generally have Fn = 8-10 dB.
Radar Receiver Noise Figure (Fn)

(Derivation from Skolnik)
Fn = (Noise out of a practical receiver) / (Noise out of an ideal receiver at std temp T0 ) = Nout / Ninx Ga = Nout / kT0B x Ga (2.4) Where:
Ga is Gain of the Receiver = Signal out/Signal in = Sout/Sin
Std Temp T0 = 290o K = 620 F => kT0 = 4x10-21 W/Hz

kT0B = Nin (Input noise in a receiver of bandwidth B)
Radar Receiver Noise Figure (Fn)

(Derivation from Skolnik) contd.
Substituting in Equ 2.4 Fn = Nout / kT0BGa = Nout / (Nin x Sout / Sin) Fn = (Sin / Nin )/( Sout /Nout ) Sin = (Nin x Fn) x ( Sout /Nout ) (2.5) (2.6)
For
( Sout /Nout )min
Sin = Smin
Therefore Smin = (Nin x Fn) x ( Sout /Nout )min Since kT0B = Nin Finally Smin = (kT0BFn) x ( Sout /Nout )min
(2.7)
11
Radar Range Equation Modified to Include Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N)

Basic Radar Range Equation is:
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 S min
(2.7)
In the last slide, the last equation was:

Smin = (kT0BFn) x ( Sout /Nout )min
Substituting the value of Smin
R
Or simply:
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S out /N out )min
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S/N)min
(2.8)
12
Dependency of S/N on Probability of Detection and Probability of False Alarm

Basic Radar Range Equation: Was modified to include the effect of output S/N ratio:
R
R
4
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 S min
max
Now we will find the relationship or of False Alarm Pfa dependency of output S/N Ratio on Probability of Detection Pd and Probability First we will revisit the Basic Concept of Probability
Basic Concept of Probability

Drawing Balls Of Different Colors From A Box
Red balls = 2, White balls = 5, Black balls = 3, Total balls = 10
No of draws = 10
Probability to get Red balls = = 0.2 Probability to get Black balls = = 0.3 Probability to get White balls = = 0.5 Sum of all probabilities = 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.5 = 1.0 Hence probability ranges 0 1 Sum of all probabilities = 1, Probability can not be negative
Probability Density Function (PDF) (Pd )
15
Probability Density Function (PDF) (Pd ) contd.

Now please go through Skolnik s equ 2.9 to 2.18 given in the separate PDF files.
16
Dependency of S/N on Probability of Detection and Probability of False Alarm

Slide No. 13 is reproduced here:
Basic Radar Range Equation: Was modified to include the effect of output S/N ratio:
R
R
4
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 S min
max
The Buyer of the Radar will give the required values of Probability of Detection Pd and the Probability of False Alarm Pfa to the Radar Design Engineer. He will then find out the output (S/N)min ratio required for the given Pd and Pfa Now please go through Skolnik_Equ2.20_2.30 given separately
Hypothetical Experiment to Establish the Relationship Between Output S/N Ratio, Probability of Detection Pd and Probability of False Alarm Pfa
Now please go through the details of this experiment given in a separate PDF file
Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation

The radar range equation is:
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /N o )min
The S/N ratio in the above equation is for a single radar pulse.
In a practical radar, several pulses get reflected by the target in each scan (one rotation of the antenna).
These pulses are integrated (added/summed up) in the receiver to increase the received signal strength and consequently increase the S/N ratio. Conversely for a given Probability of Detection Pd , several pulses with lesser amplitude can be integrated to provide the same Pd as obtainable from a single pulse of larger amplitude.
Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.
20

If the antenna is rotating at a speed of S /s and the Pulse Repetition Frequency is fp The number of pulses reflected by the target in one scan is:
nB = B fp / S
nB = B fp / 6 m If antenna rotation rate is given in rpm (m)
21

Integration before detection is called Predetection or Coherent Integration. Integration after detection is called Postdetection or Noncoherent Integration. Predetection or Coherent Integration requires the phase relationship of the received pulses maintained. (Remember magnetron will not let you have it). Predetection (Coherent) Integration is done before 2nd detector at IF.
Postdetection (Noncoherent) Integration is done after the 2nd detector when the signal is in video form.

2nd detector destroys the phase information and the rectification process in it introduces some additional noise. Therefore: If predetection is used SNRintegrated = SNR1 If postdetection is used, SNRintegrated detector SNR1 due to losses in the
Predetection integration is difficult because it requires maintaining the phase of the pulse returns
Postdetection is relatively easy especially using digital processing techniques by which digitized versions of all returns can be recorded and manipulated.

The reduction in the required Signal to Noise Ratio for a given Pd that can be achieved by integration can be expressed in several ways: Integration Efficiency: Note that Ei(n) is less than 1 (except for predetection integration) Where (S/N)1 is the signal to noise ratio required to produce the required Pd with one pulse and And (S/N)n is the signal to noise ratio per pulse required to produce the same Pd with n pulses.

The improvement in SNR where n pulses are integrated is called the integration improvement factor Ii(n)
Note that Ii(n) is less than n.
It is plotted for the given Probabilty of Detection/False Alarm and the number of pulses integrated (Fig 2.7a)
25

The Radar range equation when n pulses are integrated is:
4 max
Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /N o )n
Substituting
4 max
It becomes:
Pt GA e nEi (n) ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /No )1
The value of (S/N)1 is found from Fig 2.6 as before and the value of nEi(n) is found from Fig 2.7a.
Skolnik Fig 2.7(a) - Integration Improvement Factor
27
Radar Cross Section of Targets

Revisit the Radar Range Equation and see where does the Target Cross Section fit in.
4 max
Pt GA e nEi (n) ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /No )1
RCS describes the apparent area of the target as perceived by the radar.
It is a measure of how much power flux is intercepted by the target and re-radiated back to the radar receiver.
28
Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

To simplify things the radar range equation assumes that a target with cross sectional area absorbs all of the incident power and reradiates it uniformly in all directions.
This, of course, is not true.

Real targets such as aircrafts have many reflecting surfaces, which radiate in and out of phase with each other and cause large fluctuations in the RCS depending on: 1. 2. the material it is made of Its shape
3.
Its orientation with respect to the radar
29

Examples: Corner reflector
Transparent
Absorber
30

Simple Shapes: Sphere is the simplest shape to analyze. It is the only shape for which the radar cross section approximates the physical cross section
Fig 2.8 Normalized radar cross section of a sphere as a function of its circumference(2a) measured in wavelengths. (a is radius and is wavelength)
31

The RCS of an object is partly dependent on the radar wavelength, and for simple shapes it is possible to give the following guidelines:
1. For target sizes >>, the RCS is roughly the same size as the real area of the target. This is known as the optical region because the RCS approaches the optical value. 2. For target sizes ~ , the RCS varies wildly with changes in wavelength, and it may be greater or smaller than the optical value. This is known as resonance or Mie region. 3. For target sizes << , the RCS -4. This is known as the Rayleigh region after Lord Rayleigh, who discovered that the scattering of light by particles in the atmosphere varies as -4

This wavelength-dependent scattering explains why the sky is blue and the sun appears yellow. When white light from the sun arrives at the earth, the relatively long-wavelength yellow/red components of the spectrum pass more or less straight through the atmosphere compared with the shorter-wavelength blue light, which is scattered over the sky. Much the same is true on a larger scale size where low-frequency radar signals are undisturbed by water droplets in rains and clouds, but millimetric radar signals suffer significant scattering. This is one of the reasons for using relatively low-frequency L-band for surveillance radars with a maximum range of 200-300 kms.

The RCS of a few simple shapes are given in the following slides for the case when the object size is large compared with a wavelength. These simple RCS values turn out to be quite useful for several reasons. First, it is sometimes possible to get a feeling for the RCS of an object by building it up out of a few simple shapes. Secondly, at long wavelength, targets often behave as uncomplicated structures because the scattering is not from many tiny surfaces but instead involves induced electric currents flowing throughout the targets.
There are also times during radar systems testing when it is advantageous to have an antenna of known RCS as a calibration targets.
Radar Cross Section of Targets contd. RCS of a metal plate

Large RCS, but decreases rapidly as the incident angle deviates from the normal.
4 ab
2
2 2
35
Radar Cross Section of Targets contd. RCS of a metal sphere

Small RCS, but is independent of incident angle.
36
Radar Cross Section of Targets contd. RCS of a metal cylinder

RCS can be quite small or fairly large depending on orientation.
2 ra 2
, as viewed
3 4
, from the end

37

RCS fluctuates. Approximations given by Swerling (Included in MS syllabus).
In practice we classify targets as follows:

Swerling 1; small, slow target, e.g. Navy destroyer
Swerling 2: small, fast target,

Swerling 3: large, slow target Swerling 4: large, fast target
e.g. F-18 fighter

e.g. Aircraft Carrier e.g. Boeing 747
38

RCS Examples
39
Transmitter Power
The Pt in the radar range equation is the peak RMS power of the carrier Sometimes the average power Pave is given
Rearranging gives the duty cycle
40
Transmitter Power
With Pave in the radar range equation the form is as follows:
Note that the bandwidth and pulse width are grouped together. Since they are almost always reciprocals of one another, their product is 1.
41

NARS Lectures Week 3&4

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TC 381 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND RADAR SYSTEMS

CONTENTS OF LECTURES FOR WEEK 3&4

Detection of signals in noise

Probability of detection and false alarm

THE RADAR EQUATION

The Radar Range Equation contd.

Propagation effects caused by the earths surface and atmosphere.

Noise and RCS fluctuations are random.

Therefore probabilistic method is used to predict range.

The Radar Range Equation contd.

Types of Noise Encountered by Radars

Radar Receiver Noise

Fn = (Sin / Nin )/( Sout /Nout )

Radar Receiver Noise Figure (Fn)

Std Temp T0 = 290o K = 620 F => kT0 = 4x10-21 W/Hz

Radar Receiver Noise Figure (Fn)

( Sout /Nout )min

Radar Range Equation Modified to Include Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N)

In the last slide, the last equation was:

Substituting the value of Smin

Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S out /N out )min

Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S/N)min

Dependency of S/N on Probability of Detection and Probability of False Alarm

Basic Concept of Probability

Probability Density Function (PDF) (Pd )

Probability Density Function (PDF) (Pd ) contd.

Dependency of S/N on Probability of Detection and Probability of False Alarm

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation

Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /N o )min

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Note that Ii(n) is less than n.

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Pt GA e ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /N o )n

Pt GA e nEi (n) ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /No )1

Effect of Integrating Pulses in the Radar Range Equation contd.

Skolnik Fig 2.7(a) - Integration Improvement Factor

Radar Cross Section of Targets

Pt GA e nEi (n) ( 4)2 kT0 BFn (S o /No )1

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

This, of course, is not true.

Its orientation with respect to the radar

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd. RCS of a metal plate

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd. RCS of a metal sphere

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd. RCS of a metal cylinder

, from the end

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

In practice we classify targets as follows:

Swerling 2: small, fast target,

e.g. F-18 fighter

Radar Cross Section of Targets contd.

Rearranging gives the duty cycle

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