Introduction to computing

The Microprocessor is the Brain of the computer. Like brain a processor can process/compute the information collected from the world. More formally, microprocessor is a programmable integrated device (silicon chip) that has computing & decision making capabilities Communicates & operates in binary numbers 0 & 1, called bits (digital) Has a fixed set of instructions in the form of binary patterns machine language

Human vs Computer
Human Thinking/Computing Eating/breathing Processing Unit: Brain Computer Processing/Computing Supplying Electrical Power Processing Unit: Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory: Brain Memory: RAM, ROM, Disk, CD Input Organs: Eye, Ear, Skin, ROM, .. Output Organs: Mouth (Voice), Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Sensors, Hand Output Devices: Monitor, Printer, Body and Soul (Mind) . Hardware and Software

Basic Concepts
Microcomputer a computer with a microprocessor as its CPU. Includes memory, I/O etc. Microprocessor silicon chip which includes ALU, register circuits & control circuits Microcontroller silicon chip which includes microprocessor, memory & I/O in a single package. Digital signal processor (DSP) - microprocessor optimized for digital signal processing.

Microprocessor in a computer board (Mother Board)

Microprocessors
Types of microcomputers
Application

Application-Specific Instruction Processors (ASIPs)

Processors with instruction-sets tailored to specific applications or application domains instruction-set generation as part of synthesis Pluses: customization yields lower area, power etc. Minuses: higher h/w & s/w development overhead design, compilers, debuggers higher time to market
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Reprogrammable microprocessors (General-purpose) Embedded microprocessors and microcontrollers

Instruction complexity

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computers) RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computers)

Evolution of The Computers

Evolution of the computers has been characterized by increasing processor speed, decreasing component size, increasing memory size, and increasing I/O capacity and speed. Since the size of the microprocessors become smaller, the distance

Evolution of The Computers

A critical issue is to balance the performance of the several components, so that the gains in one area should not be lost by a lag in the other areas. In particular, the procesor speed has increased more rapidly than the memory access time. So there are several techniques to compansate this mismatch such as caches, larger data paths from memory to the microprocessors and more intelligent chips.

between the components decreases and the speed increases. However, the important gain in the speed has been obtained by changing the architecture of the microprocesors including pipelining and parallel computing.

Harvard architecture
address data memory data address program memory data PC CPU

von Neumann vs. Harvard

Harvard cant use self-modifying code. Harvard allows two simultaneous memory fetches. Most DSPs use Harvard architecture for streaming data:
greater memory bandwidth;

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Microcomputer Architecture

Memory
8 bit 0000 0001 Instruction 1 Instruction 2 Instruction 2

Word length 1 word instruction 2 word instruction

System Bus wires connecting memory & I/O to microprocessor

Address Bus

64KByte Word: no. of bits microprocessor recognizes and processes at a time ( 4 - 64bit ). Instruction: combination of bit patterns with specific meaning known to microprocessor. Program: Set of all instructions.

Unidirectional Identifying peripheral or memory location

Data Bus

Bidirectional Transferring data

Control Bus

FFFE FFFF

Synchronization signals Timing signals Control signal

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address
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Instruction Cycle State Diagram (Updated)

Multiple operands Instruction Address Calculation Instruction Fetch Instruction Operation Decoding Operand Address Calculation Operand Fetch

Multiple Interrupts
There may be more than one interrupt sources. What happens if interrupt Y occurs while microprocessor is executing the interrupt X?
User Program Interrupt Handler X User Program Interrupt Handler X

Instruction complete Fetch next instruction No interrupt

For vector or string data

Interrupt Handler Y Interrupt Handler Y

Interrupt

Interrupt Check

Operand Store Multiple results

Operand Address Calculation

Data Operation

Sequential interrupt processing

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Nested interrupt processing

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Architecture of Intel Microprocessors

Basic Internal Architecture
Instruction pipelining Normal operation of 8085 (no pipelining)
up Bus Fetch1 Busy Decode1 Idle Execute1 Busy Fetch2 Busy Decode2 Idle Execute2 Busy

Beginning with 8086 and 8088

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