Unit II Floor Coverings

The sub-floor may be finished in a way that makes it usable without any extra work, see:

Floor
A floor is the walking surface of a room or vehicle. Floors vary from simple dirt in a cave to many-layered surfaces using modern technology. Floors may be stone, wood, bamboo, metal, or other material that can hold a person's weight. The levels of a building are often referred to as floors and are described in the article storey. This article describes the structure of floors. Floors typically consist of a subfloor for support and a floor covering used to give a good walking surface. In modern buildings the subfloor often has electrical wiring, plumbing, and other services built in. Because floors meet many needs, some essential to safety, floors are built to strict building codes

Earthen floor adobe or clay floors Solid ground floor cement screed or granolithic

Carpet
Carpet is a floor covering woven or felted from natural or man-made fibers. Fitted carpet is attached to the floor structure, extends wall-towall, and cannot be moved from place to place. An underlay can extend carpet life and improve comfort.

Laminate
Laminate is a floor covering that appears similar to hardwood but is made with a plywood or medium density fiberboard ("MDF") core with a plastic laminate top layer. Laminate may be more durable than hardwood, but cannot be refinished like hardwood. Laminate flooring is available in many different patterns which can resemble different woods or even ceramic tile. It usually locks or taps together.

Floor covering Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor structure to provide a walking surface. Flooring is the general term for a
permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such a floor covering. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor covering refers more to loose-laid materials. Materials almost always classified as floor covering include carpet, area rugs, and resilient flooring such as linoleum or vinyl flooring. Materials commonly called flooring include wood flooring, ceramic tile, stone, terrazzo, and various seamless chemical floor coatings.[1] The choice of material for floor covering is affected by factors such as cost, endurance, noise insulation, comfort and cleaning effort. Some types of flooring must not be installed below grade (lower than ground level), and laminate or hardwood should be avoided where there may be moisture or condensation.

Area rugs
Rugs are also woven or felted from fibers, but are smaller than the room in which they are located, have a finished edge, and usually lie over another finished floor such as wood flooring. Rugs may either be temporarily attached to the flooring below by adhesive tape or other methods to prevent creep, or may be loose-laid.

Resilient flooring
Resilient flooring includes many different manufactured products including linoleum, sheet vinyl, vinyl composition tile, cork (sheet or tile), and others. Resilient flooring can be an economical alternative, providing the look of a more expensive floor at a lower price.

Types
1. Typically, when people think of resilient flooring, they think of vinyl. Although vinyl is the most popular type of resilient flooring, its far from the only choice. Resilient floors may also be made of cork,

rubber or linoleum. Cork and rubber floors have traditionally been used more often in commercial spaces, such as playgrounds or weight rooms, but theyre becoming more common in residences as more people add these kinds of rooms to their homes.

one damaged tile than an entire damaged sheet. The seams between tiles may collect dirt, however, and water may seep between them over time. This can cause the tiles to lose adhesion or even cause damage to the subfloor.

Features
2. Resilient flooring features a firm surface with a bit of give to it--a resilient floor tends to bounce back into shape when pressed. The materials used for a resilient floor are either biological or petroleum based. They make sturdy flooring surfaces in a variety of styles. Resilient floors can be installed in any room of the house.

Wood flooring
Many different species of wood are fabricated into wood flooring in two primary forms: plank and parquet. Bamboo flooring is also available. While bamboo is technically not a wood, bamboo flooring is installed and functions much like wood flooring. Reclaimed lumber has a unique appearance and is green. Realist talk

Ceramic tile
Ceramic tile includes a wide variety of clay products fired into thin units which are set in beds of mortar or mastic with the joints between tiles grouted. Varieties include quarry tile, porcelain tile, terra cotta tile, and others.

Benefits
3. Resilient flooring is cheaper than other flooring choices, and the possibility of a homeowner installing it herself can lower the price tag even further. The resilience makes these floors easier on joints for standing for long periods of time and also helps avoid breakage when items are dropped on them. Resilient floors are water resistant and require little maintenance. A wide range of color and style options are available, making it possible to imitate many more expensive styles of floors.

Stone
Many different natural stones are cut into a variety of sizes, shapes, and thicknesses for use as flooring. Stone flooring is usually set in mortar and grouted similar to ceramic tile.

Terrazzo
Terrazzo consists of marble or other stone aggregate set in mortar and ground and polished to a smooth surface.

Drawbacks
4. The low price of resilient flooring means it wont add resale value to a house, and the life expectancy is lower than that of hard wood, natural stone or ceramic tile. Extremely thin vinyl floors are prone to gouging or tearing. Seams may separate, particularly with resilient tile floors, as the subfloor expands and contracts.

Seamless chemical flooring

Many different seamless flooring materials are available. These are usually latex, polyester, or epoxy compounds which are applied in liquid form to provide a completely seamless floor covering. These are usually found in wet areas such as laboratories or food processing plants.

Considerations
5. Most types of resilient flooring come in either sheets or tiles. Sheet flooring may be preferable if a homeowner wants to avoid seams; the sheets are available in 6or 12-foot widths, wide enough to cover most rooms. If a homeowner hopes to install his own flooring, tiles may be an easier choice. Its also easier to replace

Other floorings

Linoleum Marble Mosaic Parquetry Performance surface flooring for dance or athletics

Rubber Tile Includes slate, ceramic and stone tiles

Floor Cleaning
Floor cleaning is a major occupation throughout the world. Cleaning is essential to prevent injuries due to slips and to remove dirt. Floors are also treated to protect or beautify the surface. The correct method to clean one type of floor can often damage another, so it is important to use the correct treatment.

Flooring tools
Special tools used for flooring include:

Flooring clamp, a clamp for tongue and groove floors while nailing Knee kicker, used to stretch carpets flat

Floor features
There are a number of special features that may be used to ornament a floor or perform a useful service:

Types of Floor Coverings and Basic Floor Care Tips

There are so many different types of hard floor coverings these days, it's hard to keep up with learning how to care for each of the different kinds. And if you're a cleaning contractor, you don't want to make a costly mistake by using something on a floor that could be harmful or damage the floor. Listed below are some of the common floor coverings and basic floor care tips: 1. Resilient Floors, especially VCT (vinyl composition tile) flooring is used commercially on high traffic floors such as retail or grocery stores. VCT tile is durable and holds up to heavy traffic. However there is a lot of maintenance involved in keeping these floors looking good. They should have a sealer or finish applied to them, which gives the floor a high-gloss look. The floor also needs to be swept and mopped with a neutral pH cleaner on a regular maintenance schedule to keep the floor looking shiny and clean. The floors may also need interim maintenance with slow speed or high speed floor machines and occasional stripping and re-coating of floor finish. 2. Stone products include marble, granite, and limestone. There has been a dramatic increase in the use of stone flooring in the past 10 years, even though it is some of the most costly flooring available. You must be very careful when caring for stone floors because you could easily damage the surface permanently if using the wrong chemicals. Use of entry mats and daily sweeping and mopping is key to keeping stone flooring looking like good. Mop the floor with a neutral pH floor cleaner or a stone soap, and never flood mop stone flooring. Never use alkaline or acid cleaners for daily maintenance, as this can damage the floor over time.

Floor medallions decorative centerpieces of a floor design Doormats to help keep a floor clean Gratings used to drain water or to rub dirt off shoes Tactile or rumble strips to warn of for instance a wheelchair ramp, these would normally also be distinctively coloured or patterned. Light strips to show an escape route out, especially on airplanes. Mouldings or baseboards to decorate the sides of a floor. Or to cover the edge of a floating floor.

Issues with floors

Wood floors, particularly older ones, will tend to 'squeak' in certain places. This is caused by the wood rubbing against other wood, usually at a joint of the sub floor. Firmly securing the pieces to each other with screws or nails will remove this problem. Floor vibration is a particularly annoying problem with floors. Wood floors tend to pass sound, particularly heavy footsteps and low bass frequencies. Floating floors can reduce or eliminate this problem. Concrete floors are usually so solid they do not have this problem, but are also much more expensive to construct, and much heavier, resulting in further requirements regarding the structure of the building. The flooring may need protection sometimes e.g. a gym floor used for a graduation ceremony. A Gym floor cover can be used to reduce the need to satisfy incompatible requirements.

3. Masonry products include ceramic tile, clay tile, and concrete. Ceramic and clay tiles come in a variety of styles and textures, so this may determine the type of maintenance needed. Ceramic tile will either be glazed or unglazed. Glazed tile are shiny and have a non-porous surface layer and are more stain and moisture resistant, whereas unglazed ceramic tile is more slip resistant. Concrete flooring is now more fashionable with the use of color additives and texture. Concrete floors can be sealed and finished like a VCT tile floor, and will require similar daily maintenance using a neutral pH floor cleaner. Daily maintenance of ceramic tile floors include sweeping and mopping with a neutral pH cleaner. Do not use acid or alkaline cleaners for daily maintenance as it can damage the tile and grout over time. Grout may need periodic cleaning with the use of a slow speed floor machine and a nylo grit brush, which can get into the grout lines where soil accumulates. 4. Wood Floors are being widely used in residential homes. To keep the floor looking good, protection from abuse, stains, soil and moisture is very important. Basic maintenance of wood floors is similar to other floors, however wood is very sensitive to water, and scratches much more easily than other types of flooring. Extreme care must be used, so avoid dragging anything across a wood floor, and never use excessive water when cleaning. It's best to use a well wrung out mop or microfiber flat mop, which uses less water than conventional mops. Use a commercial wood cleaner, but avoid using oil-based soaps or furniture polish on wood floors, as they can make the floor slippery and leave a residue. 5. Laminate Floors are also being widely used in residential homes. Laminate floors are made of a combination of wood and cellulose products (mostly wood). Melamine (clear resin) is applied to the surface to make a strong outer layer. Manufacturers say that little or no maintenance is needed on laminate floors. They recommend regular sweeping and damp mopping using a laminate floor cleaner. As with wood floors, laminate floors are sensitive to moisture, so never use excessive water when cleaning.

Laminate Flooring - Originally from Europe, laminate floors have taken over the floor covering market with the practical benefits of being durable, hard wearing, and beautiful. Laminates are replicating stone, and granite for endless decorating possibilities. Hardwood Floors - Today's hardwood floors are adding old world elegance with a new twist, moving more toward distressed planks, wider widths, and the introduction of exotic woods. FiberFloor is definitely the flooring choice for 2008. Easy to install, no gluing required. Moving? Just pick it up and take it with you. Vinyl Flooring - Offering the look of stone, ceramic tiles and hardwood - sheet vinyl and vinyl tiles are a natural solution for today's homeowner looking for quality and design. Linoleum - The original environmentally friendly floor covering, linoleum is available in a wide selection of colors and patterns, suitable for any decorating solution. Floor Tile - A decorators dream come true, ceramic floor tiles offer timeless beauty and durability. Travertine tile is also another flooring option becoming more and more popular this year. Rugs - These versatile splashes of color ground a room, giving it personality and function. This year, luxurious shag rugs are a big hit with decorators. Carpet - The most practical home flooring, carpet brings color and warmth into every room. Endless patterns, colors and textures still make carpet the number one selling floor covering today. Cork Flooring - Comfortable to walk on, incredibly warm underfoot, discover the beauty of cork floors. Bamboo Floors - An environmentally friendly hardwood, bamboo is fast becoming one of the most popular flooring trends.

Flooring Trends For 2011...

Ethical Floor Coverings - Now more than ever, it's easy for the average homeowner to make environmentally friendly choices when it comes to home flooring products.

Floor covering

floor covering, material made from textiles, felts, resins, rubber, or other natural or man-made substances applied or fastened to, or laid upon, the level base surface of a room to provide comfort, durability, safety, and decoration. Such materials include both handmade and machine-made rugs and carpets and smoothsurfaced floor coverings. Although the words carpet and rug are frequently used interchangeably in referring to textile floor coverings, in modern usage carpets are fastened to the floor and usually cover an entire floor area, and rugs are not fastened and rarely cover the entire floor. Carpets and rugs may be classified as handmade or machine-made. Smooth-surfaced coverings generally adhere to a subfloor and are manufactured as sheet goods or tiles.

formed by bringing yarns of the desired colour to the surface and burying the others beneath the surface. Velvet carpeting is made by looping strands that form the pile over wire strips that are removed as each row of loops is completed. Chenille rugs have soft, deep pile formed by long, furry strips. The pile of tufted carpets is formed by tufts inserted into a backing with needles. In knitted carpets, the backing, locking, and pile yarns are all looped together. Flocked types are produced by systems in which adhesives are used to bind fibres or yarns to the backing fabric. Smooth-surfaced floor coverings include linoleum, rubber floor coverings, cork tile, asphalt tile, printed felt base, and the vinyl types. Most are available in varying degrees of thickness, usually from 1/16 to 3/16 inch, and may have some form of backing. Although flexible types are available in rolls at least six feet wide, square tiles are increasingly popular in all types. The various materials differ in their ability to take colour or pattern, and mottled or spatter effects are often achieved by blending in one or more mixes of the same general composition as the basic material.

History
Handmade carpets and rugs are usually made by knotting a number of pile tufts to a backing structure so that the loose knot ends form the pile. Mainly produced in Asia and the East, knotted types are often given the general name of Oriental carpets and may be classified according to the country of manufacture, such as Persian (originating in Iran) or Chinese. Wellknown districts or towns may give their names to the carpets they produce; the Persian Kermn (Kirman) is an example. Other hand-knotted rugs include the Savonnerie rugs of France and the modern rya rugs of the Scandinavian countries. Handmade rugs woven by the tapestry method, often described as the Aubusson type, for the French town in which the method was perfected, have a flat or slightly ribbed surface instead of pile. Hooked rugs are made by drawing yarn or fabric strands through a basic material so as to form a pile of loops that may be clipped or remain uncut. Machine-made carpets include such woven types as Axminster and Wilton, and also tufted, knitted, and flocked types. Axminsters resemble handknotted carpets, but their pile yarn is mechanically inserted and bound and not knotted. Wilton types may have looped (uncut) or cut pile, with designs

Early floor coverings

Prehistoric man may have happened upon a method of forming thread from twisted grass or hair. Evidence obtained from recent excavations near the Caspian Sea indicates that the shearing of sheep and goats, and the spinning and weaving of the fibres obtained, was practiced as early as 6000 bc. Before the development of weaving, fibres were probably interlaced to produce a simple form of plaited basket-work matting, replacing still earlier crude mats made of strands of dry stalks and tendrils. Findings in burial mounds at Pazyryk in southern Siberia, 2,400 years old, indicate that furs, leather, woven textiles, and felts were used, not as floor coverings, but as wall hangings. The first true carpets, characterized by pile surfaces, were probably rough cured skins that early hunters laid on the floors of their crude dwellings. Most carpets still retain the same tough flexible backings and upright pile, affording protection from cold and hard floors, agreeable to the touch, and serving a decorative function.

Smooth floorings also have ancient origins. In the Late Bronze Age (16001000 bc) water-worn pebbles were laid as flooring in Crete and also on the Greek mainland. The Greeks refined the technique between the 6th and the 4th centuries bc, and ancient decorative pebble mosaics have been found in Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily. Such mosaics were also made of marble, serpentine alabaster, some forms of granite, and other stones suitable for polishing. Timber flooring, originally used in rough form for a strictly functional purpose, was eventually made into smooth boards, and was later used decoratively in parquetry designs.

Aubusson in France. Eleanor of Castile introduced Spanish rugs to England in 1255, and carpets imported from Turkey in the 15th century encouraged the development of an English rugweaving industry. By 1600 French carpet weavers had formed a strong guild, and in 1608 Henry IV set up looms in the Louvre. During the reign of Louis XIV, carpet manufacture was revived at Aubusson, where it had suffered from the religious wars of the 16th century, and was established at Beauvais, in Normandy. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, that had guaranteed religious and civil freedom to French Protestants, drove French and Walloon Protestant artisans into England and Germany, where they contributed to the development of spinning and weaving techniques. English carpet weavers were chartered at Wilton and Axminster in 1701, and in 1740 the Earl of Pembroke brought weavers from France to perform Brussels and Wilton weaving. At about the same time, carpet weaving was also established at Kidderminster, and the trade extended to northern England and Scotland. In 1830 a Parliamentary paper noted that carpet wool comprised one-twenty-eighth of the wool produced in the United Kingdom. In the 18th century Richard Arkwright and others invented machinery that radically improved textile manufacture and together with the steam engine led to the development of the power loom, first applied to carpet making in 1839. The so-called Jacquard mechanism, which employed punched cards to control the warp yarns, gradually began to replace the complicated harness of the hand loom for the production of designs. The tapestry process of printing patterned carpets was evolved in Edinburgh in the 1830s, and in 1839 a chenille Axminster process, which was patented by James Templeton of Glasgow, gave increased colour range to carpet designs. The U.S. carpet industry began by adapting the British system on a modest scale. Largely a cottage industry, it was organized by agents who marketed the small amount produced, until the first half of the 19th century. By 1830, the use of carpets had become popular throughout the eastern U.S., and factories were being established in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. The continued dominance of the U.S. market by British carpets led U.S. manufacturers to

Carpet and rug weaving

Although the exact origins of carpet weaving have not been determined, it is known that the Egyptians of the 3rd millennium bc wove carpets for the most part of linen ornamented by sewn on brightly coloured pieces of woollen cloth. Egyptian influence apparently spread throughout the Middle East and then to Mongolia and China. Some investigators credit Central Asia, Turkestan, and China with the origination of carpets, and in the early 1950s a rug dating back 2,400 years, made with Turkish knots, was found in Siberia. Early Chinese carpets were made of knotted silk pile with backings of wool or cotton, but the pile of later carpets was made of wool. Wool pile was also used in Central Asia by early nomadic tribes who acquired it easily in their wanderings. Nomadic rugs were woven on simple horizontal frames that could be rolled up for travelling. Early looms consisted of two forked branches joined by a crosspiece holding the suspended warp, or lengthwise threads, through which the weft, or crosswise threads, were woven. A wooden bar was used to flatten the binding weft threads, allowing the loose warp ends to stand out to form the luxurious pile. The early weavers used wools in their natural gray, white, cream, fawn, brown, or black colours, but eventually learned to produce fast colours with dyes made from vegetable, flower, and insect materials. During the Middle Ages, Italian merchants imported Oriental rugs to Europe, where they were usually hung on the walls; Europeans continued to cover their floors with rushes and straw. Moorish weavers were probably taken from Spain in the 13th century to set up the looms at

encourage the development of power equipment, and a power loom first appeared in 1841. In 1876 an Axminster loom was invented. This development stimulated the carpet industry by permitting an unlimited range of colour and design with an economy of pile. Loom widths increased from the formerly conventional 18, 27, or 36 inches (46, 69, or 91 centimetres), to the broadloom, usually 12, 15, or 18 feet (4, 5, or 6 metres) wide, resulting in large economies in weaving costs and producing larger and more convenient unseamed areas for laying. After World War II, needle tufting developed, employing a prewoven backing for the basic construction, and the major portion of carpeting manufactured in the U.S. was produced by this system. Some tufted carpet manufacturers even began to produce outdoor carpets and imitation lawns.

Handmade carpets and rugs

Orientals

Major classifications of Orientals, based on place of origin, include Persians, the largest and most important group; Turkomans, popular, vividly coloured carpets including Turkoman, Afghan, and Baluchistan rugs made in Central Asia; bold, geometric patterned Caucasian carpets, from Caucasia and Transcaucasia; the Turkish Anatolian group, less intricately designed than other Orientals; and the Indian, Pakistani, and Chinese group, frequently less durable than the other types.

Smooth-surfaced floor coveringsIn 1860 Frederick Walton of Great Britain patented a process for making linoleum, the first widely used smooth-surfaced floor covering. Plain linoleum, without design, was popular until the mid-1930s, when decorative linoleum was developed. In the 1920s, dark-coloured asphalt sheet and tile materials were developed in the U.S., made from mixtures of asbestos fibre, mineral fillers, and asphalt, and although lightcoloured resins, not containing asphalt, became available within the next 10 years, the name asphalt tile persists in the U.S. for this type of flooring. In the U.K. the term asphalt tile was used for a different product, and the somewhat misleading term thermo-plastic tile was applied to a similar British product. Vinyl asbestos tiles, containing asbestos fibres, were developed next and introduced at the Chicago Worlds Fair in 1933, but resin shortages prevented quantity production until 1948. Vinyl, a newer composition material with a high content of polyvinyl chloride resins, was eventually perfected. The number and variety of smooth-surfaced floor coverings multiplied after World War II, and plastics had considerable impact. Although traditional linoleum was still in use, such materials as asphalt, cork, rubber, vinyl asbestos, and the various types of vinyl were achieving greater popularity. A new development in the 1960s was a type of flooring applied directly to the area to be covered and allowed to harden; epoxy resins have generally been used.

Materials
The availability of excellent materials is probably the factor most responsible for the origin of carpets in the East. The nomads had access to fibres from their camels, goats, and sheep; cotton was cultivated in Persia and China, and silk in China. Nomadic carpet makers often used wool for the warp and weft of a rug foundation fabric, as well as for the pile. Although a variety of materials may be used in making Oriental rugs, wool is the most important pile fibre, and cotton is most often used as the base and binder material.

Knots
The pile surface of knotted rugs is formed entirely by the ends of knotted tufts. The Ghiordes, or Turkish, knot brings both tuft ends to the surface together between two warp yarns. It is common in the Middle East, especially in Turkey and the Caucasus. The Sehna, or Persian, knot brings each end of the tuft to the surface separately. It predominates in Central Asia and the Far East, mainly in Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Turkestan, and China. In Iran either knot is used, depending upon the origin or site of the tribe or town producing the rug.

Looms
The loom employed is upright, consisting of two strong beams connected by two vertical posts to

make a steady frame. It is often adjustable for the weaving of different sized carpets and rugs. The weaver is positioned conveniently in relation to the row of knots being worked either by means of a seat that can be raised, moving him upward, or by winding each completed row of knots onto a separate cloth beam. The warp, or lengthwise, threads stretched between the two beams are evenly spaced and regularly spun, assuring that the pile forming beneath the surface will also be even.

Weaving
The weaver ties his rows of knots forming the pattern, and when an entire row of pile is knotted, the two, three, or four weft, or crosswise, threads are forced down by a comb or knife, causing the pile to stand out. Density of pile is about 300 knots to the square inch and a weaver completes about 8,000 per day; several weeks work is needed to produce an ordinary carpet, and possibly months for a more complex one. The weaving instructions required to produce the desired pattern may be chanted by a Salim or may be provided on a coloured chart of squared paper.

Turkoman rugs are woven in geometric designs, employing vivid reds, browns, and greens, and usually have webbed fringes at the ends. Caucasian rugs have sharply outlined bold, geometric patterns. Brilliant and strongly contrasting colours are employed, frequently including reds, yellows, and blues. Turkish rug patterns have precise, stylized geometric or floral designs, with bright, sharp, contrasting colours. Indian rugs are made with botanical designs in a naturalistic style and are brilliant in colour. Chinese rug designs include religious symbols. Designs are usually in blue, and background colours include dulled yellows, browns, and roses.

Other handmade carpets and rugs

Tapestry weave
Another kind of hand weaving is the tapestry method, wherein the coloured weft threads, wound upon wooden needles, are threaded around and between the warp ends, leaving a flat or slightly ribbed surface. Since a tapestry carpet lacks a tufted pile, it does not have a luxurious texture, even though a fine pitch, the number of warps per inch, can be employed, and the richest and most delicate effects of design and colour obtained. Carpets of this type have long been made at Les Gobelins, Paris, Aubusson, and Beauvais in France, and Tournai in Belgium. The work involved in producing tapestry carpet is slow and requires great skill; the product therefore is expensive.

Dyestuffs
In olden days, craftsmen used natural dyestuffs, obtaining reds from the roots of the madder plant; carmine red from cochineal, the bodies of the female Coccus cacti; reddish browns from ox blood; yellow from the reseda plant or from saffron crocus, vine leaves, and pomegranate skins; and blue from the indigo plant. Mixtures of certain blues and yellows produced greens; and natural wool shades produced greys and brown, although nutshells and bark were also used. Oak apples were often used to produce black, but if their iron oxide content was high the wool was likely to be damaged; some old carpets today show the most wear in the black portions. Modern synthetic dyestuffs allow greater flexibility than these traditional dyes.

Hooked rugs
The origin of the hooked rug is obscure. A rug of this type is made by pulling narrow strips of wool or cotton cloth or wool yarn, with a tool roughly resembling a buttonhook, up through a basic material of coarse linen or burlap. The loops, approximately 1/2 inch high and the width of from two to four of the mesh openings in the basic material, are often clipped. Frames of various designs hold the basic material taut. Frequently the rug is made by pushing, instead of pulling, the loop through the basic material, usually employing a large threaded needle.

Characteristics
Persian rugs have intricate all-over patterns, mainly floral, but sometimes including animal or human figures, often with a central medallion. Colours include soft pastels and muted reds, browns, and blues. The rugs are fringed at both ends.

Modern handweaving
It is possible to weave rugs, with or without a pile surface, on hand looms. Almost any material can be used for hand-weaving, including plastic strips

and some forms of rope. Weaving speed can be increased by the use of a chain-and-pedal drive similar to that used on bicycles. In modern times, handweaving is mainly limited to design development and study in educational institutions and to the most costly floor coverings, frequently made to order and considered fine works of art.

woven longitudinally into the body of the backing fabric. Brussels carpets, woven on the Wilton loom, but with their pile remaining uncut, are no longer sold in large quantities. Tapestry is a printed pile yarn carpet that may be cut or uncut but must, by its nature, normally be one pile thread per dent. In order to make a design by a method other than printing yarn, more than one pile yarn per dent (five or six usually) is used with a jacquard. The term velvet, more common in the United States, is used to mean cut pile single frame; that is, plain carpet for which tapestry technique is not used. A velvet carpet is basically one of Wilton type. The term frame is often used instead of pile thread per dent, and a single frame carpet is therefore a plain carpet with one thread per dent. Tapestry carpets were invented in Scotland in 1830 but are now virtually obsolete. Few of them were produced in the main carpet centres (Kidderminster, West Riding of Yorkshire, and Scotland) after World War II. Typical high quality Wilton and Brussels carpets contain about 120 tufts per square inch with up to 13 rows per inch. Tapestry, generally up to about 80 tufts per square inch, but as low as 50, is possible. Velvet may be similar in density to tapestry, but not necessarily so; it can be made with pile as dense as Wilton if desired. Wilton carpet can be produced on the face-toface principle. Two carpets are simultaneously woven sandwiched one above the other, and the two are then cut apart by a reciprocating blade traversing the loom width. The linear rate of production is thus almost doubled; Jacquard designs can be produced by this method.

Machine-made carpets and rugs

Early machine processes employed hand or water power to duplicate processes originally performed completely by hand. The invention of the power loom greatly reduced the amount of time and labour, and therefore the cost, of carpet manufacture.

Nomenclature and types

Machine-made rugs and carpets take their names from the looms employedWilton, for example or the construction method, such as ingrain or Brussels.

Ingrain
After 200 years of use, the ingrain became almost obsolete during the 1930s because of its relatively poor wearing qualities. Also called Kidderminster or Scotch, it is flat ribbed, reversible, and completely without pile, and usually could be made with two- or three-ply warp and weft yarns, dyed before weaving. Design on the surface of the carpet was easily produced by bringing to the surface, at the chosen area, the desired colour of the weft; the latter almost completely formed the surface colouring. Although the warp intruded into the design, its colour was carefully chosen to blend satisfactorily. The term Venetian has been applied to lesser grades of ingrain carpet.

Loom-formed pile
Axminster carpets, in which all of the pile yarn is effectively used for design (unlike Wilton and Brussels that waste some dead pile yarn by hiding it in the body of the carpet) include spool, gripper, and chenille. Spool looms were invented in the United States in 1876, and the gripper Axminster loom was developed about 1890. The chenille two-stage process was invented in Glasgow about 1830.

Wire-formed piles
Brussels carpet, with uncut looped pile formed by round wires, was first introduced about the mid18th century. Shortly after, Wilton followed with the development of bladed wires producing a cut pile. Both were capable of producing elaborate pile designs, and the Jacquard device was used with them from about the 1820s, when it replaced hand selection of coloured pile threads. Bigelows power principles were applied to the loom from about 1849. Pile not used for surface design is

With the first loom, each row of pile is drawn from an individual spool, and two blades cut away the tufts when woven. On the gripper loom, each tuft is held by its beak-like gripper and taken from its yarn carrier to the fell of the carpet, the point at which the warp and weft intersect, after being precisely cut away by a traversing knife blade. One type of spool-gripper Axminster loom employs spools instead of a jacquard; the tufts are taken from them and woven on the gripper principle. Chenille pile (from the French word for caterpillar) is formed on the carpet loom by weaving the fur, or pile yarn, as a weft. The tufts are usually bound by cotton threads forming a long strand. The fur is woven in the first weaving process on normal cloth looms and cut longitudinally into the requisite patterned strips; pile yarn is woven as weft, and the warp is the cotton binding threads. Simple gauze or the lacelike leno weave is used to bind the weft pile yarn so that the pile does not fall away when the strips are cut, before they can be woven into the carpet. Jute weft and cotton warp are common materials for Axminster carpets. All-wool pile is popular, although nylonwool mixtures and various combinations of natural and man-made fibres are becoming common. Carpets made of 100 percent man-made fibres are increasing in popularity. Spool and gripper qualities average about 40 to 50 tufts per square inch, the two extremes being about 30 and 60.

a pattern drum, and feelers touching the pattern areas change the delivery rate of the pile feed roller. Photoelectric means of influencing the delivery rate have also been devised. The mechanical device pushes down the required pile lengths by means of a castellated metal plate cut to the required pattern. Other effects can be obtained from fancy or printed yarns, and some tufting machines reciprocate the carpet widthwise to obtain a longitudinal zigzag effect. Designs including up to eight colours are possible, with quality almost as satisfactory as in traditional carpets having an equal number of colours. Quality ranges now vary as much as for traditional carpets, since needle spacings may be as close as 12 to the inch, giving the same number of tufts per square inch as in Wilton. Traditional pile materials are employed, but polypropylene, a synthetic fibre, is commonly used on prewoven backing. There has also been some development of nonwoven backings. Production rates can be many times greater than that of Axminster looms; one machinery manufacturer has developed a yarn looping technique whereby the backing is pierced by a needle and the pile is then blown through the resulting opening. This method increases the rate of production up to about 1,200 rows of pile per minute. Patterned carpets have been produced mainly in the United States with either cut or loop pile or a combination of both. In warp knitting, beams are used to feed in the yarn supply; in weft knitting, the yarns are fed from smaller packages. A Czechoslovakian Arachne stitch-bonding machine achieves high production rates with low pile costs, employing a fibrous web stitched on the knitting principle with yarns drawn from beams. A German Malipol machine uses knitting principles to bind pile to a backing fabric, although a later model uses unknitted weft threads instead of backing. Production rates for knitting are higher than for traditional looms but do not reach the high speeds of modern tufting. The quality of the materials used and the finished carpet are much like that of the middle range of traditional carpets. No spectacular growth, however, in the sales of such carpets has occurred, since there are currently limitations in design, although development work is progressing. Several methods use the principle of bonding fibres, fibrous webs, or yarns with various adhesives. The technique imposes design

Unconventional carpets: tufted, knitted, and bonded

In tufted carpets, the tufts are inserted by means of vertically reciprocating needles pushing through prewoven backing and are held below the carpet backing by loopers. The loop pile slips off the loopers, or is severed when cut pile is desired, as the formed carpet moves away from the looping elements. The rate of pile yarn feed from the creel governs pile height. The variation of this rate for groups of pile threads is the basis for certain patterned effects resulting from the inclusion of both high and low pile areas or achieved by alternating two different coloured threads across the full width, emphasizing the pattern in one colour by hiding the other low-pile colour with higher adjacent loops. Different rates of feed can be obtained by electrical or mechanical means. In the former, the pattern, in small scale, is placed on

limitations, but the less complicated pile forming method results in high production rates. The needle loom principle involves a fibrous lap attached to a base fabric, and another method forms a lap into a loop pile sheet and sticks it to a base fabric. A special finishing operation can convert the loops into cut pile. A German device projects positively charged fibres toward a negative pole; the fibres are then stuck to an adhesive-coated backing fabric. A Czechoslovakian technique makes double, or face-to-face, carpet by looping and bonding a fibrous web to two backing fabrics; the full layer is then cut into two separate carpets. A French machine cuts fibres from a sheet and then binds them to a fabric backing, with electrostatic means used to keep the fibres vertical.

fibres twisted together, and sliced narrow tapes are made from sheets of synthetic film.

Selection and preparation of design

Design creation or selection involves consideration of the range or limitations of the various methods of carpet manufacture. The number of colours that can be used for Jacquard Wilton and gripper Axminster are limited; spool and chenille Axminster allow unlimited colour range. Density tends to be greatest for Wilton carpet, sometimes reaching as high as 130 per square inch. Spool Axminster designs are made from a chain of spools, with one spool to each row of pile. There are usually seven threads to the inch across the width, with a pile yarn length per thread of about 35 feet (11 metres). Spool width varies according to the loom, the smallest is usually 18 inches (46 centimetres) wide. The person operating the machine creels all necessary colours for the tufts in a row and winds the full spool, repeating the process until the full set for the design is made. Gripper Axminster and Wilton Jacquard looms utilize a perforated card system to select the required combination of different coloured threads per row of pile. There is one card per row, punched according to the predetermined design, and the possible colour choice for each tuft is usually one in five for Wilton and one in eight for gripper Axminster. Planting of several additional colours in the pile-yarn creel may increase the number of different colours possible in a design. High- and low-cut and uncut effects are also possible in Wilton carpets. Normally employed on tufted carpets, the process can be applied to all types. Different pile height effects are produced in tufted carpets by using different rates of yarn feed, and are sometimes emphasized by alternating the colours and hiding the colour of low pile under adjacent high pile. Mechanical and photoelectric devices are used to regulate the rate of yarn feed to the tufting needles.

Manufacturing methods

Raw material preparation

The warp and weft backing structures of carpets, and the pile yarn superimposed upon it, made originally from natural fibres, are now mostly synthetic. Backing yarns are frequently made from the lower priced cut-staple normal or hightenacity viscose rayons. Selvages of synthetic filaments and pile yarns are produced from mixtures of cut-staple man-made and natural fibres, the latter primarily wool. Pile yarns composed of the more expensive synthetic materials are increasingly used, and viscose rayon has been used extensively for less costly carpets. As the use of man-made filament pile yarns has increased, traditional processing of natural and staple man-made fibres has decreased in importance. The preparation of natural fibres for backing and pile yarns involved many labour-consuming operations. Fibres had to be cleansed, often by mechanical means and a wet treatment. Pile-yarn wools had to be thoroughly scoured, and cotton fibres also needed special cleaning treatment. Straightening of fibres prior to spinning was a long-drawn-out process, with spinning often followed by additional single twisting operations to form ply or cable yarns. In contrast, man-made filament yarns are extruded in clean, continuous, and parallel form, and the twisting operation is uncomplicated. Backing fabrics are currently made from fibrilated yarns, consisting of small

Construction
The basic structure of traditionally manufactured carpets consists of the backing fabric and the pile, which is bound under and between the weft. Pile is formed on Axminster looms by inserting weft,

with reciprocating needles, across the warp chain yarns. A central stuffer warp usually separates top from bottom weft. In Jacquard Wilton and Brussels carpet, the pile not used for surface design effect is concealed between top and bottom weft; Axminster carpet uses all pile yarn for surface effect. Wilton pile is formed by looping the yarn over wires that project it mechanically across the width of the loom and beneath the decorative pile yarns. When the wires are withdrawn, they either cut the pile, forming Wilton, or leave it uncut to form Brussels carpet. In spool Axminster carpets each row of tufts is inserted and cut away from the spools. On gripper Axminster looms each tuft is inserted by its individual beaklike gripper, after being cut away from the carrier. Backing fabrics have warps held on flanged beams; in Wilton weaving, weft threads wound on cops are shuttled across the loom. Axminster weft is drawn from large stationary cones at the side of the loom. Tufted carpets differ basically from traditional types because they have a prewoven backing into which the tufts are inserted. One unconventional method of making carpet involves the forming of pile on knitted structures. Another method involves the application of pile yarns or even undulating webs of fibres to backing fabric by means of adhesives. These methods often lack the means for controlling design.

dyeing sequence, and application of soil-resistant finishes to man-made pile, rot-proofing, andantistatic treatment. Reinforcement or screening, particularly used for tufted backing, may employ adhesives on open structure woven materials, and the use of such cushioning materials as synthetic rubber foam is increasing. Smooth-surfaced floor coverings

Linoleum
Linoleum is produced by pressing a sheet containing oxidized linseed oil, gums and resins, ground cork or wood flour, and pigments on to a backing, and it is hung in huge curing stoves to toughen. Two general types, plain and printed, or inlaid, linoleum, are produced; the latter has a constant pattern throughout its thickness. Different methods are employed to create various design effects. Thickness ranges from about 1.6 to 4.5 millimetres, depending upon the traffic expected; a standard width is six feet (two metres), and the weight in 3.2 millimetres gauge is about 7.6 pounds per square yard (3.5 kilograms per square metre). Recently developed products are specially hardened to resist indentation. Certain alkalies and organic solvents, however, will attack linoleum if left in prolonged contact; staining and discoloration can arise from certain anti-oxidants in tires, rubber castors, or rubber heels. Linoleum is resilient, warm, unaffected by reasonable floor temperatures, and does not readily support combustion.

Finishing
After weaving, carpeting may require machine brushing to remove loose fibre or yarn, before any correction of processing faults. Traditional carpets have a separate reparation process, but on tufted carpets, missing pile, the most common fault, is stitched in by a portable gun operating a reciprocating needle. The carpet pile is then sheared to uniform level with cutting blades similar to those of a wide lawn mower. Steaming of the pile causes it to expand or burst into an aesthetically enhanced state. Natural back-sizings were formerly applied to Axminster carpets, and Wilton and Brussels weft threads on their cops were soaked in sizing. Increasing use of such synthetic backing compounds as polyvinylacetate and different kinds of lattice backings now produces excellent tuft bind and stiffness. Other modern finishing processes include mothproofing of wool, often performed in the

Printed felt base

Printed felt base is formed by applying a heavy film of paint to felt saturated with asphalt; the felt is sealed at both the top and bottom with one or more layers of coating before application of paint, preventing discoloration from the paint and leveling the surface. The paint used has low volatility and little flow, dries quickly in thick layers, and gives high gloss with good wearing properties. Wooden blocks are used to apply the paint on the base, with several colours being printed separately. The material is next dried in an oven, with the product hanging from racks or

festooned, and this maturing process requires several days. Rugs or rolls are available in several thicknesses and sizes.

of a premanufactured vinyl sheet; these are passed through a heated tunnel causing the release of a gas from the agent, forming the foam. An all through flushing in the mix can be used for secondary colour effects. Some laminated sheets have rotogravure pattern printed with vinyl inks and covered by a protective layer of transparent vinyl. Backed vinyl sheets can have added coloured chips, with a final clear coating producing a three-dimensional effect. Embossing allows the addition of a second colour into the resultant depressions, producing an inlaid effect.

Asphalt tile
The tiles are made from asphalts (25 percent) or synthetic resins, asbestos fibres (25 percent), pigments, and mineral fillers (50 percent). If asphaltic binder is used, colour is restricted to black, brown, and dark reds. The plasticised resinbased tiles are much lighter in colour, including blues, reds, yellows, and greens, and some recently developed tiles have a small amount of vinyl binder, giving brighter, clearer colours and improved grease resistance. The ingredients are mixed at relatively high controlled temperatures to form a dough, that is then forced through successive calenders until the required thickness and finish is obtainedThe sheet is die cut when cool, ensuring dimensional stability. Common sizes are nine inches (22 centimetres) by nine inches by 1/8 inch or 1/10 inch (three or two millimetres). The tiles are resistant to fungal attack, mild acids and alkalies, and oils and grease; and they are suitable for use where floor heat is less than 80 F (27 C). Sweeping and washing with warm water and soap or detergent keeps them clean; wax or resin emulsion polishes improve their appearance and prolong life.

Rubber floorings
Production figures for this material are comparatively small. Previously made with natural rubber, it is now produced with synthetic rubber mixed with pigments, fillers, resins and curing materials, and when sheeted is heat cured. Mottled effects are available, and thicknesses around two- and three-sixteenths of an inch (three to four millimetres) are available in tiles up to one foot square or in rolls. It is a comparatively expensive, excellent wearing flooring, although somewhat susceptible to grease damage, and is appropriate for use in public buildings where traffic is heavy.

Vinyl floor coverings

Vinyl asbestos tiles were developed from asphalt tiles. Asbestos fibres, mineral fillers, and pigments are all bonded together with copolymers of vinyl chloride, or with vinyl acetate. Vinyl resin binders have greater flexibility without requiring heat treatment prior to installation. Vinyl sheet coverings are made by calendering from various combinations of vinyl chloride resins, pigments, stabilizers, and fillers. Tiles 9 inches, 12 inches, or 18 inches (23, 30, or 46 centimetres) square can be cut from these sheets; widths vary from 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 metres). Sheets can be unbacked or backed with felt, hessian, plastic foam, cork, or fabric. One method adds a coat of vinyl to a backing, and the surface appearance is influenced by the nature of the backing. Jointless seam welding can usually be applied to vinyl sheeting. A blowing agent can be added to vinyl paste, producing a foamed back and fully bonded vinyl floor covering. A thin layer of the paste and agent is spread on the back

Cork tiles and carpet

When ground cork is heated, either for long periods or by rapid high-frequency heating, the granules adhere, creating a resilient mixture that can be formed into tiles, usually two- to fivesixteenths of an inch thick, and six or nine inches square. This tile has a comfortable resilient feel and absorbs sound, but appearance and wear properties are only fair. Cork carpet, although limited in use, can be produced from graded cork granules and polymerized linseed oil, homogeneously pigmented and calendered on a jute canvas backing.

Epoxy resins
Flooring compositions based on epoxy resins have developed steadily, giving a hard, chemicalresistant, seamless, and firmly adherent floor covering. The resin and curing agent must be blended immediately before use; colours and fillers can be added. The comparatively high cost

of epoxy-resin systems restricts them principally to repairing or surfacing existing flooring substrates; e.g., concrete. They frequently employ composition based on a cement aggregate and natural rubber latex. Polyvinyl acetate may be substituted for rubber latex, and such resins as acrylic, polystyrene, and styrene-butadiene have also been employed.

Economic aspects
Modern research and development have resulted in improved equipment, processes, and materials contributing both to increased production and greater product durability. Although per capita use has increased, greater competition exists. Larger companies usually have larger facilities for development and expansion than smaller companies and are more likely to survive any large decrease in profit margins. The heavy capital expenditure required for increasingly sophisticated processes, and the equipment they require, may accelerate the trend in the developed countries toward larger groups of floor-covering manufacturers and their suppliers.

Wall coverings
Wall coverings add dramatic impact and elements of design to a roomWallcoverings of today are a far cry from the wall paper our grandparents were using. In the forties and fifties, wallpaper was relegated to second place as the paint industry constantly strove to improve not only it's products but also it's advertising.

With improved manufacturing methods, the wallpaper industry fought back and with the advent of vinyl coating, once again wallpaper became a viable choice. Today with new technology "wallpaper" is no longer just paper. There is a wide range of wallcoverings available so that a consumer can find exactly the type of finish they desire to match the decor of the home. Listed below are the various types of wallcoverings:

consumers, but must be handled with care as it tends to tear. This can withstand some light washing. Paperbacked-Vinyl Paper A top layer of vinyl and an undersurface of paper is how this covering is constructed. It is usually prepasted. It is washable and very often peelable. This is the paper usually preferred by buyers today. Fabric-Backed This wall covering has a top layer of vinyl with a fabric undercoating made of fiberglass or cheesecloth. These are more moisture and grease resistant than other types of wallcoverings. It is also sturdier and less likely to tear. These papers are heavy and usually not prepasted. When backed with cheesecloth, the covering has some texture, which makes it ideal for hiding less than perfect walls. Most of these are scrubbable and usually strippable. Specialty Products These run the gamut from textured, embossed, and flocked papers, to special coverings such as silk, bamboo, grasses, and Mylar. Murals and wallpaper borders also come under this category. Ask your dealer for any special treatment or maintenance these coverings may require. Handprinted Products Wallcoverings are hand-created to restore historical buildings, co-ordinate with special fabric, or even to conserve a particular historical design. They are created by the silk screen process or by inking with carved wooden blocks. These are top of the line coverings and require much care and attention to detail.

Types Of Wallcoverings
Over the past few years, wallcoverings have improved a lot. They used to be rolls of paper which had to be hung very carefully to avoid marking or tearing them and, once hung, they were difficult to clean. Ordinary wallpaper like this is still widely available, but in addition there are many other types. Some have plastic coatings washables and vinyls and may be as easy to clean as paint. Others have special surface effects often embossed or with a cloth, flock or metallic finish. 11 Types of wallcovering

Solid Paper This is the most basic type of paper. It has no vinyl protection and takes a great deal of careful maintenance to keep it looking fresh and clean. Vinyl-Coated Paper This wall covering has a thin layer of vinyl coating. It has the look of paper which appeals to some

Ordinary wallpaper is paper with a pattern printed

on it. The paper surface may be smooth, or it may be embossed to various depths, either in register with the printed design or to give the paper an overall surface texture. There is an enormous range of designs available more than for any other type of wallcovering. It is sold in rolls of a standard size, measuring about 10m long and 530mm wide. Hanging ordinary wallpaper is generally easy, although thinner types may tear and heavily embossed ones may stretch. Ordinary wallpapers are generally not very resistant to soiling, particularly where greasy stains are concerned, and can be cleaned only by very gentle wiping. They are easily damaged by knocks and scuffs and tend to lift at the seams in damp or steamy conditions. But they can be cheap to buy (and readily available) and easy to remove when you want to decorate. The heavily embossed types are also useful for hiding lumps and bumps on uneven walls. Washable wallpaper is printed wallpaper (like ordinary wallpaper), but with a thin transparent plastic coating over the surface to make it more resistant to stains and marks, and also to make it easier to clean. It is often called vinyl-coated wallpaper, but should not be confused with paperbacked vinyls. Most washable wallpapers have a smooth, glossy surface, although some have matt or embossed surfaces. They are sold in standardsized rolls, the same as for ordinary wallpapers. Washable wallpapers are generally less easy to hang than ordinary papers, because they lend to curl up at the edges, and as the base paper is often relatively thin they may tear easily if roughly handled. They are better at resisting stains and scuffs than ordinary wallpapers, and can be scrubbed (gently) instead of just sponged. They lend to lift at the edges in steamy rooms, but perhaps the biggest drawback of most washable wallpapers is that they are very difficult to strip once hung. However, they do provide a relatively cheap way of covering walls that need regular wiping children's bedrooms, bathrooms and cloakrooms, for example and the choice of designs available reflects this intended use. A few are ready-pasted. Paper-backed vinyls consist of a plastic film (usually of polyvinyl chloride, hence the name, although other plastics are sometimes used) into which the printed design is fused, and a paper

backing. The surface of the vinyl layer may be smooth or embossed with a variety of textures which may be randomly arranged or in register with the printed design. The range of designs available is very large, and there is also considerable variation in the weight of the paper backing. Rolls of paper-backed vinyls are standard-sized and many brands are available ready-pasted. Vinyls are generally very easy to hang, with less tendeney to stretch or tear than cither ordinary or washable papers. A special overlap adhesive has to be used for overlapping joins. They are very resistant to staining and sculling (although ballpoint pen marks can be tricky to remove) and can be scrubbed, but care should be taken to avoid working across the seams. Paper-backed vinyls are very useful for steamy rooms, particularly in kitchens, and are very easy to strip - the plastic layer can be peeled away from the backing paper, which can be left to act as a lining for subsequent wallcoverings. Vinyls are relatively expensive. Flocks are wallcoverings with a pattern and a raised pile of wool, silk or synthetic fibres. Ordinary flocks have a washable wallpaper base, while vinyl flocks have the pile fused to a paperbacked vinyl base. The patterned areas resemble velvet in feel and looks. Roll sizes are standard, and some brands are available ready-pasted. Ordinary flocks need great care in hanging, since paste will mark the Hocked areas, and the surface can easily be damaged by scull's and knocks. Vinyl flocks are easier to hang (although paste marks should still be avoided if possible). Once hung, ordinary flocks can be sponged to remove marks, while vinyl flocks can be washed more vigorously (or even scrubbed, depending on the brand). In both cases, however, the pile may become matted or flattened. Both types need brushing lightly from time to time to keep the pile free from dust. Vinyl flocks are easy to strip for re-decoration, with the vinyl layer separating from its backing as for paper-backed vinyls; ordinary flocks are more difficult to remove. Both types are expensive. Foil wallcoverings consist of a metallised plastic film on a paper backing. They may come in a single colour gold, silver, copper or even bright pop-art or they may be overprinted with a design fused intothe plastic film. Some foil wallcoverings will conduct electricity and must not be hung

where they could come into contact with electric wiring - behind light switches and power points, for example. Most brands are sold in standardsized rolls, although some come in non- I standard lengths. Some brands are ready-pasted. Metallised foils are not particularly easy to hang, especially if heavily embossed: hanging them on uneven walls will tend to highlight the bumps. They are either washable or scrubbable (but overvigorous rubbing may spoil the surface effect) and they resist stains and marks well. Metallised foils can be used in humid environments, but stripping may pose problems, since the protective plastic film and the foil may separate. Relief wallcoverings include a number of products with one common characteristic - they have a three-dimensional surface with either a regular or a random pattern that is intended for painting once hung. Most are part of the family of whiles that also includes woodchip paper and lining papers. There are four main types, of which the most widely known is an embossed paper with a relatively low surface relief. Another type, which is more deeply embossed, is made from cotton linters instead of wood pulp. Vinyl reliefs are paper-backed vinyls with a deeply embossed solid vinyl surface layer, while blown relief wallcoverings have a surface with a spongy texture reminiscent of expanded foam plastic, again on a flat paper backing. All the relief wallcoverings are relatively easy to hang, although care must be taken not to flatten the emboss on the thinner low relief types when smoothing the paper into place and butting the scams, and they are heavy a problem when you want to use them to paper ceilings. Once hung and painted over, low relief types can be sponged, while the others can withstand more vigorous treatment, and the vinyl and blown relief types can be scrubbed. If emulsion paint is used, resistance to stains is only fair, but if an oil-based painl is used resistance to marking and scrubbability are both greatly improved. When it comes to stripping before redecoration, vinyl and blown relief wallcoverings can be dry stripped, but relief papers which have been painted are even more difficult to strip than washable wallpapers. All types are ideal for covering poor surfaces and for disguising lumps and bumps. Woodchip papers are part of the whites family.

They are thick pulpy wallpapers into which small chips of wood have been mixed during manufacture to give a wall covering with a surface texture rather like coarse oatmeal. Coarse, medium and fine grades are available, the texture varying with the size of the wood chips. They are intended for painting over once hung. Woodchip papers are very easy to hang, but cutting the tops and bottoms is not easy and the papers tear, though any tears will be disguised once the surface is painted. Scuffing and knocks may dislodge wood chips from the surface, which is not very resistant to stains unless decorated with an oil-based paint. Stripping is not easy. However woodchip papers do offer the cheapest way of disguising poor wall surfaces. Lining paper is a plain wallpaper that is used on walls and ceilings to provide a uniform, even surface over which other wallcoverings can be hung. Double and triple length rolls are available. It is usually hung horizontally. A special grade called finished extra white is intended for painting over - useful as a way of rehabilitating badly cracked but otherwise sound walls where you do not want the textured or patterned surface that wood-chip or other relief wallcoverings would provide. Lining paper usually comes in rolls 10m long and 560mm wide and, except for the very thin grades of paper, is relatively easy to hang. Fabric wallcoverings consist of a fabric such as hessian, felt, silk or wool stuck to a paper backing for ease of hanging. Paper-backed hessian is the commonest (and cheapest) type; others are available mainly from specialist shops, and can be very expensive. Paper-backed hessian comes in natural and dyed shades; felt comes in a range of colours; and silk, wool and similar fabrics come in a number of designs and colours. Fabric wallcoverings are mostly sold in fabric widths (900mm, for example) and by the metre length rather than by the roll. Fabric wallcoverings are often hung by pasting the wall, not the wallcovering, and great care must be taken not to get paste on the fabric. Joints may have to be overlapped and then trimmed follow the manufacturer's instructions. They tend to mark easily but can be cleaned -with dry-cleaning solvents rather than soap or detergent. Stripping is generally fairly easy - the fabric can usually be peeled away from the paper backing.

Foamed polyethylene wallcovering has no paper the pattern is fused into the surface of the plastic, and the surface is lightly textured to give it a soft, warm feel. It is extremely light, and is hung by pasting the wall, not the wallcovering. Care must be taken not to score or stretch the material as it is hung and to ensure the edges are well stuck down. The surface resists stains fairly well, and can be washed, but not scrubbed. However, the edges tend tolift slightly in hot humid conditions. It is very easy to strip - it simply peels off the wall in one layer. It is broadly comparable in price with paper-backed vinyls, but easier to hang and not so durable. Foamed polyethylene wallcovering is sold under the brand name Novamura. Foamed vinyl wallcoverings, also known as 'blown' or 'sculptured' vinyls, are usually made to simulate other materials, such as ceramic tiles. The surface is expanded by the application of heat during manufacture. Hanging foamed vinyls is generally easy, though it tends to lift at the edges. With tile-look wallcoverings ('tiles on a roll'), the joins are less obvious if the edge of the paper has imitation grout lines. Foamed vinyls can generally be scrubbed and are as easy to strip as ordinary paper-backed vinyls.

materials surface and involves the treatment of spots and stains. Maintenance of wallcovering should involve regular and thorough vacuuming of fabric and vinyl wallcovering with the proper upholstery attachment to remove air-borne dust and lint. Spots and stains should be treated promptly. Vinyl wallcovering can be maintained by lightly wiping with a sponge and a mild soap or allpurpose cleaner. This should be done several times a year. The recommended method is to start at the bottom and work up across a convenient width. If you use this procedure, any dirty water running down the wall will pass over a surface that is already wet with your cleaning solution. Thus, any soiling in the run off will be easily removed by the rinsing afterward. It is best to start at the top and work down with the rinse water. Regular and thorough maintenance of panel and wall upholstery involves vacuuming with proper upholstery attachment or light brushing to remove air-borne dust and lint. Avoid excessive brushing or rubbing to prevent fuzzing of the fabric surface. In the case of 100% polyester or high content (60%+) polyester fabrics, soils and stains will tend to remain on the fiber surface because of the very low absorption properties of polyester and, therefore, are usually removed without need of vigorous treatment. Cleaning is the necessary periodic removal of accumulated grime with the purpose of achieving the original appearance, as closely as possible. Vinyl wallcovering should he cleaned with a cloth wet with a mild soap or detergent and water. Dry the wallcovering with a towel. Do not use steel wool or powdered abrasive cleaners as they may scratch or dull the vinyl surface. Do not use solvent type cleaning preparations as they may remove the finish and print from the wallcovering.

CARE / MAINTENANCE: WALLCOVERINGS

Remove ordinary dirt and smudges with a mild soap and warm water solution. Rinse with clean, clear water and dry with a soft, lint free cloth or towel. Use only soft bristle brushes. Treat damp spots and stains promptly to make clean-up as easy as possible. Blot wet spills with an absorbent cloth or polyester sponge. Work from the outside to the center of the stain when using cleaning solvents. Blot the stain with a clean sponge or absorbent cloth. If a crusty stain has developed, tap the spot to break up the incrustation in order to remove as much as possible prior to using cleaning solvents. Chewing gum, candle wax or similar waxy substances may be removed by rubbing the spot quickly with ice so that the material becomes brittle and then blot dry. The brittle substance can then be picked off the wallcovering. Follow with a cleaning solvent, if necessary. Proper maintenance of wallcovering, panel and wall upholstery fabrics permits less frequent cleaning. Maintenance is routine, on-going care which reduces the build-up of soil on the