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ATOMIC BONDING Properties of materials determined also by the atomic scale, as a resultant of atomic bonding Example of consequences: Metals conductors Ceramics insulators strong bonding weak bonding

Atomic bonding:

1. STRONG BONDING 1.1 IONIC BONDING

Is realised for large differences in electronegativity; Through electron exchange ionic character ; minimum degree of mobility for electrons: Example: Na(11) 3s1 3p5 Cl(17) 3p6

1.2

NON-POLAR COVALENT BONDING

Between atoms of the same family, without electronegativity difference Through sharing of valence electrons low electrons mobility Essential for polymers ( -C-C-)

1.3

METALLIC BONDING

Between metal atoms (small difference of electronegativity); Also through sharing of valence electrons between all atoms (overlapped energy levels) positive ions Form crystal lattices High electrons mobility Classic model: ionic lattice, conduction electrons gas (Fermi)

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Classic model of metallic bonding Consequence metallic state:

metallic glitter electrical / thermal conductivity increase of resistivity with temperature thermoelectronic emission

2. WEAK BONDING 2.1. POLAR COVALENT BONDING

Between an atom with a relatively high relative electronegativity and one with a slightly smaller Example: polymers C O C

2.2.

HYDROGEN BONDING

Between strongly electronegative atoms (O, N, F) in one molecule and a hydrogen atom that is covalently bound to strongly electronegative atoms in another molecule. Important for polymers transverse bonding

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VAN DER WAALS BONDING (LONDON DISPERSION FORCES)

Caused by short time polarization of atoms due to asymmetrical rotation of electrons around nucleus; Example: polymers (polyethylene) metal / ceramic polymer soldering

CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE Order in materials: close-range (around an atom) long-range close / long-range order only close-range order Ex.: metals, some ceramics Ex.: polymers, glasses

Materials

Crystalline Amorphous

3D crystal Relation in an ideal 3D lattice

r ax by cz

Lattice parameters

3D lattice built by atoms planes Crystal unit cell: structural unit that maintains the characteristics of the 3D crystal. By repeating on the 3 axes it generates the lattice.

Position of lattice points 3

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Planes

(P): A, B, C >>> OA, OB, OC Problem: OA / OB / OC ? Solution: Common denominator only numerator

Ex. Crystallographic plane

1 1 1 3 2 3 , , , , (323) 2 3 2 6 6 6

Negative values:

1, 3, etc.

Planes family {xyz}: Totality of planes in a unit cell displaying the same properties Ex.: Cube faces {100}

Directions Notation of directions: 2 variants Miller indices of the perpendicular plane Projection on axes (from the origin)

Directions family <xyz>: [111] <111>

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Crystalline systems : Bravais lattices

7 fundamental 7 primary derived atoms in the centre of body / faces + other derived systems (atoms in other positions)

Crystal system

Unit cell

triclinic

simple

(base) centered

monoclinic

simple

base-centered

body-centered

face-centered

orthorombic

hexagonal

rombohedric

simple

body-centered

tetragonal

MATERIALS I simple cubic

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Metals:

Body-centered cubic (bcc) Fe, Cr, W, W, Mo, Ti, ... Face-centered cubic (fcc) Fe, Al, Cu, Au, Ag, ... Hexagonal close packed (hcp) Zn, Mg, Ti, ...

Allotropy (for metals) = ability to crystallize in different systems; transition from one allotropic state to another allotropic transformation
912 Example: Fe (cvc) Fe (cfc )

bcc

fcc Crystal systems for metals

hcp

Slip plane: plane with a maximum number of atoms inside the unit cell (= close packed plane) deformation inside the crystal - mostly along the slip planes >>> High number of slip planes good plasticity fcc (8) {111} best plasticity, poor strength / hardness bcc (6) {110} lower plasticity, higher strength / hardness hcp (2) (base planes) poor plasticity

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STRUCTURE OF REAL CRYSTALS

Lattice defects: 1. Point defects simple vacancies, interstitials complex 2. LINEAR DEFECTS DISLOCATIONS 3. Stacking faults (Packing defects)

Dislocations determine the plastic behaviour of metals They move in the slip planes under the shear stresses Inside crystal numerous dislocations (from solidification or straining) Real strength < Theoretical strength / 1000 for metals due to movement of dislocations

Edge dislocation

Screw dislocation

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Edge dislocations

a. b. c. Edge dislocation; a slip planes and extra half-plane in single crystal; b Brgers circuit; c area covered in the slip plane by the edge dislocation during deformation = Brgers vector (slip vector) b edge dislocation >>> minimal mobility

Screw dislocations

b screw dislocation >>> maximal mobility